Therapeutic properties of green tea against environmental insults

Protective Potential of a Botanical-Based Supplement Ingredient against the Impact of Environmental Pollution on Cutaneous and Cardiopulmonary Systems: Preclinical Study

Air pollution is a growing threat to human health. Airborne pollution effects on respiratory, cardiovascular and skin health are well-established. The main mechanisms of air-pollution-induced health effects involve oxidative stress and inflammation. The present study evaluates the potential of a polyphenol-enriched food supplement ingredient comprising Lippia citriodora, Olea europaea, Rosmarinus officinalis, and Sophora japonica extracts in mitigating the adverse effects of environmental pollution on skin and cardiopulmonary systems. Both in vitro and ex vivo studies were used to assess the blend's effects against pollution-induced damage. In these studies, the botanical blend was found to reduce lipid peroxidation, inflammation (by reducing IL-1α), and metabolic alterations (by regulating MT-1H, AhR, and Nrf2 expression) in human skin explants exposed to a mixture of pollutants. Similar results were also observed in keratinocytes exposed to urban dust. Moreover, the ingredient significantly reduced pollutant-induced ROS production in human endothelial cells and lung fibroblasts, while downregulating the expression of apoptotic genes (bcl-2 and bax) in lung fibroblasts. Additionally, the blend counteracted the effect of urban dust on the heart rate in zebrafish embryos. These results support the potential use of this supplement as an adjuvant method to reduce the impact of environmental pollution on the skin, lungs, and cardiovascular tissues.

Tea's anti-obesity properties, cardiometabolic health-promoting potentials, bioactive compounds, and adverse effects: A review focusing on white and green teas

Tea is one of the most commonly consumed beverages in the world. Morocco, Japan, and China have consumed green tea for centuries. White tea, which is a variety of green teas, is very popular in China and is highly revered for its taste. Presently, both teas are consumed in other countries around the world, even as functional ingredients, and novel research is constantly being conducted in these areas. We provide an update on the health benefits of white and green teas in this review, based on recent research done to present. After a general introduction, we focused on tea's anti-obesity and human health-promoting potential, adverse effects, and new approaches to tea and its bioactive compounds. It has been found that the health benefits of tea are due to its bioactive components, mainly phenolic compounds. Of these, catechins are the most abundant. This beverage (or its extracts) has potential anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties, which could contribute to body weight control and the improvement of several chronic diseases. However, some studies have mentioned the possibility of toxic effects; therefore, reducing tea consumption is a good idea, especially during the last trimester of pregnancy. Additionally, new evidence will provide insight into the possible effects of tea on the human gut microbiota, and even on the viruses responsible for SARS-CoV-2. A beverage such as this may favor beneficial gut microbes, which may have important implications due to the influence of gut microbiota on human health.

Epigallocatechin-3-Gallate Reduces Cd-Induced Developmental Toxicity of Bodysize in Caenorhabditis elegans via the PEK-1/eIF-2α/ATF-4 Pathway

Cadmium (Cd), a harmful heavy metal that has no biological purpose, can harm healthy fetal and child development. Epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG), the most abundant polyphenol in tea, has been shown to increase cell viability under Cd exposure and ameliorate Cd-induced kidney injury in adult male rats. Using the Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) model, we demonstrated that EGCG mitigated Cd-induced body size developmental toxicity through a mechanism that did not involve chelation with EGCG and was not associated with Cd accumulation and efflux. Our research indicated that the beneficial effects of EGCG on Cd-induced body size developmental toxicity were associated with the mitigation of endoplasmic reticulum stress. Furthermore, our observations indicate that EGCG reduced Cd-induced developmental toxicity in C. elegans via the PEK-1/eIF-2α/ATF-4 pathway. Our results provide important evidence for the potential benefits of consuming tea as a detoxification agent.

Effect of Extraction Period on Total Phenolics, Total Flavonoids, and Antioxidant Capacity of Ugandan Camellia sinensis (L) Kuntze, Black Primary Grades and Green Tea

Introduction. Globally, the consumption and production of tea are on the rise because of its beneficial constituents. Scarce literature exists on the effects of extraction periods on the contents of the biologically important and protective phytochemicals such as phenolics, flavonoids, and antioxidants in locally produced teas in Uganda. Aim. This study determined the effects of extraction periods on the aqueous total phenolic content (TPC) of local Camella sinensis, black primary grades and green tea, and their ecological differences, their total flavonoid content (TFC), and antioxidant capacities (AOC). Methods. Samples of local tea were collected from Kigezi, Ankole, and Buganda regions, and those of green tea were purchased from a local supermarket in Uganda. Four- and 40-minute infusions were separately prepared for each sample. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were determined using the Folin–Ciocalteu and aluminium chloride methods using garlic acid and quercetin as standards, respectively. Antioxidant content was determined using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging and ferric reducing assay power (FRAP) methods, using ascorbic acid as the standard. Results. Green tea had the highest total phenolic content both with four-minute (9.50 ± 0.25 mgGAE/g) and 40-minute (25.81 ± 1.13 mgGAE/g) extractions, followed by D1 (4.14 ± 0.33 mgGAE/g) at four minutes and PF (23.60 ± 2.37 mgGAE/g) at 40 minutes. Regionally, Kigezi (4.71 ± 0.09 and 22.13 ± 0.85 mgGAE/g) at four and 40 minutes, respectively, gave the highest TPC. In TFC, tea from Buganda (4,371 ± 0.00 μgQE/g) was the highest. In DPPH and FRAP, GT (93.82 ± 0.03%, 39.04 ± 0.02 AAEμg/mL) was the best, followed by Buganda tea (88.71 ± 0.03%, 36.99 ± 0.01 AAEµg/mL), respectively. Conclusion. Longer extraction periods increase TPC in all teas. Green tea generates approximately twice the TPC generated by black tea in four-minute infusions. Green tea gives higher TPC, DPPH, and FRAP but less TFC than some black teas and is perhaps the best in terms of protection against oxidative damage to the body.

Potential benefits of joint hypothetical interventions on diet, lead, and cadmium on mortality in US adults

BACKGROUND

Previous studies reported associations between high blood lead levels (BLLs) and urinary cadmium (UCd) concentrations and all-cause and cause-specific mortality. It is hypothesized that these associations are mediated by inflammation; therefore, adherence to an anti-inflammatory diet may mitigate these effects. We sought to estimate the potential effects of joint hypothetical interventions on metals levels and adherence to an anti-inflammatory diet or fruits and vegetables (FV) intake on the expected mortality distributions.

