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Arulanandu AM, Kalimuthu V, Manimegalai SC, Venkatesan R, Krishnamoorthy SP, Abdulkader AM, Balamuthu K. Association of Atrazine-Induced Overexpression of Aldo-Keto-Reductase 1C2 (AKR1C2) with Hypoandrogenism and Infertility: An Experimental Study in Male Wistar Rat. Reprod Sci 2024:10.1007/s43032-024-01627-3. [PMID: 38943029 DOI: 10.1007/s43032-024-01627-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024]
Abstract
Atrazine (ATZ, C8H14ClN5) is a widely used synthetic herbicide that contaminates drinking water. It is a known endocrine disruptor that disrupts various molecular pathways involved in hormone signaling, and DNA damage, and can cause reproductive disorders, including decreased fertility, and abnormal development of reproductive organs, as revealed in animal model studies. However, the effect of ATZ on steroidogenesis in the male reproductive system, especially reduction of ketosteroids to hydroxysteroids, remains unclear. This study investigated the toxicity of ATZ on the male reproductive system in the Wistar rat model, with an emphasis on its adverse effect on aldo-ketoreductase family 1 member C2 (AKR1C2). Male Wistar rats were administered ATZ for 56 days (duration of one spermatogenic cycle) through oral route, at 20, 40 and 60 mg/kg body weight (bw) doses. The results indicate that ATZ exposure affects the body weight, impairs sperm production, and decrease FSH, LH, and testosterone levels. Additionally, the down-regulation of key steroidogenic enzymes by ATZ disrupted the synthesis of testosterone, leading to decreased levels of this essential male hormone. On the other hand, the expression of AKR1C2 (mRNA and protein) in the testis was upregulated. The findings suggest that AKR1C2 plays a role in androgen metabolism. Furthermore, its overexpression may lead to alteration in the expression of genes in the connected pathway, causing an increase in the breakdown or inactivation of androgens, which would result in lower androgen levels and, thereby, lead to hypoandrogenism, as the combined effects of down-regulation of steroidogenic genes and up-regulation of AKR1C2. These findings reveal direct implication of disrupted AKR1C2 in male reproductive health and highlight the need for further research on the impact of environmental toxins on human fertility, ultimately providing for better patient care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angel Mary Arulanandu
- Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620024, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Vignesh Kalimuthu
- Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620024, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Ramya Venkatesan
- Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620024, Tamil Nadu, India
| | | | - Akbarsha Mohammad Abdulkader
- Research Coordinator & Department of Biotechnology, Bioinformatics and Microbiology, National College (Autonomous), Tiruchirappalli, 620001, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Kadalmani Balamuthu
- Department of Animal Science, Bharathidasan University, Tiruchirappalli, 620024, Tamil Nadu, India.
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Vazakidou P, Evangelista S, Li T, Lecante LL, Rosenberg K, Koekkoek J, Salumets A, Velthut-Meikas A, Damdimopoulou P, Mazaud-Guittot S, Fowler PA, Leonards PEG, van Duursen MBM. The profile of steroid hormones in human fetal and adult ovaries. Reprod Biol Endocrinol 2024; 22:60. [PMID: 38778396 PMCID: PMC11110185 DOI: 10.1186/s12958-024-01233-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Reproduction in women is at risk due to exposure to chemicals that can disrupt the endocrine system during different windows of sensitivity throughout life. Steroid hormone levels are fundamental for the normal development and function of the human reproductive system, including the ovary. This study aims to elucidate steroidogenesis at different life-stages in human ovaries. METHODS We have developed a sensitive and specific LC-MS/MS method for 21 important steroid hormones and measured them at different life stages: in media from cultures of human fetal ovaries collected from elective terminations of normally progressing pregnancy and in media from adult ovaries from Caesarean section patients, and follicular fluid from women undergoing infertility treatment. Statistically significant differences in steroid hormone levels and their ratios were calculated with parametric tests. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied to explore clustering of the ovarian-derived steroidogenic profiles. RESULTS Comparison of the 21 steroid hormones revealed clear differences between the various ovarian-derived steroid profiles. Interestingly, we found biosynthesis of both canonical and "backdoor" pathway steroid hormones and corticosteroids in first and second trimester fetal and adult ovarian tissue cultures. 17α-estradiol, a less potent naturally occurring isomer of 17β-estradiol, was detected only in follicular fluid. PCA of the ovarian-derived profiles revealed clusters from: adult ovarian tissue cultures with relatively high levels of androgens; first trimester and second trimester fetal ovarian tissue cultures with relatively low estrogen levels; follicular fluid with the lowest androgens, but highest corticosteroid, progestogen and estradiol levels. Furthermore, ratios of specific steroid hormones showed higher estradiol/ testosterone and estrone/androstenedione (indicating higher CYP19A1 activity, p < 0.01) and higher 17-hydroxyprogesterone/progesterone and dehydroepiandrosterone /androstenedione (indicating higher CYP17A1 activity, p < 0.01) in fetal compared to adult ovarian tissue cultures. CONCLUSIONS Human ovaries demonstrate de novo synthesis of non-canonical and "backdoor" pathway steroid hormones and corticosteroids. Elucidating the steroid profiles in human ovaries improves our understanding of physiological, life-stage dependent, steroidogenic capacity of ovaries and will inform mechanistic studies to identify endocrine disrupting chemicals that affect female reproduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paraskevi Vazakidou
- Section Environment and Health, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands.
| | - Sara Evangelista
- Section Environment and Health, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Tianyi Li
- Department of Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, SE-14186, Sweden
- Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, SE-14186, Sweden
| | - Laetitia L Lecante
- Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences & Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Kristine Rosenberg
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia
- Nova Vita Clinic, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Jacco Koekkoek
- Section Environment and Health, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Andres Salumets
- Department of Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, SE-14186, Sweden
- Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, SE-14186, Sweden
- Competence Center on Health Technologies, Tartu, Estonia
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Agne Velthut-Meikas
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology, Tallinn University of Technology, Tallinn, Estonia
| | - Pauliina Damdimopoulou
- Department of Gynecology and Reproductive Medicine, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, SE-14186, Sweden
- Division of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, SE-14186, Sweden
| | - Séverine Mazaud-Guittot
- Univ Rennes, EHESP, Irset (Institut de recherche en santé, environnement et travail) - UMR_S 1085, Inserm, Rennes, F-35000, France
| | - Paul A Fowler
- Institute of Medical Sciences, School of Medicine, Medical Sciences & Nutrition, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen, AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - Pim E G Leonards
- Section Environment and Health, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Majorie B M van Duursen
- Section Environment and Health, Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, De Boelelaan 1085, Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
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Augsburger P, Liimatta J, Flück CE. Update on Adrenarche-Still a Mystery. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2024; 109:1403-1422. [PMID: 38181424 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgae008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 12/29/2023] [Accepted: 01/04/2024] [Indexed: 01/07/2024]
Abstract
CONTEXT Adrenarche marks the timepoint of human adrenal development when the cortex starts secreting androgens in increasing amounts, in healthy children at age 8-9 years, with premature adrenarche (PA) earlier. Because the molecular regulation and significance of adrenarche are unknown, this prepubertal event is characterized descriptively, and PA is a diagnosis by exclusion with unclear long-term consequences. EVIDENCE ACQUISITION We searched the literature of the past 5 years, including original articles, reviews, and meta-analyses from PubMed, ScienceDirect, Web of Science, Embase, and Scopus, using search terms adrenarche, pubarche, DHEAS, steroidogenesis, adrenal, and zona reticularis. EVIDENCE SYNTHESIS Numerous studies addressed different topics of adrenarche and PA. Although basic studies on human adrenal development, zonation, and zona reticularis function enhanced our knowledge, the exact mechanism leading to adrenarche remains unsolved. Many regulators seem involved. A promising marker of adrenarche (11-ketotestosterone) was found in the 11-oxy androgen pathway. By current definition, the prevalence of PA can be as high as 9% to 23% in girls and 2% to 10% in boys, but only a subset of these children might face related adverse health outcomes. CONCLUSION New criteria for defining adrenarche and PA are needed to identify children at risk for later disease and to spare children with a normal variation. Further research is therefore required to understand adrenarche. Prospective, long-term studies should characterize prenatal or early postnatal developmental pathways that modulate trajectories of birth size, early postnatal growth, childhood overweight/obesity, adrenarche and puberty onset, and lead to abnormal sexual maturation, fertility, and other adverse outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Augsburger
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology, and Metabolism, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
- Department of BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, 3008 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Jani Liimatta
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology, and Metabolism, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
- Department of BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, 3008 Bern, Switzerland
- Kuopio Pediatric Research Unit (KuPRU), University of Eastern Finland and Kuopio University Hospital, 70029 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology, and Metabolism, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
- Department of BioMedical Research (DBMR), University of Bern, 3008 Bern, Switzerland
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Jiang K, Jorgensen JS. Fetal Leydig cells: What we know and what we don't. Mol Reprod Dev 2024; 91:e23739. [PMID: 38480999 PMCID: PMC11135463 DOI: 10.1002/mrd.23739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/24/2024] [Indexed: 05/24/2024]
Abstract
During male fetal development, testosterone plays an essential role in the differentiation and maturation of the male reproductive system. Deficient fetal testosterone production can result in variations of sex differentiation that may cause infertility and even increased tumor incidence later in life. Fetal Leydig cells in the fetal testis are the major androgen source in mammals. Although fetal and adult Leydig cells are similar in their functions, they are two distinct cell types, and therefore, the knowledge of adult Leydig cells cannot be directly applied to understanding fetal Leydig cells. This review summarizes our current knowledge of fetal Leydig cells regarding their cell biology, developmental biology, and androgen production regulation in rodents and human. Fetal Leydig cells are present in basement membrane-enclosed clusters in between testis cords. They originate from the mesonephros mesenchyme and the coelomic epithelium and start to differentiate upon receiving a Desert Hedgehog signal from Sertoli cells or being released from a NOTCH signal from endothelial cells. Mature fetal Leydig cells produce androgens. Human fetal Leydig cell steroidogenesis is LHCGR (Luteinizing Hormone Chronic Gonadotropin Receptor) dependent, while rodents are not, although other Gαs -protein coupled receptors might be involved in rodent steroidogenesis regulation. Fetal steroidogenesis ceases after sex differentiation is completed, and some fetal Leydig cells dedifferentiate to serve as stem cells for adult testicular cell types. Significant gaps are acknowledged: (1) Why are adult and fetal Leydig cells different? (2) What are bona fide progenitor and fetal Leydig cell markers? (3) Which signaling pathways and transcription factors regulate fetal Leydig cell steroidogenesis? It is critical to discover answers to these questions so that we can understand vulnerable targets in fetal Leydig cells and the mechanisms for androgen production that when disrupted, leads to variations in sex differentiation that range from subtle to complete sex reversal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keer Jiang
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Graduate Program, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Joan S. Jorgensen
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin, USA
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5
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Association between prenatal androgens and cord blood androgens, a path analysis. Sci Rep 2023; 13:380. [PMID: 36611054 PMCID: PMC9825367 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25531-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 11/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
To determine association paths between prenatal androgens and cord blood androgens. The concentrations of T, FT, DHT, DHEA and SHBG in prenatal venous blood and cord blood were measured in 342 pregnant women and their neonates. The association paths between these hormones in prenatal and cord blood were revealed using Pearson correlation, multiple linear regression and path analysis. CB-T, CB-FT and CB-DHT in male neonates were higher than those in female neonates. In male and female neonates, P-FT was lower than CB-FT; however, P-DHT and P-SHBG were higher than CB-DHT and CB-SHBG, respectively. P-DHEA was lower than CB-DHEA in female newborns. In male neonates, there were association paths of P-T → CB-T → CB-FT → CB-DHT, P-T → CB-FT → CB-DHT, P-T → P-FT → CB-FT → CB-DHT, P-T → P-DHT, CB-DHEA → CB-DHT, CB-DHEA → P-DHT, and CB-DHEA → P-DHEA. In female neonates, there were association paths of P-T → CB-T → CB-FT → CB-DHT, P-T → P-FT → CB-FT → CB-DHT, P-T → P-FT → P-DHT, P-T → P-DHT, P-DHEA → P-DHT, CB-DHEA → P-DHEA, and CB-DHEA → CB-FT. There were differences in the T, FT and DHT concentrations in cord blood between male and female neonates and in the FT, DHT, DHEA, and SHBG concentrations between prenatal and cord blood. P-T and P-FT concentrations were positively associated with CB-T and CB-FT concentrations, while CB-DHEA concentration was positively associated with P-DHEA concentration.
