Study of radon concentration and toxic elements indrinking and irrigated water and its implications in Sungai Petani, Kedah, Malaysia

Geographical distribution of radon and associated health risks in drinking water samples collected from the Mulazai area of Peshawar, Pakistan

Geospatial methods, such as GIS and remote sensing, map radon levels, pinpoint high-risk areas and connect geological traits to radon presence. These findings direct health planning, focusing tests, mitigation, and policies where radon levels are high. Overall, geospatial analyses offer vital insights, shaping interventions and policies to reduce health risks from radon exposure. There is a formidable threat to human well-being posed by the naturally occurring carcinogenic radon (222Rn) gas due to high solubility in water. Under the current scenario, it is crucial to assess the extent of 222Rn pollution in our drinking water sources across various regions and thoroughly investigate the potential health hazards it poses. In this regard, the present study was conducted to investigate the concentration of 222Rn in groundwater samples collected from handpumps and wells and to estimate health risks associated with the consumption of 222Rn-contaminated water. For this purpose, groundwater samples (n = 30) were collected from handpumps, and wells located in the Mulazai area, District Peshawar. The RAD7 radon detector was used as per international standards to assess the concentration of 222Rn in the collected water samples. The results unveiled that the levels of 222Rn in the collected samples exceeded the acceptable thresholds set by the US Environmental Protection Agency (US-EPA) of 11.1 Bq L-1. Nevertheless, it was determined that the average annual dose was below the recommended limit of 0.1 mSv per year, as advised by both the European Union Council and the World Health Organization. In order to avoid the harmful effects of such excessive 222Rn concentrations on human health, proper ventilation and storage of water in storage reservoirs for a long time before use is recommended to lower the 222Rn concentration.

Drinking water quality status in Malaysia: a scoping review of occurrence, human health exposure, and potential needs

BACKGROUND

Like other countries, surface water degradation in Malaysia is linked with common global issues. Although different aspects of drinking water suitability have been examined, the overall understanding of drinking water quality in Malaysia is poor.

OBJECTIVE

Hence, the present review aims to provide an understanding of drinking water (tap water, groundwater, gravity feed system) quality and its potential implications on policy, human health, and drinking water management law and identification of potential direction of future drinking water research and management needs in Malaysia.

METHODS

This study utilized a scoping review method. PRISMA Extension for Scoping Reviews was used for search strategy. Relevant studies were screened using the selected keywords and databases.

RESULTS

A total of 26 drinking water quality studies involving tap water, groundwater, and gravity feed systems have been selected for review. These studies found that the majority of Malaysian Drinking Water and WHO Drinking Water standards have been met. High levels of Cu, Cd, Fe and Pb were attributable to galvanized plumbing and pipe material corrosion. Variation of fluoride in tap water depends on dosage planning and operational processes of the public water supply. Pollutants (nitrate and ammonia) in groundwater and gravity feed system water have been linked to agricultural practices in rural areas. Microbiological quality in tap water is associated with growing biofilms inside the pipelines while in groundwater is caused by shallow surface events. However, only eight studies have reported about the human risks of chemical pollutants in tap water.

IMPACT STATEMENT

The review discusses the state of drinking water quality in Malaysia and its impact on public health. It suggests that policymakers can use this information to improve the quality of drinking water and enforce restrictions, while also raising public awareness about the importance of safe drinking water. The study can guide future research and initiatives in Malaysia, ultimately contributing to efforts to ensure access to clean and dependable drinking water.

RADON IN DRINKING WATER FROM ALTERNATIVE SOURCES OF WATER SUPPLY IN THE NORTH OF KOSOVO

In this study, the results of research on radon activity concentrations in natural mineral waters, traditionally used for drinking but also for other needs, in rural and urban households in northern Kosovo are presented. Radon activity concentration in water was measured by the alpha spectrometric method with a RAD7 device. Radon activity concentrations in the 24 waters studied ranged from 1.6 ± 0.5 to 46.3 ± 6.3 Bq l-1, with an average activity concentration of 12.4 ± 2.0 Bq l-1, which was somewhat higher than the EPA recommended maximum activity concentration, but below the WHO recommended maximum. The contribution of radon activity concentrations in water was determined in relation to the total radon activity in air and enclosed space. The estimated annual effective doses of inhalation and ingestion radon from water were 109.4 ± 16.7 and 2.6 ± 0.4 μSv y-1, respectively.