METHODS

We used data on 14,311 adults aged ≥ 20 years enrolled in the NHANES-III between 1988 and 1994 and followed up through Dec 31, 2015. We estimated daily FV servings and adherence to the dietary inflammatory index at baseline using 24-hour dietary recalls. Mortality was determined from the National Death Index records. We used the parametric g-formula with pooled logistic regression models to estimate the absolute risk of all-cause, cardiovascular, and cancer mortality under different hypothetical interventions compared to the natural course (no intervention).

RESULTS

Overall, we observed a decreased mortality risk when intervening to lower metals levels or increasing adherence to an anti-inflammatory diet or the daily FV servings. The joint intervention to lower BLLs and UCd and increase the adherence to the anti-inflammatory diet had the strongest impact on cancer mortality risk (risk difference [RD] = -1.50% (-2.52% to -0.62%)) compared to the joint intervention only on metals levels RD= -0.97% (-1.89 to 0.70). The same pattern of associations was observed for the joint intervention to lower both metals and increased daily FV servings and cardiovascular diseases mortality risk.

CONCLUSION

Higher diet quality may constitute a complementary approach to the interventions to reduce exposures to cadmium and lead to further minimize their effects on mortality. A paradigm shift is required from a pollutant-focused only to a combination with a human-focused approach for primary prevention against these metals.

Tea consumption and risk of bladder cancer in the Bladder Cancer Epidemiology and Nutritional Determinants (BLEND) Study: Pooled analysis of 12 international cohort studies

BACKGROUND & AIMS

Tea has been shown to be associated with reduced risk of several diseases including cardiovascular diseases, stroke, metabolic syndrome, and obesity. However, the results on the relationship between tea consumption and bladder cancer are conflicting. This research aimed to assess the association between tea consumption and risk of bladder cancer using a pooled analysis of prospective cohort data.

METHODS

Individual data from 532,949 participants in 12 cohort studies, were pooled for analyses. Cox regression models stratified by study centre was used to estimate hazard ratios (HR) and corresponding 95% CIs. Fractional polynomial regression models were used to examine the dose-response relationship.

RESULTS

A higher level of tea consumption was associated with lower risk of bladder cancer incidence (compared with no tea consumption: HR = 0.87, 95% C.I. = 0.77-0.98 for low consumption; HR = 0.86, 95% C.I. = 0.77-0.96 for moderate consumption; HR = 0.84, 95% C.I. = 0.75-0.95 for high consumption). When stratified by sex and smoking status, this reduced risk was statistically significant among men and current and former smokers. In addition, dose-response analyses showed a lower bladder cancer risk with increment of 100 ml of tea consumption per day (HR-increment = 0.97; 95% CI = 0.96-0.98). A similar inverse association was found among males, current and former smokers while never smokers and females showed non-significant results, suggesting potential sex-dependent effect.

CONCLUSIONS

Higher consumption of tea is associated with reduced risk of bladder cancer with potential interaction with sex and smoking status. Further studies are needed to clarify the mechanisms for a protective effect of tea (e.g. inhibition of the survival and proliferation of cancer cells and anti-inflammatory mechanisms) and its interaction with smoking and sex.

Mg-LDH Nanoclays Intercalated Fennel and Green Tea Active Ingredient: Field and Laboratory Evaluation of Insecticidal Activities against Culex pipiens and Their Non-Target Organisms

(1) Background: Mosquito control with essential oils is a growing demand. This work evaluated the novel larvicidal and adulticidal activity of fennel and green tea oils and their Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) nanohybrid against Culex pipiens (Cx. pipiens) in both laboratory and field conditions and evaluated their effect against non-target organisms; (2) Methods: Two types of nanoclays, MgAl-LDH and NiAl-LDH were synthesized and characterized using PXRD, TEM and SEM, whereas their elemental analysis was accomplished by SEM-EDX; (3) Results: Mg and Ni LDHs were synthesized by the co-precipitation method. The adsorption and desorption of active ingredients were conducted using LC MS/MS, with reference to the SEM-EXD analysis. The desorption process of MgAl-LDH intercalated green tea oil was conducted using ethanol, and reveled significant peaks related to polyphenols and flavonoids like Vanillin, Catechin, Daidzein, Ellagic acid, Naringenin, Myricetin and Syringic acid with concentrations of 0.76, 0.73, 0.67, 0.59, 0.52, 0.44 and 0.42 μg/g, respectively. The larvicidal LC₅₀ values of fennel oil, Mg-LDH-F, and Ni-LDH-F were 843.88, 451.95, 550.12 ppm, respectively, whereas the corresponding values of green tea were 938.93, 530.46, and 769.94 ppm. The larval reduction percentage of fennel oil and Mg-LDH-F reached 90.1 and 96.2%, 24 h PT and their persistence reached five and seven days PT, respectively. The reduction percentage of green tea oil and Mg-LDH-GT reached 88.00 and 92.01%, 24 h PT and their persistence reached five and six days PT, respectively. Against adults, Mg-LDH-GT and Ni-LDH-GT were less effective than green tea oil as their LC₉₅ values were 5.45, 25.90, and 35.39%, respectively. The reduction in adult density PT with fennel oil, Mg-LDH-F, green tea oil, and Mg-LDH-GT reached 83.1, 100, 77.0, and 99.0%, respectively, 24 h PT and were effective for three days. Mg-LDH-GT and Mg-LDH-F increased the predation Cybister tripunctatus (71% and 69%), respectively; (4) Conclusions: For the first time, Mg-LDH-GT and Mg-LDH-F was the best system loaded with relatively good desorption release to its active ingredients and significantly affected Cx. pipiens larvae and adults in both laboratory and field circumstances, and it could be included in mosquito control.

Hydrogels and Hydrogel Nanocomposites: Enhancing Healthcare through Human and Environmental Treatment

Humans are constantly exposed to exogenous chemicals throughout their life, which can lead to a multitude of negative health impacts. Advanced materials can play a key role in preventing or mitigating these impacts through a wide variety of applications. The tunable properties of hydrogels and hydrogel nanocomposites (e.g., swelling behavior, biocompatibility, stimuli responsiveness, functionality, etc.) have deemed them ideal platforms for removal of environmental contaminants, detoxification, and reduction of body burden from exogenous chemical exposures for prevention of disease initiation, and advanced treatment of chronic diseases, including cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. In this review, three main junctures where the use of hydrogel and hydrogel nanocomposite materials can intervene to positively impact human health are highlighted: 1) preventing exposures to environmental contaminants, 2) prophylactic treatments to prevent chronic disease initiation, and 3) treating chronic diseases after they have developed.