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6
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Lawrence BM, O’Donnell L, Smith LB, Rebourcet D. New Insights into Testosterone Biosynthesis: Novel Observations from HSD17B3 Deficient Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232415555. [PMID: 36555196 PMCID: PMC9779265 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232415555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/02/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgens such as testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) are essential for male sexual development, masculinisation, and fertility. Testosterone is produced via the canonical androgen production pathway and is essential for normal masculinisation and testis function. Disruption to androgen production can result in disorders of sexual development (DSD). In the canonical pathway, 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 3 (HSD17B3) is viewed as a critical enzyme in the production of testosterone, performing the final conversion required. HSD17B3 deficiency in humans is associated with DSD due to low testosterone concentration during development. Individuals with HSD17B3 mutations have poorly masculinised external genitalia that can appear as ambiguous or female, whilst having internal Wolffian structures and testes. Recent studies in mice deficient in HSD17B3 have made the surprising finding that testosterone production is maintained, male mice are masculinised and remain fertile, suggesting differences between mice and human testosterone production exist. We discuss the phenotypic differences observed and the possible other pathways and enzymes that could be contributing to testosterone production and male development. The identification of alternative testosterone synthesising enzymes could inform the development of novel therapies to endogenously regulate testosterone production in individuals with testosterone deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ben M. Lawrence
- College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
- Correspondence: (B.M.L.); (D.R.)
| | - Liza O’Donnell
- College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
| | - Lee B. Smith
- College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
- Office for Research, Griffith University, Southport, QLD 4222, Australia
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, The Queen’s Medical Research Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Diane Rebourcet
- College of Engineering, Science and Environment, The University of Newcastle, Callaghan, NSW 2308, Australia
- Correspondence: (B.M.L.); (D.R.)
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7
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Jeong HR. Commentary on "Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development". Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2022; 27:81-82. [PMID: 35793997 PMCID: PMC9260375 DOI: 10.6065/apem.2222057edi01] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Hwal Rim Jeong
- Department of Pediatrics, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Soonchunhyang University School of Medicine, Cheonan, Korea,Address for correspondence: Hwal Rim Jeong Department of Pediatrics, Soonchunhyang University Cheonan Hospital, Soonchunhyang University School of Medicine, 31 Suncheonhyang 6-gil, Dongnam-gu, Cheonan 31151, Korea
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8
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Lee HG, Kim CJ. Classic and backdoor pathways of androgen biosynthesis in human sexual development. Ann Pediatr Endocrinol Metab 2022; 27:83-89. [PMID: 35793998 PMCID: PMC9260366 DOI: 10.6065/apem.2244124.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Both genes and hormones regulate human sexual development. Although ovarian hormones are not essential for female external genitalia development, male sexual development requires the action of testicular testosterone and dihydrotestosterone (DHT). DHT is the most active endogenous androgen formed by the conversion of testosterone in genital skin. This synthesis route from cholesterol to DHT is called the conventional classic pathway. Recent investigations have reported an alternative ("backdoor") route for DHT formation that bypasses fetal testicular testosterone. This alternative route plays a crucial role in human hyperandrogenic disorders like congenital adrenal hyperplasia caused by P450c21 deficiency, polycystic ovary syndrome, and P450 oxidoreductase deficiency. In addition, mutations in AKR1C2 and AKR1C4, genes encoding 3α-reductases, have been implicated in disorders of sexual development, indicating that both the classic and backdoor routes are required for normal human male sexual development. More recently, androsterone was found to be the primary androgen of the human backdoor route. Androsterone and steroidal substrates specific to the backdoor route are predominantly found in the placenta, liver, and adrenal glands rather than in the testes. These findings are essential to understanding human sexual development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyun Gyung Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Medical School & Children’s Hospital, Gwangju, Korea
| | - Chan Jong Kim
- Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Medical School & Children’s Hospital, Gwangju, Korea,Address for correspondence: Chan Jong Kim Department of Pediatrics, Chonnam National University Medical School & Children’s Hospital, 42 Jebong-ro, Dong-gu, Gwangju 61469, Korea
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9
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Boettcher C, Flück CE. Rare forms of genetic steroidogenic defects affecting the gonads and adrenals. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab 2022; 36:101593. [PMID: 34711511 DOI: 10.1016/j.beem.2021.101593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Pathogenic variants have been found in all genes involved in the classic pathways of human adrenal and gonadal steroidogenesis. Depending on their function and severity, they cause characteristic disorders of corticosteroid and/or sex hormone deficiency, may result in atypical sex development at birth and/or puberty, and mostly lead to sexual dysfunction and infertility. Genetic disorders of steroidogenesis are all inherited in an autosomal recessive fashion. Loss of function mutations lead to typical phenotypes, while variants with partial activity may manifest with milder, non-classic, late-onset disorders that share similar phenotypes. Thus, these disorders of steroidogenesis are diagnosed by comprehensive phenotyping, steroid profiling and genetic testing using next generation sequencing techniques. Treatment comprises of steroid replacement therapies, but these are insufficient in many aspects. Therefore, studies are currently ongoing towards newer approaches such as lentiviral transmitted enzyme replacement therapy and reprogrammed stem cell-based gene therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claudia Boettcher
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christa E Flück
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Switzerland.
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Podgórski R, Sumińska M, Rachel M, Fichna M, Fichna P, Mazur A. Alteration in glucocorticoids secretion and metabolism in patients affected by cystic fibrosis. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:1074209. [PMID: 36568105 PMCID: PMC9779927 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.1074209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Cystic fibrosis (CF) is an inherited syndrome associated with a mutation in a cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator gene, composed of exocrine gland dysfunction involving multiple systems that may result in chronic respiratory infections, pancreatic enzyme deficiency, and developmental disorders. Our study describes for the first time the urinary profile of glucocorticoid metabolites and the activity of the enzymes involved in the development and metabolism of cortisol in patients with CF, using a gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method. Data were obtained from 25 affected patients and 70 sex- and age- matched healthy volunteers. We have shown a general decrease in the activity of enzymes involved in the peripheral metabolism of cortisol, such as 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, 5α- and 5β-reductases. In contrast, the activity of 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1, the enzyme that converts cortisone to cortisol, increased. Furthermore, our study found a significant decrease in glucocorticoid excretion in patients with CF. This may suggest adrenal insufficiency or dysregulation of the HPA axis and the development of peripheral mechanisms to counteract cortisol degradation in the case of reduced synthesis of glucocorticoids by the adrenal glands. Furthermore, the activity of 5α-reductase seems to be enhanced only through the backdoor pathway, especially when we taking into consideration 11β-hydroxyandrosterone/11β-hydroxyetiocholanolone ratio which has been shown to be the best differential marker for enzyme activity. CF impairs nutritional effects and energetic balance in patients; thus, our findings suggest the existence of adaptive mechanisms due to limited secretion of adrenal steroids and subsequent diminished amounts of their metabolites in urine. On the other hand, local control of cortisol availability is maintained by enhanced 11βHSD1 activity and its recovery from cortisone in organs and tissues which need this. Steroid hormone dysregulation might be another important factor in the course of CF that should be taken into account when planning an effective and comprehensive therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafał Podgórski
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Medical Sciences, Medical College of Rzeszow University, Rzeszow, Poland
- *Correspondence: Rafał Podgórski,
| | - Marta Sumińska
- Department of Pediatric Diabetes, Auxology and Obesity, Institute of Pediatrics, Poznan, University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
| | - Marta Rachel
- Department of Pediatrics, Institute of Medical Sciences, Medical College of Rzeszow University, Rzeszow, Poland
| | - Marta Fichna
- Department of Endocrinology, Metabolism and Internal Medicine, Poznan University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
| | - Piotr Fichna
- Department of Pediatric Diabetes, Auxology and Obesity, Institute of Pediatrics, Poznan, University of Medical Sciences, Poznan, Poland
| | - Artur Mazur
- Department of Pediatrics, Institute of Medical Sciences, Medical College of Rzeszow University, Rzeszow, Poland
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Connan-Perrot S, Léger T, Lelandais P, Desdoits-Lethimonier C, David A, Fowler PA, Mazaud-Guittot S. Six Decades of Research on Human Fetal Gonadal Steroids. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22136681. [PMID: 34206462 PMCID: PMC8268622 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22136681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 06/14/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human fetal gonads acquire endocrine steroidogenic capabilities early during their differentiation. Genetic studies show that this endocrine function plays a central role in the sexually dimorphic development of the external genitalia during fetal development. When this endocrine function is dysregulated, congenital malformations and pathologies are the result. In this review, we explain how the current knowledge of steroidogenesis in human fetal gonads has benefited from both the technological advances in steroid measurements and the assembly of detailed knowledge of steroidogenesis machinery and its expression in human fetal gonads. We summarise how the conversion of radiolabelled steroid precursors, antibody-based assays, mass spectrometry, ultrastructural studies, and the in situ labelling of proteins and mRNA have all provided complementary information. In this review, our discussion goes beyond the debate on recommendations concerning the best choice between the different available technologies, and their degrees of reproducibility and sensitivity. The available technologies and techniques can be used for different purposes and, as long as all quality controls are rigorously employed, the question is how to maximise the generation of robust, reproducible data on steroid hormones and their crucial roles in human fetal development and subsequent functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stéphane Connan-Perrot
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de Recherche en Santé, Environnement et Travail), UMR_S 1085, 35000 Rennes, France; (S.C.-P.); (P.L.); (C.D.-L.); (A.D.)