Assessment of radiation dose hazards caused by radon and its progenies in tap water by the human dosimetric model

Radon is readily soluble in water, and radon exposure caused by household water consumption may pose a threat to public health. In this study, the radon concentration in the tap water of residential buildings was measured, and the average value was 543.33 mBq L^-1, which was in line with the radon concentration limit recommended by USEPA (11.11 Bq L^-1) and EURATOM (100 Bq L^-1), and also within the range of the results of radon concentration measurements in tap water in other countries or regions. Through water bath heating at different temperatures, the radon retention curves of multiple groups of samples at different temperatures were fitted and analyzed. The results showed that the radon retention continued to decrease between 25 and 70 °C, remained stable between 70 and 85 °C, and then continued to decline slowly. Combined with the measurement results, the effective doses of α- and β-particles emitted by ²²²Rn and its progenies to residents respiratory and alimentary tissues and organs were calculated using the computational model provided by ICRP under two typical water scenarios of shower and drinking water, and the results show that radon exposure caused by normal water consumption will not pose a serious threat to public health.

Arsenic-contaminated groundwater and its potential health risk: A case study in Long An and Tien Giang provinces of the Mekong Delta, Vietnam

The occurrence of arsenic (As) in groundwater (drilled well water) that were used for drinking, cooking, and personal hygiene and its risks to human health in Long An and Tien Giang provinces (Mekong delta, Vietnam) were evaluated in this study. The average As concentrations were 15.92 ± 11.4 μg/L (n = 24, Long An) and 4.95 ± 4.7 μg/L (n = 24, Tien Giang). The average concentrations of As in Long An had not reached the WHO and QCVN 01: 2009/BYT healthy drinking water standard (10 μg/L). When used as a source of water for drinking and daily activities, arsenic-contaminated groundwater may have a direct impact on human health. The risk assessment from groundwater established by the US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) was conducted. The risk assessment showed that the average cancer risk (CR) values were 8.68 × 10^-4 (adults) and 2.39 × 10^-3 (children) for Long An, and 2.70 × 10^-4 (adults) and 7.43 × 10^-4 (children) for Tien Giang. These results were significantly higher than the CR (1 × 10^-4) proposed by the USEPA. The adverse health effect was therefore specifically warned by the use of arsenic-contaminated groundwater. This research offers valuable knowledge for efficient water management approaches to guarantee local communities' health protection.

GROUNDWATER AND DRINKING WATER RADON CONCENTRATIONS IN THE COASTAL AND INTERIOR AREAS OF CHENNAI METRO CITY AND ITS IMPACT ON PUBLIC HEALTH

One hundred forty-eight water samples were collected from in and around Chennai and 222Rn concentrations were measured using radon emanometry method. The average 222Rn concentration was estimated to be 6.88, 2.01, 1.17, 0.19 and 0.10 Bq L-1 for borewell water, openwell water, tank water, metro water and lake water, respectively, which were within the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA) Standard limit of 11.1 Bq L-1 and World Health Organization (WHO) global average 10 Bq L-1. The total effective dose obtained has varied from 0 to 157.57 μSv y-1 with ±10% standard deviation. The mean values were 19.608, 8.092, 4.692, 0.761 and 0.423 μSv y-1 for closed borewell, open well water, tank water, metro water and for lake water, respectively. All these values were below the reference point 0.1 mSv y-1 (100 μSv y-1) set by WHO.

Radon Levels of Water Sources in the Southwest Coastal Region of Peninsular Malaysia

Across populations, the dominating source of public exposure to radiation is radon gas. In the present study, we aimed at determining the concentration of radon in water sources from the southwest coastal region of Peninsular Malaysia. A total of 27 water samples were taken from various water sources which included groundwater, as well as hot spring, lake, river, seawater, and tap water; the radon concentrations were measured using a RAD7 portable radon detector. The radon concentrations ranged from 0.07 ± 0.12 to 187 ± 12 Bq l−1, with an average of 21 ± 12 Bq l−1. The highest concentration was found in hot spring water, with an average concentration of 99 ± 6 Bq l−1, while the lowest concentration was found in tap water, with an average concentration of 1.95 ± 0.61 Bq l−1. The average concentrations of radon for all categories of sampled water were below the 100 Bq l−1 WHO guidance level for safe drinking water. According to the ICRP effective dose conversion factor and UNSCEAR (2000), the total effective dose from the summation of inhaled and imbibed water was calculated from the aqueous radon concentrations, with an average effective dose of 4.45 µSv y−1, well within the WHO safe drinking water guideline value of 100 µSv per year. The results of this study could support the efforts of authorities and regulators who are responsible for controlling and strategizing to ensure public safety against radon exposures.