The Cause of Alzheimer's Disease: The Theory of Multipathology Convergence to Chronic Neuronal Stress

The field of Alzheimer's disease (AD) research critically lacks an all-inclusive etiology theory that would integrate existing hypotheses and explain the heterogeneity of disease trajectory and pathologies observed in each individual patient. Here, we propose a novel comprehensive theory that we named: the multipathology convergence to chronic neuronal stress. Our new theory reconsiders long-standing dogmas advanced by previous incomplete theories. Firstly, while it is undeniable that amyloid beta (Aβ) is involved in AD, in the seminal stage of the disease Aβ is unlikely pathogenic. Instead, we hypothesize that the root cause of AD is neuronal stress in the central nervous system (CNS), and Aβ is expressed as part of the physiological response to protect CNS neurons from stress. If there is no return to homeostasis, then Aβ becomes overexpressed, and this includes the generation of longer forms that are more toxic and prone to oligomerization. Secondly, AD etiology is plausibly not strictly compartmentalized within the CNS but may also result from the dysfunction of other physiological systems in the entire body. This view implies that AD may not have a single cause, but rather needs to be considered as a spectrum of multiple chronic pathological modalities converging to the persistent stressing of CNS neurons. These chronic pathological modalities, which include cardiovascular disease, metabolic disorders, and CNS structural changes, often start individually, and over time combine with other chronic modalities to incrementally escalate the amount of stress applied to CNS neurons. We present the case for considering Aβ as a marker of neuronal stress in response to hypoxic, toxic, and starvation events, rather than solely a marker of AD. We also detail numerous human chronic conditions that can lead to neuronal stress in the CNS, making the link with co-morbidities encountered in daily clinical AD practice. Finally, we explain how our theory could be leveraged to improve clinical care for AD and related dementia in personalized medicine paradigms in the near future.

Effects of Organochlorine Pesticide Residues in Maternal Body on Infants

There are many organochlorine pollutants in the environment, which can be directly or indirectly exposed to by mothers, and as estrogen endocrine disruptors can cause damage to the lactation capacity of the mammary gland. In addition, because breast milk contains a lot of nutrients, it is the most important food source for new-born babies. If mothers are exposed to organochlorine pesticides (OCPs), the lipophilic organochlorine contaminants can accumulate in breast milk fat and be passed to the infant through breast milk. Therefore, it is necessary to investigate organochlorine contaminants in human milk to estimate the health risks of these contaminants to breastfed infants. In addition, toxic substances in the mother can also be passed to the fetus through the placenta, which is also something we need to pay attention to. This article introduces several types of OCPs, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), methoxychlor (MXC), hexachlorocyclohexane (HCH), endosulfan, chlordane, heptachlorand and hexachlorobenzene (HCB), mainly expounds their effects on women's lactation ability and infant health, and provides reference for maternal and infant health. In addition, some measures and methods for the control of organochlorine pollutants are also described here.

The future of high-quality Ceylon tea seems bleak in the face of climate change

Understanding the interactive effects and relationships between biochemical elements of tea leaves and the related factors, particularly climatic, cultivar, and geographic, is key for high-quality Ceylon tea production. The objectives of this study were to (1) investigate the effects of season × cultivar × agro-ecological regions (AERs) on the four tested biochemicals in fresh tea leaves, total polyphenol content (TPC), free sugar, protein, and theanine; (2) determine the relationships between, and develop a model to estimate, the biochemicals and their related factors; and (3) project the potential concentrations and distributions of four tested biochemicals in tea leaves with respect to the current and future climate. This study primarily uses inferential statistics via the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), cross-validation using R software, and the inverse distance weighting (IDW) approach in ArcGIS. The results demonstrate that the season, cultivar (Ceylon tea cultivars of TRI 2025 and TRI 4053), and AER and their interactions on biochemicals have significant effects (p < 0.05). The models derived in the regression analysis demonstrate the strong relationships between the independent variables and the biochemicals, with multiple correlation coefficients (R) around 0.8 and coefficient of determination (R2) around 0.6. The low standard deviation of error of prediction (SDEP < 0.1) and the high correlation coefficient of leave-one-out cross-validation (Q2) for all four biochemicals ranged from 0.56 to 0.61, which signifies the predictive ability of the models. The future projections show a considerable increase in the thresholds of all tested biochemicals. The distribution category with 'very high' concentrations of TPC and theanine is predicted to increase in the future by averages of 10% and 14%, respectively, while reducing the classes of protein and free sugar by 14% and 12%, respectively. Overall, the changing concentrations of the thresholds of relevant biochemicals and their distribution will negatively affect the final quality of tea, and these variations indicate that climate change has started to diminish Ceylon tea quality.

Green and white teas as health-promoting foods

Tea is one of the most consumed beverages around the world and as such, it is constantly the object of novel research. This review focuses on the research performed during the last five years to provide an updated view of the current position of tea regarding human health. According to most authors, tea health benefits can be traced back to its bioactive components, mostly phenolic compounds. Among them, catechins are the most abundant. Tea has an important antioxidant capacity and anti-inflammatory properties, which make this beverage (or its extracts) a potential aid in the fight against several chronic diseases. On the other hand, some studies report the possibility of toxic effects and it is advisable to reduce tea consumption, such as in the last trimester of pregnancy. Additionally, new technologies are increasing researchers' possibilities to study the effect of tea on human gut microbiota and even against SARS CoV-2. This beverage favours some beneficial gut microbes, which could have important repercussions due to the influence of gut microbiota on human health.