| | - Thibaut Léger
- Fougères Laboratory, French Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health & Safety (ANSES), CEDEX, 35306 Fougères, France;
| | - Pauline Lelandais
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de Recherche en Santé, Environnement et Travail), UMR_S 1085, 35000 Rennes, France; (S.C.-P.); (P.L.); (C.D.-L.); (A.D.)
| | - Christèle Desdoits-Lethimonier
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de Recherche en Santé, Environnement et Travail), UMR_S 1085, 35000 Rennes, France; (S.C.-P.); (P.L.); (C.D.-L.); (A.D.)
| | - Arthur David
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de Recherche en Santé, Environnement et Travail), UMR_S 1085, 35000 Rennes, France; (S.C.-P.); (P.L.); (C.D.-L.); (A.D.)
| | - Paul A. Fowler
- Institute of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Foresterhill, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK;
| | - Séverine Mazaud-Guittot
- Univ Rennes, Inserm, EHESP, Irset (Institut de Recherche en Santé, Environnement et Travail), UMR_S 1085, 35000 Rennes, France; (S.C.-P.); (P.L.); (C.D.-L.); (A.D.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +33-2-23-23-58-86
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12
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Pignatti E, Flück CE. Adrenal cortex development and related disorders leading to adrenal insufficiency. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 527:111206. [PMID: 33607267 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2021.111206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 02/02/2021] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The adult human adrenal cortex produces steroid hormones that are crucial for life, supporting immune response, glucose homeostasis, salt balance and sexual maturation. It consists of three histologically distinct and functionally specialized zones. The fetal adrenal forms from mesodermal material and produces predominantly adrenal C19 steroids from its fetal zone, which involutes after birth. Transition to the adult cortex occurs immediately after birth for the formation of the zona glomerulosa and fasciculata for aldosterone and cortisol production and continues through infancy until the zona reticularis for adrenal androgen production is formed with adrenarche. The development of this indispensable organ is complex and not fully understood. This article gives an overview of recent knowledge gained of adrenal biology from two perspectives: one, from basic science studying adrenal development, zonation and homeostasis; and two, from adrenal disorders identified in persons manifesting with various isolated or syndromic forms of primary adrenal insufficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emanuele Pignatti
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Bern and Department of BioMedical Research, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Bern and Department of BioMedical Research, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010, Bern, Switzerland.
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13
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Janner M, Sommer G, Groessl M, Flück CE. Premature Adrenarche in Girls Characterized By Enhanced 17,20-Lyase and 17β-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Activities. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2020; 105:5899560. [PMID: 32865200 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa598] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 02/13/2023]
Abstract
CONTEXT Girls with premature adrenarche (PA) may have a higher risk of developing polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and metabolic syndrome. The biological purpose of adrenarche is unknown and the role of novel biosynthetic pathways remains unclear. OBJECTIVE To compare the urinary steroid metabolome and enzyme activities of girls with PA to age-matched control girls and to published steroid values of girls with normal adrenarche and of women with PCOS and their newborn daughters. DESIGN Prospective observational study from 2009 to 2014. SETTING Academic pediatric endocrinology referral center. PARTICIPANTS Twenty-three girls with PA and 22 healthy, age-matched girls. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Steroid metabolites in 24-hour urine samples, including 4 progesterones, 5 corticosterones, aldosterone, 13 androgens, 2 estrogens, 14 glucocorticoids, and enzyme activities represented by metabolite ratios. RESULTS Girls with PA had a higher body mass index (mean standard deviation scores 0.9 vs -0.3, P = 0.013). Androgen excretion was higher in PA girls than in control girls (median 3257 nmol/24 hours vs 1627 nmol/24 hours, P < 0.001), in particular metabolites from alternate androgen pathways. The amount of progesterone, corticosterone, aldosterone, estrogen, and cortisol metabolites were similar between groups. Activities of 17β-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase and of 17,20-lyase were higher in girls with PA. Activities of 3β-hydroxysteroid-dehydrogenase, 21-hydroxylase, and 5α-reductase activity were not different between groups, in contrast to published results on girls with normal adrenarche or PCOS females. CONCLUSIONS Metabolites and enzymes involved in alternate androgen pathways appear to be markers of PA. Prospective studies should assess whether steroid production in PA also differs from adrenarche at normal timing and persists into adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Janner
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Grit Sommer
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michael Groessl
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Nephrology, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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14
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Parween S, Fernández-Cancio M, Benito-Sanz S, Camats N, Rojas Velazquez MN, López-Siguero JP, Udhane SS, Kagawa N, Flück CE, Audí L, Pandey AV. Molecular Basis of CYP19A1 Deficiency in a 46,XX Patient With R550W Mutation in POR: Expanding the PORD Phenotype. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2020; 105:5736381. [PMID: 32060549 DOI: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Mutations in cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) cause a form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH). We report a novel R550W mutation in POR identified in a 46,XX patient with signs of aromatase deficiency. OBJECTIVE Analysis of aromatase deficiency from the R550W mutation in POR. DESIGN, SETTING, AND PATIENT Both the child and the mother had signs of virilization. Ultrasound revealed the presence of uterus and ovaries. No defects in CYP19A1 were found, but further analysis with a targeted Disorders of Sexual Development NGS panel (DSDSeq.V1, 111 genes) on a NextSeq (Illumina) platform in Madrid and Barcelona, Spain, revealed compound heterozygous mutations c.73_74delCT/p.L25FfsTer93 and c.1648C > T/p.R550W in POR. Wild-type and R550W POR were produced as recombinant proteins and tested with multiple cytochrome P450 enzymes at University Children's Hospital, Bern, Switzerland. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE AND RESULTS POR-R550W showed 41% of the WT activity in cytochrome c and 7.7% activity for reduction of MTT. Assays of CYP19A1 showed a severe loss of activity, and CYP17A1 as well as CYP21A2 activities were also lost by more than 95%. Loss of CYP2C9, CYP2C19, and CYP3A4 activities was observed for the R550W-POR. Predicted adverse effect on aromatase activity as well as a reduction in binding of NADPH was confirmed. CONCLUSIONS Pathological effects due to POR-R550W were identified, expanding the knowledge of molecular pathways associated with aromatase deficiency. Screening of the POR gene may provide a diagnosis in CAH without defects in genes for steroid metabolizing enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaheena Parween
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Children's Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Mónica Fernández-Cancio
- Growth and Development Research Unit VHIR, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, CIBERER, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sara Benito-Sanz
- Instituto de Genética Médica y Molecular (INGEMM), Hospital Universitario La Paz, CIBERER, ISCIII, Madrid, Spain
| | - Núria Camats
- Growth and Development Research Unit VHIR, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, CIBERER, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria Natalia Rojas Velazquez
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Children's Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
- Laboratorio de Genética Molecular, Departamento de Genética, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Nacional de Asunción, Paraguay
| | | | - Sameer S Udhane
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Children's Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Norio Kagawa
- Faculty of Medicine, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Children's Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Laura Audí
- Growth and Development Research Unit VHIR, Hospital Vall d'Hebron, CIBERER, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Amit V Pandey
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Children's Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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15
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Characterization of A Homozygous Deletion of Steroid Hormone Biosynthesis Genes in Horse Chromosome 29 as A Risk Factor for Disorders of Sex Development and Reproduction. Genes (Basel) 2020; 11:genes11030251. [PMID: 32120906 PMCID: PMC7140900 DOI: 10.3390/genes11030251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2020] [Revised: 02/21/2020] [Accepted: 02/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Disorders of sex development (DSD) and reproduction are not uncommon among horses, though knowledge about their molecular causes is sparse. Here we characterized a ~200 kb homozygous deletion in chromosome 29 at 29.7-29.9 Mb. The region contains AKR1C genes which function as ketosteroid reductases in steroid hormone biosynthesis, including androgens and estrogens. Mutations in AKR1C genes are associated with human DSDs. Deletion boundaries, sequence properties and gene content were studied by PCR and whole genome sequencing of select deletion homozygotes and control animals. Deletion analysis by PCR in 940 horses, including 622 with DSDs and reproductive problems and 318 phenotypically normal controls, detected 67 deletion homozygotes of which 79% were developmentally or reproductively abnormal. Altogether, 8-9% of all abnormal horses were homozygous for the deletion, with the highest incidence (9.4%) among cryptorchids. The deletion was found in ~4% of our phenotypically normal cohort, ~1% of global warmblood horses and ponies, and ~7% of draught breeds of general horse population as retrieved from published data. Based on the abnormal phenotype of the carriers, the functionally relevant gene content, and the low incidence in general population, we consider the deletion in chromosome 29 as a risk factor for equine DSDs and reproductive disorders.