A STUDY ON THE RADIATION DOSE DUE TO DISSOLVED 222RN IN WATER SAMPLES OF MANDYA CITY, KARNATAKA, INDIA

Measurement of dissolved radon concentrations in the water samples collected from selected borewells (depth ~300 ft), wells (depth ~25 ft) and overhead tanks (height ~30 ft) of Mandya city, Karnataka, India, has been carried out by using Emanometry method. The radon concentrations in the waters of borewell, well and overhead tank ranges from 1.5 ± 0.1 to 102.8 ± 5.1, 1.3 ± 0.1 to 3.8 ± 0.4 and 2.5 ± 0.2 to 9.7 ± 1.1 Bq l-1 with the mean values of 16.8, 2.5 and 6.2 Bq l-1, respectively. Majority of borewell water samples showed higher concentrations of dissolved 222Rn compared to waters of well and overhead tank. The overall mean value of dissolved radon concentration of 12.2 Bq l-1 is found to be close to the maximum contaminant level of 11 Bq l-1 suggested by US Environment Protection Agency. The physicochemical parameters like pH, TDS and conductivity were also measured, and dependence of dissolved 222Rn on these parameters has been studied. Using the mean value of dissolved radon concentration, a new attempt has been made to compute the doses imparted to different organs and tissues of the human body. Dosimetric calculations showed that stomach and small intestine receive greater doses due to dissolved radon compared to other organs.

Water Quality Assessment and Evaluation of Human Health Risk in Mutangwi River, Limpopo Province, South Africa

Freshwater supply is essential to life on Earth; however, land use activities such as mining and agriculture pose a significant danger to freshwater resources and the wellbeing of aquatic environments. This study temporarily assesses the water quality characteristics of Mutangwi River. Physicochemical parameters (pH, temperature, total dissolved solids (TDS), salinity, electrical conductivity (EC), and turbidity) were determined in situ using an Extech multimeter and turbidity meter. The concentration of the selected metals (Mg, Cr, Fe, Cd, Mn, Pb, Ca, and Na) were analysed using an Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer. Membrane filtration method was used to analyse microbiological parameters (Escherichia coli and Enterococci). The physicochemical water quality parameters as well as basic anions (fluoride, phosphate, sulfate, nitrate, and chloride) determined complied with the regulatory guideline of the World Health Organization (WHO) and the South Africa National Standards (SANS). Some of the trace metals (Mn, Ca, Fe, and Mg) were found below the guideline values, while others (Pb and Cd) exceeded the threshold limit. The counts for E. coli (814.5-2169 cfu/100 mL) and Enterococci (333-9396 cfu/100 mL) in the study did not comply with the regulatory guidelines. The water quality status using the water quality index (WQI) indicated that on the average, the water quality from Mutangwi River is poor (WQI > 100). The hazard quotient through ingestion exposure did not exceed the threshold limit of 1, for adults and children. This implies that there is no potential non-carcinogenic health risk from trace elements via ingestion of drinking water for children and adults. However, cancer risk for adults and children was computed in relation to Cd and Pb levels and exceeded the threshold limit 10^-4, indicating a possible carcinogenic risk. Water from the river should be adequately treated prior to domestic and agricultural use.

Environmental Risk Assessment and Regulatory Rating of Water Sources along the Yangtze River’s Nanjing Section under the Influence of Multiple Risk Sources

To complement the current studies of risk assessment on water sources which seldom consider the distribution effects of multiple risk sources concentration, and improve the efficiency of water source supervision, this study establishes a method system for risk assessment of water sources and regulatory rating evaluation under the distribution effects of multiple risk sources concentration. The method system includes: (1) utilizing the single-risk source impact index to characterize the risk impact degree of the single-risk source on the water source, the index calculation method of single-risk source impact considers the risk degree and the distribution location of risk source; (2) using the multiple risk sources impact index to characterize the risk impact degree of the multiple risk sources on the water source, the index calculation method of multiple risk sources considers the impact index of single-risk source, the number of risk sources, and the distribution concentration of multiple risk sources; (3) the environmental risk assessment and regulatory rating evaluation method consider multiple risk sources impact index, anti-risk ability of water source, and the importance of water source. This method system has been applied to the environmental risk assessment and regulatory rating of eight water sources along the Nanjing Yangtze River, with excellent achievements. As the results reveal, eight water sources suffer 437 risk impacts from 175 risk sources, 69.04% of which are low-risk impacts and 13 are high-risk impacts. Longtan water source suffers the most risk impacts of 86, among which eight are high-risk impacts. The impacts of multiply-risk sources on the eight water sources are high-risk impacts. The impact index of multiple risk sources increases from the upstream water sources to the downstream water sources, reaching the maximum value of 5.267 at the most downstream Longtan water source. Though the environmental risk and supervision rating of Longtan water source is high, those of other water sources are rated as medium.