Eurotium cristatum Fermented Loose Dark Tea Ameliorates Cigarette Smoke-Induced Lung Injury by MAPK Pathway and Enhances Hepatic Metabolic Detoxification by PXR/AhR Pathway in Mice

Cigarette smoke- (CS-) induced oxidative stress and inflammation in the lung are serious health problems. Primary and reprocessed tea products contain multiple antioxidants that have been reported to protect the lung against CS-induced injury. However, the beneficial effects of Eurotium cristatum fermented loose dark tea (ECT) and Eurotium cristatum particle metabolites (ECP) on CS-induced lung injury and its potential hepatic metabolic detoxification are still unclear. Therefore, sixty mice were randomly divided into six equal groups. CS-exposed mice were prevented or treated with ECP or ECT infusions for 12 or 8 weeks to determine the antioxidative stress, anti-inflammatory and potential metabolic detoxification of ECT and ECP. Thirty-six mice were randomly divided into six equal groups to observe the effects on hepatic metabolic detoxification by replacing daily drinking water with ECT. Results showed that CS significantly decreased the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) and superoxide dismutase (SOD) and upregulated the expressions of malondialdehyde (MDA), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), IL-8, and IL-1β in serum. These adverse effects were modulated by ECP and ECT. In addition, ECT upregulated the mRNA expression of pregnane X receptor (PXR) and cytochrome P450 (CYP450) in the liver on daily free drinking ECT mice group. Western blot analysis further revealed that in CS-exposed mice, ECP and ECT significantly decreased the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) in the lung but upregulated the protein expressions of PXR and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) in the liver. Overall, our findings demonstrated that ECT and ECP protected against lung injury induced by CS via MAPK pathway and enhanced hepatic metabolic detoxification via PXR and AhR pathways. Therefore, daily intake of ECT and ECP can potentially protect against CS-induced oxidative and inflammatory injuries.

Inhibition analysis of aflatoxin by in silico targeting the thioesterase domain of polyketide synthase enzyme in Aspergillus ssp

The spread of fungal growth causes enormous economic, agricultural, and health problems for humans, such as Aspergillus sp., which produce aflatoxins. Thus, the inhibition of aflatoxin production became a precious target. In this research, the thioesterase (TE) domain from Polyketide synthase enzyme was selected to employ the in silico docking, using AutoDock Vina, against 623 natural compounds from the South African natural compound database (SANCDB), to identify potential inhibitors that can selectively inhibit thioesterase domain. The top ten inhibitors components were pinocembrin, typhaphthalide, p-coumaroylputrescine, dilemmaone A, 9-angelylplatynecine, 2,4,6-octatrienal, 4,8-dichloro-3,7-dimethyl-, (2e,4z,6e)-, lilacinobiose, 1,3,7-octatriene, 5,6-dichloro-2-(dichloromethyl)-6-methyl-, [r*,s*-(e)]-(-)- (9ci), lilacinobiose, 1,3,7-octatriene, 5,6-dichloro-2-(dichloromethyl)-6-methyl-, [r*,s*-(e)]-(-)- (9ci), 1,3,7-octatriene, 1,5,6-trichloro-2-(dichloromethyl)-6-methyl-, [r*,s*-(z,e)] and 9-angelylhastanecine and that depending on the lowest binding energy, the best chemical interactions and the best drug-likeness. The results of those components gave successful inhibition with the thioesterase domain. So, they can be used for inhibition and controlling aflatoxin contamination of agriculture crop yields, specially, pinocembrin which gave promising results.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

Amelioration of pulmonary aflatoxicosis by green tea extract: An in vivo study

Aflatoxins (AFB₁) are mycotoxins known to be associated with human and animal diseases. The lung is a at risk from AFB₁exposure either via inhalation or circulation. Green tea consumption is increasing over time due to widespread popularity as antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and cytoprotective agents. Therefore, we attempted to study the lung toxicity caused by AFB₁ and the possible ameliorating effect of green tea extract. Forty adult male albino rats were divided into five groups; Group I: Untreated control group, Group II (vehicle): Each rat received 1 ml of olive oil, Group III (GTE): Each rat received Camellia sinensis, green tea extract (30 mg/kg/day), Group IV(AFB₁): Each rat received (50 μg/kg/day of AFB₁). Group V (AFB₁+ GTE): Each rat received the same previously mentioned doses of AFB1 in addition to GTE concomitantly. All treatments were orally gavaged for 8 weeks then rats were sacrificed. Serum levels of pro-inflammatory (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines were measured, lung tissues' oxidative stress indices were also measured in addition to the histopathological study which was performed by using hematoxylin & eosin and Masson trichrome stains. Morphometric and statistical analyses were also performed. Oral gavage of AFB₁ resulted in significant histopathological changes in the lung tissues, in the form of variable degrees of congestion, hemorrhage, interstitial inflammation with infiltration by chronic inflammatory cells, interstitial fibrosis, bronchitis, vasculitis and fibrous thickening of arterial walls. Inflammation was evident by elevated levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines and a declined level of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Also, oxidative stress was evident by increased levels of Malondialdehyde (MDA), Myeloperoxidase (MPO), and decreased levels of total glutathione (tGSH) and Catalase (CAT). The histopathological changes, inflammatory cytokines, and oxidative stress markers were significantly decreased during concomitant administration of green tea extract in (AFB₁+ GTE) group. Aflatoxin B₁ has deleterious effects on the lung tissue that could be minimized by concomitant administration of Green tea extract owing to its anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and protective properties.

Gut/Oral Bacteria Variability May Explain the High Efficacy of Green Tea in Rodent Tumor Inhibition and Its Absence in Humans

Consumption of green tea (GT) and GT polyphenols has prevented a range of cancers in rodents but has had mixed results in humans. Human subjects who drank GT for weeks showed changes in oral microbiome. However, GT-induced changes in RNA in oral epithelium were subject-specific, suggesting GT-induced changes of the oral epithelium occurred but differed across individuals. In contrast, studies in rodents consuming GT polyphenols revealed obvious changes in epithelial gene expression. GT polyphenols are poorly absorbed by digestive tract epithelium. Their metabolism by gut/oral microbial enzymes occurs and can alter absorption and function of these molecules and thus their bioactivity. This might explain the overall lack of consistency in oral epithelium RNA expression changes seen in human subjects who consumed GT. Each human has different gut/oral microbiomes, so they may have different levels of polyphenol-metabolizing bacteria. We speculate the similar gut/oral microbiomes in, for example, mice housed together are responsible for the minimal variance observed in tissue GT responses within a study. The consistency of the tissue response to GT within a rodent study eases the selection of a dose level that affects tumor rates. This leads to the theory that determination of optimal GT doses in a human requires knowledge about the gut/oral microbiome in that human.