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16
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Azhar S, Dong D, Shen WJ, Hu Z, Kraemer FB. The role of miRNAs in regulating adrenal and gonadal steroidogenesis. J Mol Endocrinol 2020; 64:R21-R43. [PMID: 31671401 PMCID: PMC7202133 DOI: 10.1530/jme-19-0105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
miRNAs are endogenous noncoding single-stranded small RNAs of ~22 nucleotides in length that post-transcriptionally repress the expression of their various target genes. They contribute to the regulation of a variety of physiologic processes including embryonic development, differentiation and proliferation, apoptosis, metabolism, hemostasis and inflammation. In addition, aberrant miRNA expression is implicated in the pathogenesis of numerous diseases including cancer, hepatitis, cardiovascular diseases and metabolic diseases. Steroid hormones regulate virtually every aspect of metabolism, and acute and chronic steroid hormone biosynthesis is primarily regulated by tissue-specific trophic hormones involving transcriptional and translational events. In addition, it is becoming increasingly clear that steroidogenic pathways are also subject to post-transcriptional and post-translational regulations including processes such as phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, protein‒protein interactions and regulation by specific miRNAs, although the latter is in its infancy state. Here, we summarize the recent advances in miRNA-mediated regulation of steroidogenesis with emphasis on adrenal and gonadal steroidogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salman Azhar
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Dachuan Dong
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Wen-Jun Shen
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Zhigang Hu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Molecular and Medical Biotechnology and College of Life Science, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Fredric B Kraemer
- Geriatric Research, Education and Clinical Center, VA Palo Alto Health Care System, Palo Alto, California, USA
- Division of Endocrinology, Gerontology and Metabolism, Stanford University, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA
- Stanford Diabetes Research Center, Stanford, California, USA
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17
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Leung MT, Cheung HN, Iu YP, Choi CH, Tiu SC, Shek CC. Isolated 17,20-Lyase Deficiency in a CYB5A Mutated Female With Normal Sexual Development and Fertility. J Endocr Soc 2019; 4:bvz016. [PMID: 32051920 PMCID: PMC7007803 DOI: 10.1210/jendso/bvz016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2019] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency may be caused by mutations in the CYP17A1 (coding for cytochrome P450c17), POR (coding for cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase) and CYB5A (coding for microsomal cytochrome b5) genes. Of these, mutations in the CYB5A gene have thus far only been described in genetic males who presented with methemoglobinemia and 46,XY disorders of sex development (DSD) due to 17,20-lyase deficiency. A 24-year-old Chinese woman presented to the hematology outpatient clinic with purplish discoloration of fingers, toes, and lips since childhood. Investigations confirmed methemoglobinemia. A homozygous c.105C>G (p.Tyr35Ter) nonsense mutation was detected in the CYB5A gene. Hormonal studies showed isolated 17,20-lyase deficiency. Interestingly, she had a completely normal female phenotype with no DSD, normal pubertal development, and spontaneous pregnancy giving birth uneventfully to a healthy female infant. The sex hormone-related features of genetic females with 17,20-lyase deficiency due to cytochrome b5 gene mutation appear to differ from that of females with 17,20-lyase deficiency caused by other genetic defects who presented with hypergonadotropic hypogonadism and infertility and differ from genetic males with the same mutation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Tik Leung
- Department of Pathology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Jordan, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Hoi Ning Cheung
- Department of Pathology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Jordan, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Yan Ping Iu
- Department of Pathology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Jordan, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Cheung Hei Choi
- Department of Medicine, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Jordan, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Sau Cheung Tiu
- Department of Medicine, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Jordan, Kowloon, Hong Kong
| | - Chi Chung Shek
- Department of Pathology, Queen Elizabeth Hospital, Jordan, Kowloon, Hong Kong
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18
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Katharopoulos E, Sauter K, Pandey AV, Flück CE. In silico and functional studies reveal novel loss-of-function variants of SRD5A2, but no variants explaining excess 5α-reductase activity. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2019; 190:263-272. [PMID: 30703436 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2018] [Revised: 01/17/2019] [Accepted: 01/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Androgens are steroid hormones essential for human male and female development. Steroid reductases 5α (SRD5As) are key enzymes in androgen biosynthesis. Mutations in the human SRD5A2 are known to cause loss-of-function and severe 46,XY undervirilization. Gain-of-function variants have been suggested in androgen excess syndromes, but have not been found so far. Therefore we searched for gain-of-function mutations in the human SRD5A2 gene which might explain hyperandrogenic disorders such as the polycystic ovary syndrome, premature adrenarche and prostate cancer. We screened databases for candidate variants and characterised them in silico with the help of a novel SRD5A2 model. We selected 9 coding SNPs (A49T, R50A, P106L, P106A, N122A, L167S, R168C, P173S, R227Q) that have not been described in manifesting individuals, and assessed their enzyme kinetic properties in HEK293 cells. SRD5A2 activity was assessed by conversion of testosterone (T), progesterone (Prog) and androstenedione (Δ4A) to their 5α-reduced metabolites. Variants R50A and P173S showed partial activity with substrates T (34% and 28%) and Δ4A (37% and 22%). With substrate Prog variants P106L, P106A, L167S and R168C in addition showed partial activity (15% to 64%). Functional testing of all other variants showed loss-of-function. As predicted in our in silico analysis, all coding SNPs affected enzyme activity, however none of them showed gain-of-function. Thus excess 5α-reductase activity might be rather regulated at the (post)-transcriptional and/or post-translational level. However through this work seven new coding SNPs were characterised which might be of clinical relevance. It is possible that individuals carrying these SNPs show a minor phenotype that is not yet identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Efstathios Katharopoulos
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland; Department of BioMedical Research, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland; Graduate School of Bern, University of Bern, 3000 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Kay Sauter
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland; Department of BioMedical Research, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Amit V Pandey
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland; Department of BioMedical Research, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, Department of Pediatrics, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland; Department of BioMedical Research, University Hospital Inselspital, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland.
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19
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Tsachaki M, Odermatt A. Subcellular localization and membrane topology of 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 489:98-106. [PMID: 30864548 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2018.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2017] [Revised: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 07/03/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenases (17β-HSDs) comprise enzymes initially identified by their ability to interconvert active and inactive forms of sex steroids, a vital process for the tissue-specific control of estrogen and androgen balance. However, most 17β-HSDs have now been shown to accept substrates other than sex steroids, including bile acids, retinoids and fatty acids, thereby playing unanticipated roles in cell physiology. This functional divergence is often reflected by their different subcellular localization, with 17β-HSDs found in the cytosol, peroxisome, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and in lipid droplets. Moreover, a subset of 17β-HSDs are integral membrane proteins, with their specific topology dictating the cellular compartment in which they exert their enzymatic activity. Here, we summarize the present knowledge on the subcellular localization and membrane topology of the 17β-HSD enzymes and discuss the correlation with their biological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Tsachaki
- Division of Molecular and Systems Toxicology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Alex Odermatt
- Division of Molecular and Systems Toxicology, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Basel, Klingelbergstrasse 50, 4056, Basel, Switzerland.
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20
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Miller WL, Auchus RJ. The "backdoor pathway" of androgen synthesis in human male sexual development. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000198. [PMID: 30943210 PMCID: PMC6464227 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian sex determination (male versus female) is largely controlled by genes, whereas sex differentiation (development of reproductive structures) is largely controlled by hormones. Work in the 20th century indicated that female external anatomy was a "default" pathway of development not requiring steroids, whereas male genital development required testicular testosterone plus dihydrotestosterone (DHT) made in genital skin according to a "classic" pathway. Recent work added the description of an alternative "backdoor" pathway of androgen synthesis discovered in marsupials. Unique "backdoor steroids" are found in human hyperandrogenic disorders, and genetic disruption of the pathway causes disordered male sexual development, suggesting it plays an essential role. O'Shaughnessy and colleagues now show that the principal human backdoor androgen is androsterone and provide strong evidence that it derives from placental progesterone that is metabolized to androsterone in nontesticular tissues. These studies are essential to understanding human sexual development and its disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter L. Miller
- Department of Pediatrics and Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California-San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Richard J. Auchus
- Departments of Medicine and of Pharmacology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, United States of America
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21
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Alternative (backdoor) androgen production and masculinization in the human fetus. PLoS Biol 2019; 17:e3000002. [PMID: 30763313 PMCID: PMC6375548 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Masculinization of the external genitalia in humans is dependent on formation of 5α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT) through both the canonical androgenic pathway and an alternative (backdoor) pathway. The fetal testes are essential for canonical androgen production, but little is known about the synthesis of backdoor androgens, despite their known critical role in masculinization. In this study, we have measured plasma and tissue levels of endogenous steroids in second trimester human fetuses using multidimensional and high-resolution mass spectrometry. Results show that androsterone is the principal backdoor androgen in the male fetal circulation and that DHT is undetectable (<1 ng/mL), while in female fetuses, there are significantly lower levels of androsterone and testosterone. In the male, intermediates in the backdoor pathway are found primarily in the placenta and fetal liver, with significant androsterone levels also in the fetal adrenal. Backdoor intermediates, including androsterone, are only present at very low levels in the fetal testes. This is consistent with transcript levels of enzymes involved in the alternate pathway (steroid 5α-reductase type 1 [SRD5A1], aldo-keto reductase type 1C2 [AKR1C2], aldo-keto reductase type 1C4 [AKR1C4], cytochrome P450 17A1 [CYP17A1]), as measured by quantitative PCR (qPCR). These data identify androsterone as the predominant backdoor androgen in the human fetus and show that circulating levels are sex dependent, but also that there is little de novo synthesis in the testis. Instead, the data indicate that placental progesterone acts as substrate for synthesis of backdoor androgens, which occurs across several tissues. Masculinization of the human fetus depends, therefore, on testosterone and androsterone synthesis by both the fetal testes and nongonadal tissues, leading to DHT formation at the genital tubercle. Our findings also provide a solid basis to explain why placental insufficiency is associated with disorders of sex development in humans. Fetal human masculinisation depends on testosterone production by the testes and an alternative “backdoor” androgen. This study shows that this androgen is likely to be androsterone, which is sexually dimorphic in the fetus but does not come from the testes; instead, synthesis probably depends on placental substrates. The human penis starts to develop before birth from a structure called the genital tubercle. This process is dependent on the secretion of testosterone from the fetal testes and subsequent conversion of testosterone into dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by enzymes in the genital tubercle. Recently, an alternative "backdoor" route to the formation of DHT, which does not require testosterone, has also been shown to be essential for normal development of the human penis. In this study we provide evidence indicating that androsterone is the major backdoor androgen involved in human masculinization and that it is produced in nongonadal tissues. Steroid hormone levels were measured in the plasma of second trimester human fetuses, and testosterone and androsterone were the only androgens with higher levels in males than in females. Analysis of tissue steroid levels showed that plasma androsterone did not primarily originate from the testes but, instead, was probably formed in other tissues via metabolism of placental progesterone. These data indicate, therefore, that masculinization of the human fetus depends on steroid hormone secretion from both the testes and the placenta, and would explain why placental dysfunction is associated with disorders of sex development.
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22
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Šimják P, Hill M, Pařízek A, Vítek L, Velíková M, Dušková M, Kancheva R, Bulant J, Koucký M, Kokrdová Z, Adamcová K, Černý A, Hájek Z, Stárka L. May circulating steroids reveal a predisposition to intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy in non-pregnant women? Physiol Res 2018; 67:S499-S510. [PMID: 30484676 DOI: 10.33549/physiolres.934028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP) is a frequent liver disorder, mostly occurring in the third trimester. ICP is not harmful to the mothers but threatens the fetus. The authors evaluated steroid alterations in maternal and mixed umbilical blood to elucidate their role in the ICP development. Ten women with ICP were included in the study. Steroids in the maternal blood were measured by Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) (n=58) and RIA (n=5) at the diagnosis of ICP, labor, day 5 postpartum, week 3 postpartum and week 6 postpartum. The results were evaluated by ANOVA consisting of the subject factor, between subject factors ICP, gestational age at the diagnosis of ICP and gestational age at labor, within-subject factor Stage and ICP × Stage interaction. The 17 controls were firstly examined in the week 36 of gestation. ICP patients showed reduced CYP17A1 activity in the C17,20 lyase step thus shifting the balance between the toxic conjugated pregnanediols and harmless sulfated 5alpha/beta-reduced-17-oxo C19 steroids. Hence, more toxic metabolites originating in maternal liver from the placental pregnanes may penetrate backward to the fetal circulation. As these alterations persist in puerperium, the circulating steroids could be potentially used for predicting the predisposition to ICP even before next pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Šimják
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, General University Hospital and First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague, Czech Republic, Department of Steroids and Proteohormones, Institute of Endocrinology, Prague, Czech Republic.