Active pharmaceutical ingredients in Malaysian drinking water: consumption, exposure, and human health risk

Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) are typical endocrine disruptors found in common pharmaceuticals and personal care products, which are frequently detected in aquatic environments, especially surface water treated for drinking. However, current treatment technologies are inefficient for removing emerging endocrine disruptors, leading to the potential contamination of tap water. This study employed an optimized analytical method comprising solid-phase extraction and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (SPE-LC-MS/MS) to detect APIs in tap water in Putrajaya, Malaysia. Several therapeutic classes of pharmaceuticals and personal care products, including anti-inflammatory drugs (dexamethasone and diclofenac), antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole and triclosan), antiepileptics (primidone), antibacterial agents (ciprofloxacin), beta-blockers (propranolol), psychoactive stimulants (caffeine), and antiparasitic drugs (diazinon), were detected in the range of < 0.03 to 21.39 ng/L, whereas chloramphenicol (an antibiotic) was below the detection limit (< 0.23 ng/L). A comparison with global data revealed the spatial variability of emerging tap water pollutants. Diclofenac accounted for the highest concentration (21.39 ng/L), followed by triclosan and ciprofloxacin (9.74 ng/L and 8.69 ng/L, respectively). Caffeine was observed in all field samples with the highest distribution at 35.32%. Caffeine and triclosan exhibited significantly different distributions in household tap water (p < 0.05). Humans are exposed to these APIs by drinking the tap water; however, the estimated risk was negligible (risk quotient < 1). APIs are useful water quality monitoring indicators for water resource conservation and water supply safety related to emerging organic contaminants; thus, API detection is important for safeguarding the environment and human health.

Evaluation of Drinking Water Quality in Schools in a District Area in Hanoi, Vietnam

BACKGROUND

Drinking water quality affects directly human health. Assessment and prevention of water-borne diseases are crucial for primary prevention, especially for children.

OBJECTIVE

The main aim of this study was to investigate the quality of drinking water from tap water in preschools and primary schools in a district area in Hanoi City, Vietnam.

METHODS

A cross-sectional study was performed from August to October 2019. Water samples from tap water of 154 schools in a district area of Hanoi were collected to determine the quality of drinking water. From each school, at least 2 bottles of water samples were collected on the basis of a standard operating procedure (SOP). Each water sample was analyzed for microbial and physicochemical parameters, including Color, Taste and Odor, Turbidity, pH, Nitrite, Nitrate, Ammonium, Total Iron, Permanganate, Chloride, Hardness, Total Manganese, Sulfate, Arsenic, Coliform, and E.coli, by analytical methods. The obtained values of each parameter were compared with the standard values set by WHO and National Technical Regulation on Domestic Water Quality of Vietnam.

RESULTS

All of the schools employed community water system as a main source for drinking water. The results showed that all tested samples were found to be within the standards for some physicochemical properties, including Color, Taste and Odor, Hardness, Chloride, Total Iron (Fe²⁺ và Fe³⁺), Total Manganese (Mn), Nitrate (NO₃ ^-), Sulfate (SO₄ ^2-), and Total Arsenic (As). On the other hand, some samples did not meet the allowable limits of the national standard, due to pH (3.9%), Turbidity (0.6%), Nitrite (3.2%), Permanganate (6.5%), and Ammonium (5.8%). Furthermore, the microbial data revealed that the substandard water samples from municipal water systems were contaminated by Coliform (9.7%) and/or E.coli (7.8%).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Contaminants such as bacterial and chemical agents in to drinking water could be occurred during transport, storage and handling before using by the consumer without regular surveillance. A periodic treatment procedure and monitoring system to keep the level of microbial and chemical contamination of drinking water in schools under control should be performed.

Chromium, Cadmium, Lead, and Arsenic Concentrations in Water, Vegetables, and Seafood Consumed in a Coastal Area in Northern Vietnam

BACKGROUND

Heavy metal contamination and related risks for the environment and human health are matters of increasing concern.