Green Tea Polyphenols Promote Functional Recovery from Peripheral Nerve Injury in Rats

Background

Peripheral nerve injury (PNI) is a common and progressive disorder with sensory and motor deficits in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). Treatment is difficult, with unfavorable prognosis. Green tea polyphenols (GTPs) exert neuroprotective effects on regeneration of the central nervous system (CNS). However, the effects of GTPs on functional recovery of the PNS have not been fully characterized. Consequently, the present study investigated the effects of GTPs on nerve regeneration of rats with PNI.

Material/Methods

The model of PNI was established in rats by sciatic nerve injury (SNI). Adult male Wistar rats with SNI were randomly divided into a vehicle group and a GTPs group. The compound muscle action potential (CMAP) of rat sciatic nerves (SN) was measured using the CM6240 physiological signal acquisition and processing system. The wet weight of the triceps muscle was determined using an analytical balance. The number of myelinated nerve fibers was counted under an optical microscope. Ultrastructure of the regenerated nerves in SN was observed by transmission electron microscopy. The mRNA and protein expression of nerve growth factor (NGF), growth-associated protein-43 (GAP-43), neurofilament 200 (NF200), and myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) in SN stumps were measured by real-time quantification PCR (RT-qPCR) and Western blot, respectively.

Results

In rats with SNI, GTPs relieved the adhesion between nerve anastomosis and surrounding tissues, and significantly increased nerve conduction velocity, wet weight of the triceps muscle, and development and axonal regeneration of myelinated nerve fibers. Moreover, GTPs promoted the mRNA and protein expressions of NGF, GAP-43, NF200, and MAG in SN stumps.

Conclusions

GTPs promotes nerve regeneration in rats with SNI.

The Role of Extracting Solvents in the Recovery of Polyphenols from Green Tea and Its Antiradical Activity Supported by Principal Component Analysis

Green tea contains a variety of biologically active constituents that are widely used in the pharmaceutical and food industries. Among them, simple catechins constitute a major group of compounds that is primarily responsible for the high biologic activity of green tea extracts. Therefore, the application of optimized extraction conditions may result in obtaining high value extracts. The main purpose of the study was to compare the content of polyphenols, mainly catechins, and the antioxidant activity of green tea extracts obtained by three different extraction methods: simple maceration, ultrasound extraction and accelerated solvent extraction using six various solvent systems. The quality of the extracts was evaluated by LC-ESI-Q-TOF-MS methodologies and spectrophotometric determinations. The obtained results revealed that catechins’ extraction efficiency was identical for the three techniques studied. However, larger quantitative differences among the samples were observed when using different solvents. The total content of major catechins and gallic acid was within a very wide range of 10.2–842 mg/L. Ethyl acetate was by far the least effective extractant, regardless of the extraction technique used. After all, the solvent system composed of ethanol:water (1:1 v/v) was proven to be the best to recover catechins and to deliver extracts with the highest antiradical activity.

Green tea polyphenols boost gut-microbiota-dependent mitochondrial TCA and urea cycles in Sprague-Dawley rats

Green tea polyphenols (GTPs) were found to boost mammal energy conversion by modulating gut-microbial community structure, gene orthologs and metabolic pathways. Here we examined the metabolites present in the gut-microbiota-dependent mitochondrial tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and urea cycle using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography (HILIC)-heated electrospray ionization (HESI)-tandem liquid chromatogram mass spectrometry (LC-MS). Six groups (n=12) of Sprague-Dawley rats (6-mo, ~250 g) were administered with water containing 0%, 0.5%, and 1.5% GTPs (wt/vol or g/dL). Gut-content samples were collected at 3- and 6-mo. Untargeted metabolomics detected 2177 features, with 91 features demonstrating significant dose- and time-dependencies on the GTPs treatment. Targeted metabolomics analysis revealed remarkable changes of 39 metabolites in the mitochondrial TCA cycle and urea cycle, including argininosuccunic acid (0.9-fold vs control), dihydrouracil (1.14-fold vs control), fumaric acid (1.19-fold vs control), malic acid (2.17-fold vs control), citrulline (1.86-fold vs control), and succinic acid (0.4-fold vs control). The untargeted metabolomics data were mined using bioinformatics approaches, such as analysis of variance-simultaneous component analysis (ASCA), enrichment pathway analysis and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway mapping analysis. The results of 16S rRNA survey, metagenomics analysis, and metabolomics analysis were extrapolated and integrated using databases of Integrated Microbial Genomes and Microbiomes (IMG/M) and KEGG. Our analysis demonstrates that GTPs enhance energy conversion by boosting mitochondrial TCA cycle and urea cycle of gut-microbiota in rats. This metabolic modulation is achieved by enriching many gene orthologs, following the increase of beneficial microbials in families C. Ruminococcaceae, C. Lachnospiraceae and B. Bacteroidaceae.

Molecular mechanisms linking environmental toxicants to cancer development: Significance for protective interventions with polyphenols

Human exposure to environmental toxicants with diverse mechanisms of action is a growing concern. In addition to well-recognized carcinogens, various chemicals in environmental and occupational settings have been suggested to impact health, increasing susceptibility to cancer by inducing genetic and epigenetic changes. Accordingly, in this review, we have discussed recent insights into the pathological mechanisms of these chemicals, namely their effects on cell redox and calcium homeostasis, mitochondria and inflammatory signaling, with a focus on the possible implications for multi-stage carcinogenesis and its reversal by polyphenols. Plant-derived polyphenols, such as epigallocatechin-gallate, resveratrol, curcumin and anthocyanins reduce the incidence of cancer and can be useful nutraceuticals for alleviating the detrimental outcomes of harmful pollutants. However, development of therapies based on polyphenol administration requires further studies to validate the biological efficacy, identifying effective doses, mode of action and new delivery forms. Innovative microphysiological testing models are presented and specific proposals for future trials are given. Merging the current knowledge of multifactorial actions of specific polyphenols and chief environmental toxicants, this work aims to potentiate the delivery of phytochemical-based protective treatments to individuals at high-risk due to environmental exposure.

Preparation and Characterization of UV-Curable Acrylic Membranes Embedding Natural Antioxidants

We examine the behaviour of acrylic resin-based membranes containing natural anti-oxidants, such as Galla chinensis tea powder extract (TP) and Taiwanese green propolis (TGP), in different concentrations ranging between 5 and 20 wt %. Membrane morphology was investigated by means of Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy (ESEM), while the UV-curing reaction was monitored by Fourier-Transform Infra-red (FTIR) spectroscopy. In most cases Thermogravimetric (TG), Differential Scanning Calorimetric (DSC) and Dynamo-mechanical Thermal (DMT) analyses showed that the desirable characteristics of the UV-cured acrylic resin are not substantially altered by the presence of the organic fillers. The release kinetics of polyphenols and flavonoids, determined in water for TP-containing membranes (ETx) and in ethanol/water mixture (7:3 v/v) for TGP-containing ones (EPx), was satisfactory, reaching a plateau after 24 h. Finally, preliminary antibacterial tests against S. epidermidis were performed on the membranes with higher additive amount and gave positive results for ET-type; on the contrary, no inhibitory effect was observed for the tested EP-type membranes.

Mitochondrial Toxins and Healthy Lifestyle Meet at the Crossroad of Hormesis

Mitochondrial function is crucial for the maintenance of cellular homeostasis under physiological and stress conditions. Thus, chronic exposure to environmental chemicals that affect mitochondrial function can have harmful effects on humans. We argue that the concept of hormesis should be revisited to explain the non-linear responses to mitochondrial toxins at a low-dose range and develop practical methods to protect humans from the negative effects of mitochondrial toxins. Of the most concern to humans are lipophilic chemical mixtures and heavy metals, owing to their physical properties. Even though these chemicals tend to demonstrate no safe level in humans, a non-linear dose-response has been also observed. Stress response activation, i.e., hormesis, can explain this non-linearity. Recently, hormesis has reemerged as a unifying concept because diverse stressors can induce similar stress responses. Besides potentially harmful environmental chemicals, healthy lifestyle interventions such as exercise, calorie restriction (especially glucose), cognitive stimulation, and phytochemical intake also activate stress responses. This conceptual link can lead to the development of practical methods that counterbalance the harm of mitochondrial toxins. Unlike chemical hormesis with its safety issues, the activation of stress responses via lifestyle modification can be safely used to combat the negative effects of mitochondrial toxins.

Regulation of Inflammatory Response and the Production of Reactive Oxygen Species by a Functional Cooked Ham Reformulated with Natural Antioxidants in a Macrophage Immunity Model

Nowadays, more consumers demand healthier products. A way to offer such products is to functionalize them using health-promoting bioactive compounds. Meat and meat products are high in essential nutrients; however, their excessive consumption implies a high intake of other substances that, at levels above recommended uptake limits, have been linked to certain non-communicable chronic diseases. An effective way to reduce this danger is to reformulate meat products. In this study, natural botanical extracts rich in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds were used to improve the health properties of a cooked ham with an optimal nutritional profile (i.e., low in fat and salt). The RAW 264.7 mouse cell line was used as an inflammatory model and was stimulated with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide to evaluate changes in inflammatory biomarkers such as tumour necrosis factor alpha, the interleukins (ILs) IL-1β and IL-6, nitric oxide and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results showed that the use of natural extracts in optimized cooked ham significantly downregulated inflammatory markers and reduced the levels of intracellular ROS. Thus, the present study proposed a new functional cooked ham with potential health properties via anti-inflammatory and antioxidant in vitro activity.

Metabolic Signature of a Functional High-Catechin Tea after Acute and Sustained Consumption in Healthy Volunteers through 1H NMR Based Metabolomics Analysis of Urine

Functional tea beverages have emerged as a novel approach to achieving health benefits associated with tea. The use of metabolomics may improve the evaluation of their consumption and their effects. The current study aimed at exploring the urinary signature of exposure to a functional high-catechin tea (HCT) using untargeted NMR-based metabolomics. Ten volunteers participated in a crossover intervention study. Individuals consumed an HCT or a control beverage over a period of 28 days. Multilevel partial least-squares discriminant analysis (ML-PLS-DA) was used for paired comparisons. A further crossover model was performed to assess the significant changes. The consumption of the HCT resulted in the excretion of theanine, epicatechin, pyrogallol sulfate, and higher levels of 3-methyl-2-oxovalerate and succinate, as well as unknown compounds. In conclusion, the present work established novel urinary signatures of a functional drink. Such signatures may be potential biomarkers and/or reflect certain benefits of functional tea beverages.

High Consumption of Green Tea Suppresses Urinary Tract Recurrence of Urothelial Cancer via Down-regulation of Human Antigen-R Expression in Never Smokers

BACKGROUND/AIM

Smoking is a risk factor for carcinogenesis and progression of urothelial cancer (UC). Green tea polyphenol inhibits these malignant behaviors and suppresses human antigen R (HuR) expression, which is associated with malignant aggressiveness. This study aimed to clarify the anti-cancer effects of green tea based on the smoking status of UC patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Three hundred and sixty (260 with bladder cancer, BC and 100 with upper tract UC) patients were divided into three groups based on consumption of green tea: low (<1 cup/day, n=119), middle (1-4 cup/day, n=160), and high (>5 cup/day, n=81). HuR immunoreactivity was evaluated immunohistochemically in formalin-fixed specimens.

RESULTS

In never smokers, multivariate analysis showed that the frequency of green tea consumption was a significant predictor (middle: hazard ratio, HR, 0.36, p=0.002; high: HR, 0.20, p=0.003) of urinary tract recurrence. A high consumption of green tea was associated with low rates of urinary tract recurrence and up-grading in UC patients. In BC, high consumption was associated with a lower risk of up-grading (p=0.011) and up-staging (p=0.041) in recurrent cancer. HuR expression in the high-consumption group was lower (p=0.019) than that in other groups. These significant findings were not detected in ever smokers.

CONCLUSION

High consumption of green tea suppressed urinary tract recurrence and the risks of up-grading and up-staging by recurrence in never smokers. Our results suggested that HuR expression played important roles in such mechanisms.

Bioactive Compounds and Extracts from Traditional Herbs and Their Potential Anti-Inflammatory Health Effects

The inflammatory processes associated with several chronic illnesses like cardiovascular disease and cancer have been the focus of mechanistic studies of the pathogenicity of these diseases and of the use of different pharmacological and natural methods to prevent them. In this study we review the current evidence regarding the effectiveness of natural extracts from as-yet little-studied traditional botanical species in alleviating the inflammation process associated with several chronic diseases. Additionally, the intention is to expose the known pathways of action and the potential synergistic effects of the constituent compounds of the discussed extracts. It is noted that the here-studied extracts, which include black garlic rich in S-allylcystein, polyphenols from cat’s claw (Uncaria tomentosa), devil’s claw (Harpagophytum procumbens), camu-camu (Myrciaria dubia), and blackcurrant (Ribes nigrum), and citrus fruit extracts rich in hesperidin, have similar or greater effects than other, more extensively studied extracts such as tea and cocoa. The combined use of all of these extracts can give rise to synergetic effects with greater biological relevance at lower doses.

High Consumption of Green Tea Suppresses Urinary Tract Recurrence of Urothelial Cancer via Down-regulation of Human Antigen-R Expression in Never Smokers

BACKGROUND/AIM

Smoking is a risk factor for carcinogenesis and progression of urothelial cancer (UC). Green tea polyphenol inhibits these malignant behaviors and suppresses human antigen R (HuR) expression, which is associated with malignant aggressiveness. This study aimed to clarify the anti-cancer effects of green tea based on the smoking status of UC patients.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Three hundred and sixty (260 with bladder cancer, BC and 100 with upper tract UC) patients were divided into three groups based on consumption of green tea: low (<1 cup/day, n=119), middle (1-4 cup/day, n=160), and high (>5 cup/day, n=81). HuR immunoreactivity was evaluated immunohistochemically in formalin-fixed specimens.

RESULTS

In never smokers, multivariate analysis showed that the frequency of green tea consumption was a significant predictor (middle: hazard ratio, HR, 0.36, p=0.002; high: HR, 0.20, p=0.003) of urinary tract recurrence. A high consumption of green tea was associated with low rates of urinary tract recurrence and up-grading in UC patients. In BC, high consumption was associated with a lower risk of up-grading (p=0.011) and up-staging (p=0.041) in recurrent cancer. HuR expression in the high-consumption group was lower (p=0.019) than that in other groups. These significant findings were not detected in ever smokers.

CONCLUSION

High consumption of green tea suppressed urinary tract recurrence and the risks of up-grading and up-staging by recurrence in never smokers. Our results suggested that HuR expression played important roles in such mechanisms.

Effects of green tea on miRNA and microbiome of oral epithelium

Consumption of green tea (GT) extracts or purified catechins has shown the ability to prevent oral and other cancers and inhibit cancer progression in rodent models, but the evidence for this in humans is mixed. Working with humans, we sought to understand the source of variable responses to GT by examining its effects on oral epithelium. Lingual epithelial RNA and lingual and gingival microbiota were measured before and after 4 weeks of exposure in tobacco smokers, whom are at high risk of oral cancer. GT consumption had on average inconsistent effects on miRNA expression in the oral epithelium. Only analysis that examined paired miRNAs, showing changed and coordinated expression with GT exposure, provided evidence for a GT effect on miRNAs, identifying miRNAs co-expressed with two hubs, miR-181a-5p and 301a-3p. An examination of the microbiome on cancer prone lingual mucosa, in contrast, showed clear shifts in the relative abundance of Streptococcus and Staphylococcus, and other genera after GT exposure. These data support the idea that tea consumption can consistently change oral bacteria in humans, which may affect carcinogenesis, but argue that GT effects on oral epithelial miRNA expression in humans vary between individuals.

Phytochemicals That Influence Gut Microbiota as Prophylactics and for the Treatment of Obesity and Inflammatory Diseases

Gut microbiota (GM) plays several crucial roles in host physiology and influences several relevant functions. In more than one respect, it can be said that you “feed your microbiota and are fed by it.” GM diversity is affected by diet and influences metabolic and immune functions of the host's physiology. Consequently, an imbalance of GM, or dysbiosis, may be the cause or at least may lead to the progression of various pathologies such as infectious diseases, gastrointestinal cancers, inflammatory bowel disease, and even obesity and diabetes. Therefore, GM is an appropriate target for nutritional interventions to improve health. For this reason, phytochemicals that can influence GM have recently been studied as adjuvants for the treatment of obesity and inflammatory diseases. Phytochemicals include prebiotics and probiotics, as well as several chemical compounds such as polyphenols and derivatives, carotenoids, and thiosulfates. The largest group of these comprises polyphenols, which can be subclassified into four main groups: flavonoids (including eight subgroups), phenolic acids (such as curcumin), stilbenoids (such as resveratrol), and lignans. Consequently, in this review, we will present, organize, and discuss the most recent evidence indicating a relationship between the effects of different phytochemicals on GM that affect obesity and/or inflammation, focusing on the effect of approximately 40 different phytochemical compounds that have been chemically identified and that constitute some natural reservoir, such as potential prophylactics, as candidates for the treatment of obesity and inflammatory diseases.

Influence of flavonol-rich excipient food (onion peel and Dendropanax morbifera) on the bioavailability of green tea epicatechins in vitro and in vivo

The impacts of onion peel (OP) and Dendropanax morbifera (DM), as excipient foods rich in flavonols, on the digestive recovery, intestinal absorption, and pharmacokinetics of GT epicatechins were studied via an in vitro digestion model system with Caco-2 cells and an in vivo study. The digestive stability of total epicatechins recovered from GT upon the addition of 2% DM was up to 1.12 times higher than that observed with OP. The combined effects of OP and DM, which were observed with 2% OP + DM in a ratio of 1 : 4 (w : w), significantly increased (by a factor of 1.31) the digestive recovery of total epicatechins (p < 0.05). Remarkable cellular uptakes of EC (185.36%) and ECG (188.08%) were found with 4% OP + DM (4 : 1, w : w), and those of EGC (112.30%) and EGCG (136.27%) were obtained with 2% OP + DM (4 : 1, w : w) and 1% OP + DM (1 : 1, w : w), respectively. The peak plasma concentrations of total epicatechins from GT, GT + 5% OP, GT + 5% DM, and GT + 2% OP + 2% DM were 1044.78 ± 609.10, 2267.18 ± 3734.38, 1270.35 ± 547.59, and 714.53 ± 499.27 ng mL^-1, respectively. The C_max value of total epicatechins in rats orally administrated with GT with 5% OP was found to be approximately twice of that obtained with GT alone. The co-ingestion of GT with flavonol-rich excipient foods possibly enhances the absorption of epicatechins because flavonols act as not only enhancers of digestive stability but also modulators of the biotransformation of epicatechins. The results obtained from the current study suggest that the absorption of GT catechins can vary depending upon the kinds and doses of excipient foods co-ingested.