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23
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Urinary steroid profiling in women hints at a diagnostic signature of the polycystic ovary syndrome: A pilot study considering neglected steroid metabolites. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0203903. [PMID: 30308019 PMCID: PMC6181287 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0203903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although the polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is the most common endocrine disorder in women with vast metabolic consequences, its etiology remains unknown and its diagnosis is still made by exclusion. This study aimed at characterizing a large number of urinary steroid hormone metabolites and enzyme activities in women with and without PCOS in order to test their value for diagnosing PCOS. METHODS Comparative steroid profiling of 24h urine collections using an established in-house gas-chromatography mass spectrometry method. Data were collected mostly prospectively. Patients were recruited in university hospitals in Switzerland. Participants were 41 women diagnosed with PCOS according to the current criteria of the Androgen Excess and PCOS Society Task Force and 66 healthy controls. Steroid profiles of women with PCOS were compared to healthy controls for absolute metabolite excretion and for substrate to product conversion ratios. The AUC for over 1.5 million combinations of metabolites was calculated in order to maximize the diagnostic accuracy in patients with PCOS. Sensitivity, specificity, PPV, and NPV were indicated for the best combinations containing 2, 3 or 4 steroid metabolites. RESULTS The best single discriminating steroid was androstanediol. The best combination to diagnose PCOS contained four of the forty measured metabolites, namely androstanediol, estriol, cortisol and 20βDHcortisone with AUC 0.961 (95% CI 0.926 to 0.995), sensitivity 90.2% (95% CI 76.9 to 97.3), specificity 90.8% (95% CI 81.0 to 96.5), PPV 86.0% (95% CI 72.1 to 94.7), and NPV 93.7% (95% CI 84.5 to 98.2). CONCLUSION PCOS shows a specific 24h urinary steroid profile, if neglected metabolites are included in the analysis and non-conventional data analysis applied. PCOS does not share a profile with hyperandrogenic forms of congenital adrenal hyperplasias due to single steroid enzyme deficiencies. Thus PCOS diagnosis by exclusion may no longer be warranted. Whether these findings also apply to spot urine and serum, remains to be tested as a next step towards routine clinical applicability.
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Fernández-Cancio M, Camats N, Flück CE, Zalewski A, Dick B, Frey BM, Monné R, Torán N, Audí L, Pandey AV. Mechanism of the Dual Activities of Human CYP17A1 and Binding to Anti-Prostate Cancer Drug Abiraterone Revealed by a Novel V366M Mutation Causing 17,20 Lyase Deficiency. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2018; 11:ph11020037. [PMID: 29710837 PMCID: PMC6027421 DOI: 10.3390/ph11020037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 04/23/2018] [Accepted: 04/25/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The CYP17A1 gene regulates sex steroid biosynthesis in humans through 17α-hydroxylase/17,20 lyase activities and is a target of anti-prostate cancer drug abiraterone. In a 46, XY patient with female external genitalia, together with a loss of function mutation S441P, we identified a novel missense mutation V366M at the catalytic center of CYP17A1 which preferentially impaired 17,20 lyase activity. Kinetic experiments with bacterially expressed proteins revealed that V366M mutant enzyme can bind and metabolize pregnenolone to 17OH-pregnenolone, but 17OH-pregnenolone binding and conversion to dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) was impaired, explaining the patient’s steroid profile. Abiraterone could not bind and inhibit the 17α-hydroxylase activity of the CYP17A1-V366M mutant. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulations showed that V366M creates a “one-way valve” and suggests a mechanism for dual activities of human CYP17A1 where, after the conversion of pregnenolone to 17OH-pregnenolone, the product exits the active site and re-enters for conversion to dehydroepiandrosterone. The V366M mutant also explained the effectiveness of the anti-prostate cancer drug abiraterone as a potent inhibitor of CYP17A1 by binding tightly at the active site in the WT enzyme. The V366M is the first human mutation to be described at the active site of CYP17A1 that causes isolated 17,20 lyase deficiency. Knowledge about the specificity of CYP17A1 activities is of importance for the development of treatments for polycystic ovary syndrome and inhibitors for prostate cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónica Fernández-Cancio
- Growth and Development Research Unit, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Center for Biomedical Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08035, Spain.
| | - Núria Camats
- Growth and Development Research Unit, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Center for Biomedical Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08035, Spain.
- Pediatric Endocrinology Unit, Department of Paediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology Unit, Department of Paediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
| | - Adam Zalewski
- Pediatric Endocrinology Unit, Department of Paediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
| | - Bernhard Dick
- Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
| | - Brigitte M Frey
- Department of Nephrology and Hypertension, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
| | - Raquel Monné
- Pediatric Service, Hospital Joan XXIII, Tarragona 43005, Spain.
| | - Núria Torán
- Pathology Department, Hospital Universitari Vall d'Hebron, CIBERER, Barcelona 08035, Spain.
| | - Laura Audí
- Growth and Development Research Unit, Vall d'Hebron Research Institute (VHIR), Center for Biomedical Research on Rare Diseases (CIBERER), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Barcelona 08035, Spain.
| | - Amit V Pandey
- Pediatric Endocrinology Unit, Department of Paediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
- Department of Biomedical Research, University of Bern, Bern 3010, Switzerland.
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25
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Braun BC, Okuyama MW, Müller K, Dehnhard M, Jewgenow K. Steroidogenic enzymes, their products and sex steroid receptors during testis development and spermatogenesis in the domestic cat (Felis catus). J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2018; 178:135-149. [PMID: 29196065 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2017] [Revised: 11/08/2017] [Accepted: 11/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
In the present study we comprehensively characterize intratesticular sex steroid production, metabolism and receptors in the domestic cat to elucidate the role of testosterone, estradiol and progesterone in testis development, steroid synthesis and spermatogenesis. There is a great demand for new concepts of fertility control in domestic (feral) cats and wild felids. The acquired knowledge will help to understand the regulation of spermatogenesis in felids, and may reveal new target points for male contraception. Progesterone and androgens are produced throughout all stages of testicular development; their synthesizing enzymes are mainly expressed in Leydig cells, and to a much lesser extent also in tubular cells. Aromatase (CYP19A1), the estrogen synthesizing enzyme, is only present in the tubuli and is first detectable in spermatocytes and round spermatids at puberty. As shown by elevated expression of the enzymes steroid 5-α-reductase type 1 (SRD5A) and aldo-keto-reductase family 1 member C3 (AKR1C3), the capacity to metabolize particular steroids increases during testis development. Apparently, this refers to a decreasing intra-testicular testosterone concentration per mg tissue with increasing testis weight during postpuberty. The increasing potential of sulfation of E2 by estrogen sulfotransferase (SULT1E1) with ongoing development might be responsible for the low level of unconjugated intratesticular estradiol in all stages of development probably due to facilitated excretion of conjugated estrogens. For the first time, expression of the progesterone membrane receptor components 1 and 2 (PGRMC1, PGRMC2) was studied in mammalian testis tissue. Both of these and also the progesterone receptor (PGR) are expressed depending on the developmental stage and cell type, suggesting an important regulatory role of progesterone in the testis. Androgen receptor (AR) is present in almost all cell types except for some spermatogenic cells. The co-localization of aromatase with estrogen receptor alpha (ESR1) in spermatocytes and round spermatids of domestic cat testis indicates an auto-/paracrine function of estrogen in spermatogenesis. In summary, the testis of the domestic cat is an important source of sex steroids. All of them could act within the testis but additionally, at least androgens and estrogens are likely secreted by the testis, partly as conjugated steroids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beate C Braun
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Department of Reproduction Biology, PF700430, 10324 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Minami W Okuyama
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Department of Reproduction Biology, PF700430, 10324 Berlin, Germany
| | - Karin Müller
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Department of Reproduction Biology, PF700430, 10324 Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Dehnhard
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Department of Reproduction Biology, PF700430, 10324 Berlin, Germany
| | - Katarina Jewgenow
- Leibniz Institute for Zoo and Wildlife Research, Department of Reproduction Biology, PF700430, 10324 Berlin, Germany
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26
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van Rooyen D, Gent R, Barnard L, Swart AC. The in vitro metabolism of 11β-hydroxyprogesterone and 11-ketoprogesterone to 11-ketodihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2018; 178:203-212. [PMID: 29277707 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Revised: 12/17/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Increased circulating 11β-hydroxyprogesterone (11OHP4), biosynthesised in the human adrenal, is associated with 21-hydroxylase deficiency in congenital adrenal hyperplasia. 17α-hydroxyprogesterone levels are also increased, with the steroid's metabolism to dihydrotestosterone in the backdoor pathway contributing to hyperandrogenic clinical conditions. In this study we investigated the in vitro biosynthesis and downstream metabolism of 11OHP4. Both cytochrome P450 11β-hydroxylase and aldosterone synthase catalyse the biosynthesis of 11OHP4 from progesterone (P4) which is converted to 11-ketoprogesterone (11KP4) by 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2, while type 1 readily catalysed the reverse reaction. We showed in HEK-293 cells that these C11-oxy C21 steroids were metabolised by steroidogenic enzymes in the backdoor pathway-5α-reductase (SRD5A) and 3α-hydroxysteroid type 3 (AKR1C2) converted 11OHP4 to 5α-pregnan-11β-ol,3,20-dione and 5α-pregnan-3α,11β-diol-20-one, while 11KP4 was converted to 5α-pregnan-3,11,20-trione and 5α-pregnan-3α-ol-11,20-dione (alfaxalone), respectively. Cytochrome P450 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase catalysed the hydroxylase and lyase reaction to produce the C11-oxy C19 steroids demonstrated in the conversion of alfaxalone to 11-oxy steroids demonstrated in the conversion of alfaxalone to 11ketoandrosterone. In LNCaP cells, a prostate cancer cell model endogenously expressing the relevant enzymes, 11OHP4 and 11KP4 were metabolised to the potent androgen, 11-ketodihydrotestosterone (11KDHT), thus suggesting the C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the pool of validating the in vitro biosynthesis of C11-oxy C19 steroids from C11-oxy C21 steroids. The in vitro reduction of 11KP4 at C3 and C5 by AKR1C2 and SRD5A has confirmed the metabolic route of the urinary metabolite, 3α,20α-dihydroxy-5β-pregnan-11-one. Although our assays have demonstrated the conversion of 11OHP4 and 11KP4 by steroidogenic enzymes in the backdoor pathway yielding 11KDHT, thus suggesting the C11-oxy C21 steroids contribute to the pool of potent androgens, the in vivo confirmation of this metabolic route remains challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Desmaré van Rooyen
- Biochemistry Department, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Rachelle Gent
- Biochemistry Department, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Lise Barnard
- Biochemistry Department, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Amanda C Swart
- Biochemistry Department, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa.
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27
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Lundell AC, Nordström I, Andersson K, Strömbeck A, Ohlsson C, Tivesten Å, Rudin A. Dihydrotestosterone levels at birth associate positively with higher proportions of circulating immature/naïve CD5 + B cells in boys. Sci Rep 2017; 7:15503. [PMID: 29138503 PMCID: PMC5686210 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-15836-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Boys present with higher proportions of immature/naïve CD5+ B cells than girls up to 3 years of age. Boys also have higher fractions of regulatory T cells (Tregs) in early infancy, but the mechanisms for these sex-related differences are unknown. In the prospective FARMFLORA follow-up study of 23 boys and 25 girls, we investigated if these immunological differences remained at 8 years of age. We also examined if testosterone or dihydrotestosterone (DHT) levels at birth and at 8 years of age were associated with immune maturation. Immunological variables and androgen levels were examined and measured in blood samples obtained at birth, 3–5 days and at 8 years of age. Boys had higher proportions of CD5+ and immature/transitional CD24hiCD38hi B cells, whereas girls had higher fractions of B cells with a memory phenotype at 8 years of age. School-aged boys also presented with higher frequencies of Tregs, and a greater capacity to produce T-cell-associated cytokines. Among boys, higher cord blood DHT levels were associated with higher proportions of CD5+ B cells in early infancy and at 8 years of life. These results suggest that DHT actions in utero might be involved in the mechanism for delayed peripheral B-cell maturation in boys.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Carin Lundell
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden.
| | - Inger Nordström
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Kerstin Andersson
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anna Strömbeck
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Claes Ohlsson
- Center for Bone and Arthritis Research (CBAR), Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Åsa Tivesten
- Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Wallenberg Laboratory for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Research, Institute of Medicine, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anna Rudin
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Sahlgrenska Academy, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
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28
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Miller WL. Steroidogenesis: Unanswered Questions. Trends Endocrinol Metab 2017; 28:771-793. [PMID: 29031608 DOI: 10.1016/j.tem.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Until the mid-1980s studies of steroidogenesis largely depended on identifying steroid structures and measuring steroid concentrations in body fluids. The molecular biology revolution radically revolutionized studies of steroidogenesis with the cloning of known steroidogenic enzymes, by identifying novel factors, and delineating the genetic basis of known and newly discovered diseases. Unfortunately, this dramatic success has led many young research-oriented endocrinologists to regard steroidogenesis as a 'solved area'. However, many important and exciting questions remain, especially concerning the mechanisms of cholesterol delivery to the steroidogenic machinery, the biochemistry of androgen synthesis, the regulation and biological role of adrenarche, fetal adrenal development and involution, the roles of steroids made in 'extraglandular' cells, and the search for genetic disorders. This review outlines some of these questions, but this list is necessarily incomplete.
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Affiliation(s)
- Walter L Miller
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California, San Francisco (UCSF), San Francisco, CA 94143-0556, USA.
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29
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Lundell AC, Ryberg H, Vandenput L, Rudin A, Ohlsson C, Tivesten Å. Umbilical cord blood androgen levels in girls and boys assessed by gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 171:195-200. [PMID: 28373106 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2017.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2016] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 03/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Androgen exposure of the fetus during gestation plays an important role in human physiology and pathophysiology, but assessment of androgens, in particular dihydrotestosterone (DHT), in human umbilical cord blood is technically challenging. The aim of this study was to assess umbilical cord androgen levels, including DHT, at birth by a highly sensitive assay, and study their association with sex of the infant, sex-hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) levels, and gestational age at delivery. Swedish infants (27 girls, 26 boys) were recruited at maternity care clinics in Southern Sweden. Umbilical cord blood levels of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA), androstenedione, testosterone and DHT at delivery were assessed by a gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay. Cord blood levels of DHT were 2.4-fold higher in boys (median 27.8pg/mL) than in girls (11.5pg/mL), while the sex difference was less pronounced for testosterone (1.3-fold higher in boys) and non-significant for DHEA and androstenedione. Gestational age at delivery associated inversely with DHT levels in boys and with DHEA levels in girls. There was a strong inverse correlation between SHBG and DHEA in both sexes, while there were no associations between SHBG and testosterone or DHT levels. In conclusion, using state of the art technology, we report that there is a pronounced sexual dimorphism in human umbilical cord blood DHT levels. The possibility to assess a complete androgen profile in human cord blood opens up for future increased understanding of the biological impact of the fetal androgen milieu.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna-Carin Lundell
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Henrik Ryberg
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Liesbeth Vandenput
- Center for Bone and Arthritis Research (CBAR), Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Anna Rudin
- Department of Rheumatology and Inflammation Research, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Claes Ohlsson
- Center for Bone and Arthritis Research (CBAR), Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Åsa Tivesten
- Wallenberg Laboratory for Cardiovascular and Metabolic Research, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Department of Internal Medicine and Clinical Nutrition, Institute of Medicine, University of Gothenburg, Bruna Stråket 16, SE-413 45 Gothenburg, Sweden.
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30
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Bhatt MR, Khatri Y, Rodgers RJ, Martin LL. Role of cytochrome b5 in the modulation of the enzymatic activities of cytochrome P450 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (P450 17A1). J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 170:2-18. [PMID: 26976652 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2015] [Revised: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome b5 (cyt b5) is a small hemoprotein that plays a significant role in the modulation of activities of an important steroidogenic enzyme, cytochrome P450 17α-hydroxylase/17,20-lyase (P450 17A1, CYP17A1). Located in the zona fasciculata and zona reticularis of the adrenal cortex and in the gonads, P450 17A1 catalyzes two different reactions in the steroidogenic pathway; the 17α-hydroxylation and 17,20-lyase, in the endoplasmic reticulum of these respective tissues. The activities of P450 17A1 are regulated by cyt b5 that enhances the 17,20-lyase reaction by promoting the coupling of P450 17A1 and cytochrome P450 reductase (CPR), allosterically. Cyt b5 can also act as an electron donor to enhance the 16-ene-synthase activity of human P450 17A1. In this review, we discuss the many roles of cyt b5 and focus on the modulation of CYP17A1 activities by cyt b5 and the mechanisms involved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megh Raj Bhatt
- Everest Biotech Pvt. Ltd., Khumaltar, Lalitpur, P.O. Box 21608, Kathmandu 44600, Nepal
| | - Yogan Khatri
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, 66123 Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Raymond J Rodgers
- School of Medicine, Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide SA 5005, Australia
| | - Lisandra L Martin
- School of Chemistry, Monash University, Clayton, 3800, Victoria, Australia.
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Marti N, Galván JA, Pandey AV, Trippel M, Tapia C, Müller M, Perren A, Flück CE. Genes and proteins of the alternative steroid backdoor pathway for dihydrotestosterone synthesis are expressed in the human ovary and seem enhanced in the polycystic ovary syndrome. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2017; 441:116-123. [PMID: 27471004 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2016.07.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 07/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Recently, dihydrotestosterone biosynthesis through the backdoor pathway has been implicated for the human testis in addition to the classic pathway for testosterone (T) synthesis. In the human ovary, androgen precursors are crucial for estrogen synthesis and hyperandrogenism in pathologies such as the polycystic ovary syndrome is partially due to ovarian overproduction. However, a role for the backdoor pathway is only established for the testis and the adrenal, but not for the human ovary. To investigate whether the backdoor pathway exists in normal and PCOS ovaries, we performed specific gene and protein expression studies on ovarian tissues. We found aldo-keto reductases (AKR1C1-1C4), 5α-reductases (SRD5A1/2) and retinol dehydrogenase (RoDH) expressed in the human ovary, indicating that the ovary might produce dihydrotestosterone via the backdoor pathway. Immunohistochemical studies showed specific localization of these proteins to the theca cells. PCOS ovaries show enhanced expression, what may account for the hyperandrogenism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nesa Marti
- Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Clinical Research, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Graduate School Bern, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - José A Galván
- Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Amit V Pandey
- Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Clinical Research, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | | | - Coya Tapia
- Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Michel Müller
- Department of Clinical Research, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Aurel Perren
- Institute of Pathology, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, Department of Pediatrics, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland; Department of Clinical Research, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Switzerland.
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32
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Flück CE, Pandey AV. Impact on CYP19A1 activity by mutations in NADPH cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 165:64-70. [PMID: 27032764 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.03.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 03/20/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 aromatase (CYP19A1), in human placenta metabolizes androgens to estrogens and uses reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate through cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) for the energy requirements of its metabolic activities. Mutations in the human POR lead to congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to loss of activities of several steroid metabolizing enzymatic reactions conducted by the cytochrome P450 proteins located in the endoplasmic reticulum. Effect of POR mutations on different P450 activities depend on individual partner proteins. In this report we have studied the impact of mutations found in the POR on the enzymatic activity of CYP19A1. We expressed wild type as well mutant human POR proteins in bacteria and purified the recombinant proteins, which were then used in an in vitro reconstitution system in combination with CYP19A1 and lipids for enzymatic analysis. We found that several mutations as well as polymorphisms in human POR can cause reduction of CYP19A1 activity. This would affect metabolism of estrogens in people with variations of POR allele. The POR mutants Y181D and R616X were found to have no activity in supporting CYP19A1 reactions. The POR mutations Y607C and delF646 showed a loss of 60-90% activity and two polymorphic forms of POR, R316W and G413S showed similar to WT activity. One POR variant, Q153R had almost double the activity of WT. Loss of CYP19A1 activity may contribute to disordered steroidogenesis in female patients with POR mutations as well as in mothers with POR variants carrying a male child.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Children's Hospital Bern, and Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Amit V Pandey
- Pediatric Endocrinology, Diabetology and Metabolism, University Children's Hospital Bern, and Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland.
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33
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Dhayat NA, Dick B, Frey BM, d'Uscio CH, Vogt B, Flück CE. Androgen biosynthesis during minipuberty favors the backdoor pathway over the classic pathway: Insights into enzyme activities and steroid fluxes in healthy infants during the first year of life from the urinary steroid metabolome. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 165:312-322. [PMID: 27471148 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2016] [Revised: 07/20/2016] [Accepted: 07/24/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The steroid profile changes dramatically from prenatal to postnatal life. Recently, a novel backdoor pathway for androgen biosynthesis has been discovered. However, its role remains elusive. Therefore, we investigated androgen production from birth to one year of life with a focus on minipuberty and on production of androgens through the backdoor pathway. Additionally, we assessed the development of the specific steroid enzyme activities in early life. To do so, we collected urine specimens from diapers in 43 healthy newborns (22 females) at 13 time points from birth to one year of age in an ambulatory setting, and performed in house GC-MS steroid profiling for 67 steroid metabolites. Data were analyzed for androgen production through the classic and backdoor pathway and calculations of diagnostic ratios for steroid enzyme activities were performed. Analysis revealed that during minipuberty androgen production is much higher in boys than in girls (e.g. androsterone (An)), originates largely from the testis (Anboys-Angirls), and uses predominantly the alternative backdoor pathway (An/Et; Δ5<Δ4 lyase activity). Modelling of steroid enzyme activities showed age-related effects for 21-, 11-, 17-hydroxylase and P450 oxidoreductase activities as well as 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase, 11β-hydroxylase type 1/2 and 5α-reductase activities. Sex-related characteristics were found for 21-hydroxylase and 5α-reductase activities. Overall, our study shows that androgen biosynthesis during minipuberty favors the backdoor pathway over the classic pathway. Calculations of specific diagnostic ratios for enzyme activities seem to allow the diagnosis of specific steroid disorders from the urinary steroid metabolome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nasser A Dhayat
- Department of Nephrology, Hypertension and Clinical Pharmacology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15, 3010 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Bernhard Dick
- Department of Nephrology, Hypertension and Clinical Pharmacology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15, 3010 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Brigitte M Frey
- Department of Nephrology, Hypertension and Clinical Pharmacology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15, 3010 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Claudia H d'Uscio
- Department of Nephrology, Hypertension and Clinical Pharmacology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15, 3010 Bern, Switzerland. claudia.d'
| | - Bruno Vogt
- Department of Nephrology, Hypertension and Clinical Pharmacology, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15, 3010 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Christa E Flück
- Department of Pediatrics (Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, University Children's Hospital) and Department of Clinical Research, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15/C845, 3010 Bern, Switzerland.
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Burkhard FZ, Parween S, Udhane SS, Flück CE, Pandey AV. P450 Oxidoreductase deficiency: Analysis of mutations and polymorphisms. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2017; 165:38-50. [PMID: 27068427 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2016.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2016] [Revised: 04/06/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) is required for metabolic reactions of steroid and drug metabolizing cytochrome P450 proteins located in endoplasmic reticulum. Mutations in POR cause a complex set of disorders resembling combined deficiencies of multiple steroid metabolizing enzymes. The P450 oxidoreductase deficiency (PORD) was first reported in patients with symptoms of defects in steroidogenic cytochrome P450 enzymes and ambiguous genitalia, and bone malformation features resembling Antley-Bixler syndrome. POR is now classified as a separate and rare form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH), which may cause disorder of sexual development (DSD). Since the initial description of PORD in 2004, a large number of POR mutations and polymorphisms have been described. In this report we have performed computational analysis of mutations and polymorphisms in POR linked to metabolism of steroids and xenobiotics and pathology of PORD from the reported cases. The mutations in POR that were identified in patients with disruption of steroidogenesis also have severe effects on cytochrome P450 proteins involved in metabolism of drugs. Different variations in POR show a range of diverse effects on different partner proteins that are often linked to the location of the particular variants. The variations in POR that cause defective binding of co-factors always have damaging effects on all partner proteins, while the mutations causing subtle structural changes may lead to altered interaction with partner proteins and the overall effect may be different for each individual partner. Computational analysis of available sequencing data and mutation analysis shows that Japanese (R457H), Caucasian (A287P) and Turkish (399-401) populations can be linked to unique founder mutations. Other mutations identified so far were identified as rare alleles or in single isolated reports. The common polymorphism of POR is the variant A503V which can be found in about 27% of alleles in general population but there are remarkable differences among different sub populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Z Burkhard
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern, and Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Shaheena Parween
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern, and Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Sameer S Udhane
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern, and Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christa E Flück
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern, and Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, Switzerland
| | - Amit V Pandey
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern, and Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, Switzerland.
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Bonamichi BDSF, Santiago SLM, Bertola DR, Kim CA, Alonso N, Mendonca BB, Bachega TASS, Gomes LG. Long-term follow-up of a female with congenital adrenal hyperplasia due to P450-oxidoreductase deficiency. ARCHIVES OF ENDOCRINOLOGY AND METABOLISM 2016; 60:500-504. [PMID: 27737328 PMCID: PMC10118638 DOI: 10.1590/2359-3997000000213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
P450 oxidoreductase deficiency (PORD) is a variant of congenital adrenal hyperplasia that is caused by POR gene mutations. The POR gene encodes a flavor protein that transfers electrons from nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) to all microsomal cytochrome P450 type II (including 21-hydroxylase, 17α-hydroxylase 17,20 lyase and aromatase), which is fundamental for their enzymatic activity. POR mutations cause variable impairments in steroidogenic enzyme activities that result in wide phenotypic variability ranging from 46,XX or 46,XY disorders of sexual differentiation, glucocorticoid deficiency, with or without skeletal malformations similar to Antley-Bixler syndrome to asymptomatic newborns diagnosed during neonatal screening test. Little is known about the PORD long-term evolution. We described a 46,XX patient with mild atypical genitalia associated with severe bone malformation, who was diagnosed after 13 years due to sexual infantilism. She developed large ovarian cysts and late onset adrenal insufficiency during follow-up, both of each regressed after hormone replacement therapies. We also described a late surgical approach for the correction of facial hypoplasia in a POR patient.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Débora R. Bertola
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil; Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Chong A. Kim
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
| | - Nivaldo Alonso
- Faculdade de Medicina da Universidade de São Paulo, Brasil
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36
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Bailey K, Yazdi T, Masharani U, Tyrrell B, Butch A, Schaufele F. Advantages and Limitations of Androgen Receptor-Based Methods for Detecting Anabolic Androgenic Steroid Abuse as Performance Enhancing Drugs. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0151860. [PMID: 26998755 PMCID: PMC4801337 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0151860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 03/04/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Testosterone (T) and related androgens are performance enhancing drugs (PEDs) abused by some athletes to gain competitive advantage. To monitor unauthorized androgen abuse, doping control programs use mass spectrometry (MS) to detect androgens, synthetic anabolic-androgenic steroids (AASs) and their metabolites in an athlete's urine. AASs of unknown composition will not be detected by these procedures. Since AASs achieve their anabolic effects by activating the Androgen Receptor (AR), cell-based bioassays that measure the effect of a urine sample on AR activity are under investigation as complementary, pan-androgen detection methods. We evaluated an AR BioAssay as a monitor for androgen activity in urine pre-treated with glucuronidase, which releases T from the inactive T-glucuronide that predominates in urine. AR BioAssay activity levels were expressed as 'T-equivalent' concentrations by comparison to a T dose response curve. The T-equivalent concentrations of androgens in the urine of hypogonadal participants supplemented with T (in whom all androgenic activity should arise from T) were quantitatively identical to the T measurements conducted by MS at the UCLA Olympic Analytical Laboratory (0.96 ± 0.22). All 17 AASs studied were active in the AR BioAssay; other steroids were inactive. 12 metabolites of 10 commonly abused AASs, which are used for MS monitoring of AAS doping because of their prolonged presence in urine, had reduced or no AR BioAssay activity. Thus, the AR BioAssay can accurately and inexpensively monitor T, but its ability to monitor urinary AASs will be limited to a period immediately following doping in which the active AASs remain intact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathy Bailey
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Tahmineh Yazdi
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Umesh Masharani
- Division of Endocrinology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Blake Tyrrell
- Division of Endocrinology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
| | - Anthony Butch
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, California, United States of America
| | - Fred Schaufele
- Center for Reproductive Sciences, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, California, United States of America
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37
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Udhane SS, Flück CE. Regulation of human (adrenal) androgen biosynthesis-New insights from novel throughput technology studies. Biochem Pharmacol 2015; 102:20-33. [PMID: 26498719 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2015.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Androgens are precursors for sex steroids and are predominantly produced in the human gonads and the adrenal cortex. They are important for intrauterine and postnatal sexual development and human reproduction. Although human androgen biosynthesis has been extensively studied in the past, exact mechanisms underlying the regulation of androgen production in health and disease remain vague. Here, the knowledge on human androgen biosynthesis and regulation is reviewed with a special focus on human adrenal androgen production and the hyperandrogenic disorder of polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). Since human androgen regulation is highly specific without a good animal model, most studies are performed on patients harboring inborn errors of androgen biosynthesis, on human biomaterials and human (tumor) cell models. In the past, most studies used a candidate gene approach while newer studies use high throughput technologies to identify novel regulators of androgen biosynthesis. Using genome wide association studies on cohorts of patients, novel PCOS candidate genes have been recently described. Variant 2 of the DENND1A gene was found overexpressed in PCOS theca cells and confirmed to enhance androgen production. Transcriptome profiling of dissected adrenal zones established a role for BMP4 in androgen synthesis. Similarly, transcriptome analysis of human adrenal NCI-H295 cells identified novel regulators of androgen production. Kinase p38α (MAPK14) was found to phosphorylate CYP17 for enhanced 17,20 lyase activity and RARB and ANGPTL1 were detected in novel networks regulating androgens. The discovery of novel players for androgen biosynthesis is of clinical significance as it provides targets for diagnostic and therapeutic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sameer S Udhane
- Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology of the Department of Pediatrics and Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Christa E Flück
- Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology of the Department of Pediatrics and Department of Clinical Research, University of Bern, 3010 Bern, Switzerland.
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38
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Storbeck KH, Swart AC, Fox CL, Swart P. Cytochrome b5 modulates multiple reactions in steroidogenesis by diverse mechanisms. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2015; 151:66-73. [PMID: 25446886 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2014.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2014] [Revised: 11/02/2014] [Accepted: 11/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome b5 (cyt-b5) is a relatively small haemoprotein which plays an important role in the regulation of mammalian steroidogenesis. This unique protein has the ability to modulate the activity of key steroidogenic enzymes via a number of diverse reaction mechanisms. Cyt-b5 can augment the 17,20-lyase activity of CYP17A1 by promoting the interaction of CYP17A1 and POR; enhance the 16-ene-synthase activity of CYP17A1 by acting as an electron donor; and enhance the activity of 3βHSD by increasing the affinity of 3βHSD for its cofactor NAD(+). We review the modulation of CYP17A1 and 3βHSD activity by cyt-b5 and discuss the reaction mechanisms associated with each activity. The physiological importance of cyt-b5 in regulating mammalian steroidogenesis is presented and the impact of inactivating cyt-b5 mutations are reviewed. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Steroid/Sterol signaling'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl-Heinz Storbeck
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Amanda C Swart
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Cheryl L Fox
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa
| | - Pieter Swart
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7600, South Africa.
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Determination of the topology of endoplasmic reticulum membrane proteins using redox-sensitive green-fluorescence protein fusions. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-MOLECULAR CELL RESEARCH 2015; 1853:1672-82. [PMID: 25889538 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamcr.2015.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2014] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/02/2015] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Membrane proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) are involved in a wide array of essential cellular functions. Identification of the topology of membrane proteins can provide significant insight into their mechanisms of action and biological roles. This is particularly important for membrane enzymes, since their topology determines the subcellular site where a biochemical reaction takes place and the dependence on luminal or cytosolic co-factor pools and substrates. The methods currently available for the determination of topology of proteins are rather laborious and require post-lysis or post-fixation manipulation of cells. In this work, we have developed a simple method for defining intracellular localization and topology of ER membrane proteins in living cells, based on the fusion of the respective protein with redox-sensitive green-fluorescent protein (roGFP). We validated the method and demonstrated that roGFP fusion proteins constitute a reliable tool for the study of ER membrane protein topology, using as control microsomal 11β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11β-HSD) proteins whose topology has been resolved, and comparing with an independent approach. We then implemented this method to determine the membrane topology of six microsomal members of the 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17β-HSD) family. The results revealed a luminal orientation of the catalytic site for three enzymes, i.e. 17β-HSD6, 7 and 12. Knowledge of the intracellular location of the catalytic site of these enzymes will enable future studies on their biological functions and on the role of the luminal co-factor pool.
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40
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Fokidis HB, Adomat HH, Kharmate G, Hosseini-Beheshti E, Guns ES, Soma KK. Regulation of local steroidogenesis in the brain and in prostate cancer: lessons learned from interdisciplinary collaboration. Front Neuroendocrinol 2015; 36:108-29. [PMID: 25223867 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2014.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 08/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Sex steroids play critical roles in the regulation of the brain and many other organs. Traditionally, researchers have focused on sex steroid signaling that involves travel from the gonads via the circulation to intracellular receptors in target tissues. This classic concept has been challenged, however, by the growing number of cases in which steroids are synthesized locally and act locally within diverse tissues. For example, the brain and prostate carcinoma were previously considered targets of gonadal sex steroids, but under certain circumstances, these tissues can upregulate their steroidogenic potential, particularly when circulating sex steroid concentrations are low. We review some of the similarities and differences between local sex steroid synthesis in the brain and prostate cancer. We also share five lessons that we have learned during the course of our interdisciplinary collaboration, which brought together neuroendocrinologists and cancer biologists. These lessons have important implications for future research in both fields.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Bobby Fokidis
- Department of Biology, Rollins College, Winter Park, FL 37289, USA; Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada.
| | - Hans H Adomat
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada
| | | | | | - Emma S Guns
- Vancouver Prostate Centre, Vancouver, BC V6H 3Z6, Canada; Department of Urological Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V5Z 1M9, Canada
| | - Kiran K Soma
- Department of Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Graduate Program in Neuroscience, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Brain Research Centre, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada; Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 1Z4, Canada.
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41
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Abstract
We constructed a 400K WG tiling oligoarray for the horse and applied it for the discovery of copy number variations (CNVs) in 38 normal horses of 16 diverse breeds, and the Przewalski horse. Probes on the array represented 18,763 autosomal and X-linked genes, and intergenic, sub-telomeric and chrY sequences. We identified 258 CNV regions (CNVRs) across all autosomes, chrX and chrUn, but not in chrY. CNVs comprised 1.3% of the horse genome with chr12 being most enriched. American Miniature horses had the highest and American Quarter Horses the lowest number of CNVs in relation to Thoroughbred reference. The Przewalski horse was similar to native ponies and draft breeds. The majority of CNVRs involved genes, while 20% were located in intergenic regions. Similar to previous studies in horses and other mammals, molecular functions of CNV-associated genes were predominantly in sensory perception, immunity and reproduction. The findings were integrated with previous studies to generate a composite genome-wide dataset of 1476 CNVRs. Of these, 301 CNVRs were shared between studies, while 1174 were novel and require further validation. Integrated data revealed that to date, 41 out of over 400 breeds of the domestic horse have been analyzed for CNVs, of which 11 new breeds were added in this study. Finally, the composite CNV dataset was applied in a pilot study for the discovery of CNVs in 6 horses with XY disorders of sexual development. A homozygous deletion involving AKR1C gene cluster in chr29 in two affected horses was considered possibly causative because of the known role of AKR1C genes in testicular androgen synthesis and sexual development. While the findings improve and integrate the knowledge of CNVs in horses, they also show that for effective discovery of variants of biomedical importance, more breeds and individuals need to be analyzed using comparable methodological approaches. Genomes of individuals in a species vary in many ways, one of which is DNA copy number variation (CNV). This includes deletions, duplications, and complex rearrangements typically larger than 50 base-pairs. CNVs are part of normal genetic variation contributing to phenotypic diversity but can also be pathogenic and associated with diseases and disorders. In order to distinguish between the two, detailed knowledge about CNVs in the species of interest is needed. Here we studied the genomes of 38 normal horses of 16 diverse breeds, and identified 258 CNV regions. We integrated our findings with previously published horse CNVs and generated a composite dataset of ∼1400 CNVRs. Despite this large number, our analysis shows that CNV research in horses needs further improvement because the current data are based on 10% of horse breeds and that most CNVRs are study-specific and require validation. Finally, we analyzed CNVs in horses with disorders of sexual development and found in two male pseudo-hermaphrodites a large deletion disrupting a group of genes involved in sex hormone metabolism and sexual differentiation. The findings underline the possible role of CNVs in complex disorders such as development and reproduction.
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Pandey AV, Sproll P. Pharmacogenomics of human P450 oxidoreductase. Front Pharmacol 2014; 5:103. [PMID: 24847272 PMCID: PMC4023047 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2014.00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 04/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 oxidoreductase (POR) supports reactions of microsomal cytochrome P450 which metabolize drugs and steroid hormones. Mutations in POR cause disorders of sexual development. P450 oxidoreductase deficiency (PORD) was initially identified in patients with Antley–Bixler syndrome (ABS) but now it has been established as a separate disorder of sexual development (DSD). Here we are summarizing the work on variations in POR related to metabolism of drugs and xenobiotics. We have compiled mutation data on reported cases of PORD from clinical studies. Mutations found in patients with defective steroid profiles impact metabolism of steroid hormones as well as drugs. Some trends are emerging that establish certain founder mutations in distinct populations, with Japanese (R457H), Caucasian (A287P), and Turkish (399–401) populations showing repeated findings of similar mutations. Most other mutations are found as single occurrences. A large number of different variants in POR gene with more than 130 amino acid changes are now listed in databases. Among the polymorphisms, the A503V is found in about 30% of all alleles but there are some differences across different population groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit V Pandey
- Division of Pediatric Endocrinology, Department of Pediatrics, University Children's Hospital Bern Bern, Switzerland ; Program in Molecular Life Sciences, Department of Biology, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland
| | - Patrick Sproll
- Program in Molecular Life Sciences, Department of Biology, University of Bern Bern, Switzerland
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43
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Flück CE, Pandey AV. Steroidogenesis of the testis -- new genes and pathways. ANNALES D'ENDOCRINOLOGIE 2014; 75:40-7. [PMID: 24793988 DOI: 10.1016/j.ando.2014.03.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2014] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Defects of androgen biosynthesis cause 46,XY disorder of sexual development (DSD). All steroids are produced from cholesterol and the early steps of steroidogenesis are common to mineralocorticoid, glucocorticoid and sex steroid production. Genetic mutations in enzymes and proteins supporting the early biosynthesis pathways cause adrenal insufficiency (AI), DSD and gonadal insufficiency. The classic androgen biosynthesis defects with AI are lipoid CAH, CYP11A1 and HSD3B2 deficiencies. Deficiency of CYP17A1 rarely causes AI, and HSD17B3 or SRD5A2 deficiencies only cause 46,XY DSD and gonadal insufficiency. All androgen biosynthesis depends on 17,20 lyase activity of CYP17A1 which is supported by P450 oxidoreductase (POR) and cytochrome b5 (CYB5). Therefore 46,XY DSD with apparent 17,20 lyase deficiency may be due to mutations in CYP17A1, POR or CYB5. Illustrated by patients harboring mutations in SRD5A2, normal development of the male external genitalia depends largely on dihydrotestosterone (DHT) which is converted from circulating testicular testosterone (T) through SRD5A2 in the genital skin. In the classic androgen biosynthetic pathway, T is produced from DHEA and androstenedione/-diol in the testis. However, recently found mutations in AKR1C2/4 genes in undervirilized 46,XY individuals have established a role for a novel, alternative, backdoor pathway for fetal testicular DHT synthesis. In this pathway, which has been first elucidated for the tammar wallaby pouch young, 17-hydroxyprogesterone is converted directly to DHT by 5α-3α reductive steps without going through the androgens of the classic pathway. Enzymes AKR1C2/4 catalyse the critical 3αHSD reductive reaction which feeds 17OH-DHP into the backdoor pathway. In conclusion, androgen production in the fetal testis seems to utilize two pathways but their exact interplay remains to be elucidated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christa E Flück
- Department of Pediatrics and Department of Clinical Research, Pediatric Endocrinology and Diabetology, University Children's Hospital, University of Bern, Freiburgstrasse 15/C845, 3010 Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Amit V Pandey
- Pediatric Endocrinology Steroid Laboratory, University Children's Hospital, Freiburgstrasse 15/C837, 3010 Bern, Switzerland.
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Abstract
Sexual development in humans is only partly understood at the molecular level. It is dependent on genetic control primarily induced by the sex chromosomal differences between males and females. This leads to the development of the gonads, whereby afterwards the differentiation of the apparent phenotype is controlled by hormone action. Sex steroids may exert permanent and temporary effects. Their organizational features of inducing permanent changes in phenotype occur through genetic control of downstream genes. In this, androgens are the key elements for the differentiation of male internal and external genitalia as well as other sexual organs and general body composition, acting through a single androgen receptor. The androgen receptor is a nuclear transcription factor modulating DNA transcription of respective target genes and thereby driving development and growth in a stringent manner. The specificity of androgen action seems to be a strictly time-controlled process with the androgen receptor acting in concert with different metabolites and an array of cofactors modulating the cellular response and thereby permanently altering the phenotype of any given individual. For every cell programmed by androgens, a specific 'androgen response index' must be proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf Hiort
- Division of Experimental Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes, University of Lübeck, Lübeck, Germany.
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