METHODS

The levels of 4 heavy metals (Cr, Cd, Pb, and As) were evaluated in 2 water types (surface and well), 4 types of seafood (tiger shrimp, stuffed snail, snake-head fish, and catfish), and 27 types of vegetables (12 leafy vegetables, 4 pea plants, 4 tuber vegetables, and 7 herbs) that are commonly consumed in northern coastal communes located in Vietnam. Atomic absorption spectrometry was employed for quantification.

RESULTS

The mean concentrations of heavy metals detected in water, seafood, and vegetable samples exceeded the national permitted standards and World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation values by at least 2-fold, 2.5-fold, and 5-fold for surface water, vegetables, and well water, respectively. The concentrations of all 4 heavy metals detected in seafood samples were higher than the standards. The levels of heavy metals decreased with increasing distance between the sample collection point and the pollution source.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of heavy metal contamination of common sources of food and water in the northern coastal area of Vietnam. Significantly, the concentrations of heavy metals detected in study samples exceeded the regulatory limits. These results underscore the importance of continued monitoring and the development of intervention measures to ensure that the quality of food and water meets established standards and protects the health of the local population.

Risk assessment of radon in drinking water in Khetri Copper Belt of Rajasthan, India

Exceptionally high concentrations of radon have been found in drinking water originating from hand pumps in Khetri Copper Belt of Rajasthan. Radon concentration was determined using Durridge RAD7 professional electronic radon detector. The measured radon concentration ranged from 12.5 ± 1.5 to 862 ± 38 Bq l^-1. About 35% of the drinking water samples showed radon concentrations above the European Union's parametric value of 100 Bq l^-1. The high radon concentration obtained in groundwater is due to local natural geology. The total annual effective doses due to ingestion and inhalation of radon in drinking water varied from 0.10 to 6.7 mSv y^-1 for infants, 0.06-3.8 mSv y^-1 for children and 0.06-4.4 mSv y^-1 for adults.

Assessment of radioactivity from groundwater samples from selected areas of Western Black Sea Region, Turkey

In this study, radon concentration measurements and chemical analyses of groundwater samples were performed in four sampling locations of Bartın Province of Western Black Sea Region, Turkey. 222Rn analysis was carried out in groundwater samples with liquid scintillation counting system in accordance with ASTM D5072 standard. The pH, total hardness, alkalinity and dissolved oxygen parameters of the groundwater samples were also determined. The radon concentrations for the water samples ranged between <3.00 Bq/L–12.03 Bq/L. Thirty eight percentage of the samples slightly exceeded the permissible limit of 11.1 Bq/L specified by USEPA for drinking waters. The annual effective doses of groundwater samples were calculated in the range of 7.41–30.74 μSv/y for ingestion of water (E w.Ig ), and in the range of 7.31–30.31 μSv/y for inhalation of radon released from water (Ew.Ih ). The total calculated annual effective doses due to ingestion and inhalation were found to be below the limit value of 100 μSv/y specified by the World Health Organization (WHO). The radioactivity measurement results significantly varied for three sampling points but not for one sampling point on two different measurement dates, which is attributed to the differences in geological structure. The chemical analysis results, except for total hardness in two sampling points, were within the permissible limits specified by international standards.

EVALUATION OF RADON CONCENTRATION IN IRRIGATION AND DRINKING WATERS FROM THE EASTERN PART OF OMAN AND ESTIMATION OF EFFECTIVE DOSES TO OMANIS

The present study concerns measurement of the radon concentration in drinking and irrigation waters obtained from the eastern part of Oman, in particular in regard to water quality assessment of the region. The samples were collected from different places covering most types of water sources in the region. A passive and time-integrated track etch detector (LR-115 type II) combined with a high-resolution optical microscope has been used to obtain the radon concentration in the studied samples. Values of dissolved radon in water varied among the water sources; the highest concentration of radon was found to be 363 Bq m-3 in a drinking water sample while well water used for irrigation showed the lowest value, at 140 Bq m-3. Measured data for all water sources are below the permissible limit of 11.1 kBq m-3 recommended by the US-EPA. Annual effective doses for the studied samples were in the range 0.38-0.99 μSv y-1 which is significantly less than the action level recommended by the WHO (0.1 mSv y-1), indicating that the water sources in the Jalan BBH region of Oman are safe to use. The obtained data may serve as a reference for any future radiological study of the waterbody of this region.