Comparative analysis of BPA and HQ toxic impacts on human erythrocytes, protective effect mechanism of tannins (Rhus typhina)

Several studies reported that bisphenol A (BPA) and its metabolite hydroquinone (HQ) have adverse effects on human and animal health. In this work, a comparative study of influence of the BPA and HQ, environment pollutants, on human erythrocytes was carried out. It was shown that BPA and HQ to varying extents caused oxidative damage in human erythrocytes: hemolysis, decreased GSH level, and methemoglobin formation. It was demonstrated that hydrolysable tannins 3,6-bis-O-di-O-galloyl-1,2,4-tri-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (C₅₅H₄₀O₃₄) and 1,2,3,4,6-penta-O-galloyl-β-D-glucose (C₄₁H₃₂O₂₆) (PGG) isolated from the Rhus typhina L. leaves in the range of 1-50 μM concentrations inhibited hemolysis and methemoglobin formation and also increased intracellular reduced glutathione in erythrocytes treated with BPA or HQ. It was revealed by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) using 5-doxyl-stearic acid (5-DS) that C₅₅H₄₀O₃₄ and C₄₁H₃₂O₂₆ increased the rigidity of erythrocyte membranes at the depth of 5th carbon atom of the fatty acid hydrocarbon chain. Taken together, these results allow to conclude that tannins from the Rhus typhina L. leaves protect erythrocytes from oxidative stress caused by BPA or HQ both due to their antioxidant activity as well as their interaction with the erythrocyte membrane components.

Tea regimen, a comprehensive assessment of antioxidant and antitumor activities of tea extract produced by Tie Guanyin hybridization

A comprehensive assessment was conducted in this study to examine the antioxidant and antitumor activities of tea extract produced by Tie Guanyin hybridization. Two radical-scavenging systems of assay in vitro, namely ABTS and DPPH assays, were used to investigate the antioxidant activity of the summer tea and autumn tea extract (STE and ATE) derived from the Jin Guanyin. The results indicated that the major active ingredients were catechins, and the theaflavin is rare in the STE and ATE. Moreover, STE and ATE could significantly suppress the growth of human breast cancer cells MDA-MB-231 in a dose-dependent manner, and wrecked the morphology of mitochondria, activated caspase families, leading to the cancer cell death by both apoptosis and cell cycle arrest pathways. Based on the results from an MDA-MB-231 xenograft nude mice model, STE could effectively prevent the tumor formation, and greatly improve the mice immunity and thus improve their living conditions. Taken together, ATE and STE could act as a healthy and prospective substitute for natural antioxidants and a promising prophylactic agent against cancer. This finding provides a great promising nutritional approach to treat diseases related with oxidative stress.

Herein we demonstrate that Jin Guanyin extracts shows antioxidative activity, thus inhibiting ROS generation, promoting mitochondrial fragmentations and caspase activations in cancer cells, finally leading cell apoptosis and cycle arrest.

The synergistic potential of various teas, herbs and therapeutic drugs in health improvement: a review

Tea is one of the most widely consumed non-alcoholic beverages in the world next to water. It is classified as Camellia sinensis and non-Camellia sinensis (herbal teas). The common bioactive compounds found mainly in green teas are flavan-3-ols (catechins) (also called flavanols), proanthocyanidins (tannins) and flavonols. Black tea contains theaflavins and thearubigins and white tea contains l-theanine and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), while herbal teas contain diverse polyphenols. Phytochemicals in tea exhibit antimicrobial, anti-diabetic and anti-cancer activities that are perceived to be helpful in managing chronic diseases linked to lifestyle. Many of these phytochemicals are reported to be biologically active when combined. Knowledge of the synergistic interactions of tea with other teas or herbs in terms of biological activities will be of benefit for therapeutic enhancement. There is evidence that various types of teas act synergistically in exhibiting health benefits to humans, improving consumer acceptance and economic value. Similar observations have been made when teas and herbs or medicinal drugs were combined. The aim of this review is to highlight potential beneficial synergies between combinations of different types of teas, tea and herbs, and tea and medicinal drugs. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Green tea protects against memory deficits related to maternal deprivation

Maternal deprivation (MD) in early life affects the development of the brain, causing cognitive losses in adulthood. Oxidative imbalance may be one of the factors that trigger these deficits. Therapies with antioxidant components, like green tea from Camellia sinensis (GT) has been used to treat or prevent memory deficits in a variety of conditions related to oxidative stress. Here we demonstrate that memory deficits caused by MD can be prevented by GT antioxidant activity in hippocampus. Pregnant female rats were used. Her puppies were submitted to MD and intake of GT. Recognition and aversive memory were evaluated, as well as hippocampal oxidative status. Data showed that MD prejudice short and long-term recognition and aversive memory and that GT protected memory. Hippocampal reactive oxygen species levels were increased in MD rats; this increase was avoided by GT supplementation. GSH was decreased on hippocampus MD rats. GT did not avoid GSH decrease, but promote the increase of total antioxidant capacity in MD rats' hippocampus. In conclusion, GT protects against memory deficits related to MD, and one of the implicated mechanism seems to be the antioxidant effects of GT.

Clinical effects of chemical exposures on mitochondrial function

Mitochondria are critical for the provision of ATP for cellular energy requirements. Tissue and organ functions are dependent on adequate ATP production, especially when energy demand is high. Mitochondria also play a role in a vast array of important biochemical pathways including apoptosis, generation and detoxification of reactive oxygen species, intracellular calcium regulation, steroid hormone and heme synthesis, and lipid metabolism. The complexity of mitochondrial structure and function facilitates its diverse roles but also enhances its vulnerability. Primary disorders of mitochondrial bioenergetics, or Primary Mitochondrial Diseases (PMD) are due to inherited genetic defects in the nuclear or mitochondrial genomes that result in defective oxidative phosphorylation capacity and cellular energy production. Secondary mitochondrial dysfunction is observed in a wide range of diseases such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. Several lines of evidence suggest that environmental exposures cause substantial mitochondrial dysfunction. Whereby literature from experimental and human studies on exposures associated with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases exist, the significance of exposures as potential triggers in Primary Mitochondrial Disease (PMD) is an emerging clinical question that has not been systematically studied.