Health risk assessments of arsenic and toxic heavy metal exposure in drinking water in northeast Iran

BACKGROUND

Arsenic and heavy metals are the main cause of water pollution and impact human health worldwide. Therefore, this study aims to assess the probable health risk (non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risk) for adults and children that are exposed to arsenic and toxic heavy metals (Pb, Ni, Cr, and Hg) through ingestion and dermal contact with drinking water.

METHOD

In this study, chemical analysis and testing were conducted on 140 water samples taken from treated drinking water in Mashhad, Iran. The health risk assessments were evaluated using hazard quotient (HQ), hazard index (HI), and lifetime cancer risk (CR).

RESULTS

The results of the HQ values of arsenic and heavy metals for combined pathways were below the safety level (HQ < 1) for adults, while the HI for children were higher than the safety limit in some stations. Likewise, Cr showed the highest average contribution of HItotal elements (55 to 71.2%) for adult and children population. The average values of total carcinogenic risk (TCR) through exposure to drinking water for children and adults were 1.33 × 10-4 and 7.38 × 10-5, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Overall, the CRtotal through exposure to drinking water for children and adults was borderline or higher than the safety level of US EPA risk, suggesting the probability of carcinogenic risk for the children and adults to the carcinogenic elements via ingestion and dermal routes. Therefore, appropriate purification improvement programs and control measures should be implemented to protect the health of the residents in this metropolitan city.

Age-dependent ingestion and inhalation doses due to intake of uranium and radon in water samples of Shiwalik Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir, India

The research work involved the ingestion and inhalation doses due to the intake of radon and uranium through water samples used by the inhabitants, measured in the villages of the Shiwalik Himalayas of Jammu and Kashmir, India. The uranium concentration in collected water samples was assessed by LED fluorimetric technique. All values of doses were found to be below the proposed limit of 100 μSv year^-1 for all age categories except for infants due to the high-dose conversion factor. The annual effective doses for the various body organs due to the intake of radon was also calculated and found the maximum dose for lungs than other organs. The concentration of radon in water samples was assessed by Smart Rn Duo portable monitor and compared with RAD7. Statistical analysis was carried out and the Shapiro and Wilk (Biometrika, 52(3/4), 591-611, 1965) test has been also used for the distribution of the data. The physicochemical parameters were also measured in the collected water samples.

Comparative Study of Radon Concentration with Two Techniques and Elemental Analysis in Drinking Water Samples of the Jammu District, Jammu and Kashmir, India

The level of radon concentration has been assessed using the Advanced SMART RnDuo technique in 30 drinking water samples from Jammu district, Jammu and Kashmir, India. The water samples were collected from wells, hand pumps, submersible pumps, and stored waters. The randomly obtained 14 values of radon concentration in water sources using the SMART RnDuo technique have been compared and cross checked by a RAD7 device. A good positive correlation (R = 0.88) has been observed between the two techniques. The overall value of radon concentration in various water sources has ranged from 2.45 to 18.43 Bq L, with a mean value of 8.24 ± 4.04 Bq L, and it agreed well with the recommended limit suggested by the European Commission and UNSCEAR. However, the higher activity of mean radon concentration was found in groundwater drawn from well, hand and submersible pumps as compared to stored water. The total annual effective dose due to radon inhalation and ingestion ranged from 6.69 to 50.31 μSv y with a mean value of 22.48 ± 11.03 μSv y. The total annual effective dose was found to lie within the safe limit (100 μSv y) suggested by WHO. Heavy metal analysis was also carried out in various water sources by using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (AAS), and the highest value of heavy metals was found mostly in groundwater samples. The obtained results were compared with Indian and International organizations like WHO and the EU Council. Among all the samples, the elemental analysis is not on the exceeding side of the permissible limit.

Radon in harvested rainwater at the household level, Palestine

The main objective of this study was to assess Radon concentration in the harvested rainwater (HRW) at the household level in Yatta area, Palestine. HRW is mainly used for drinking as it is the major source of water for domestic uses due to water scarcity. Ninety HRW samples from the household cisterns were collected from six localities (a town and five villages) and Radon concentrations were measured. The samples were randomly collected from different households to represent the Yatta area. Fifteen samples were collected from each locality at the same day. RAD7 device was used for analysis and each sample was measured in duplicate. Radon concentrations ranged from 0.037 to 0.26 Bq/L with a mean ± standard deviation of 0.14 ± 0.06 Bq/L. The estimated annual effective radiation doses for babies, children and adults were all far below the maximum limit of 5 mSvy^-1 set by the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements.