Iron in red meat-friend or foe

Assessment of Dietary Iron Intake and Sources in Early Childhood in a Nationally Representative Cross-Sectional Survey

BACKGROUND

Iron deficiency has particular importance in early childhood because of its impact on growth and development. Preventive food-based strategies of iron deficiency require knowledge of intakes and sources of iron.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess daily iron intakes (DIIs) in 2013, to compare them with the dietary reference values, to assess their evolution since 1981, and to identify iron food sources among nonbreastfed French children younger than 3 years.

DESIGN

This was a nationwide cross-sectional survey conducted in 2013 in France to assess DIIs by means of comparing them with the dietary reference values. Parents' reported diet diaries were collected for 3 nonconsecutive days.

PARTICIPANTS/SETTING

Of the 1,184 children enrolled in the study, 1,035 nonbreastfed healthy children aged 0.5 to 35 months stratified into 11 age groups were included after informed consent was obtained from parents and according to a weighted quota sampling method.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

DII from the different food sources and trends in their evolution from 1981 to 2013 was assessed.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED

Results are expressed as median with interquartile range and range and mean ± SD. Student t test was used with the 2-sided α level of significance set at 5%.

RESULTS

Mean ± SD DII was 6.7 ± 2.3 mg/d before 6 months, 8.2 ± 2.7 mg/d from 6 months to 1 year, and 7.0 ± 3.2 mg/d from 1 to 3 years. The prevalence of infants older than 7 months with a DII less than the dietary reference values was 52.5%, and that of young children was 30%. After slightly increasing until 2005, DIIs decreased thereafter. Formulas contributed to most of the DIIs up to 2 years of age. Cereals were the second largest contributor to DIIs, and meat accounted for a small part of iron intake.

CONCLUSIONS

A substantial number of children between 6 months and 3 years of age were at risk of insufficient iron intake. This risk increased from 2005 to 2013. The role of formula in ensuring iron intake is highlighted. More research on health outcomes of low iron intakes is needed.

The Role of Fresh Beef Intake and Mediterranean Diet Adherence during Pregnancy in Maternal and Infant Health Outcomes

Beef is an excellent source of nutrients important for maternal health and fetal development. It is also true that the Mediterranean diet is beneficial for the health of both the mother and offspring; however, the relative value of fresh beef intake within Mediterranean diet patterns during pregnancy is unknown. The objective of this project was two-fold: (1) assess the relationship between beef intake and nutrient intake in a pregnant population; (2) assess the relationship between maternal beef consumption among varying degrees of Mediterranean diet adherence with maternal risk of anemia and infant health outcomes. This is a secondary analysis of an existing cohort of pregnant women (n = 1076) who participated in one of two completed clinical trials examining the effect of a docosahexaenoic acid supplementation on birth and offspring outcomes. Women were enrolled between 12 and 20 weeks of gestation and were followed throughout their pregnancies to collect maternal and infant characteristics, food frequency questionnaires [providing beef intake and Mediterranean diet (MedD) adherence], and supplement intake. Women with the highest fresh beef intake had the highest intake of many micronutrients that are commonly deficient among pregnant women. Fresh beef intake alone was not related to any maternal or infant outcomes. There was a reduced risk of anemia among women with medium to high MedD quality and higher fresh beef intake. Women in the medium MedD group had 31% lower odds of anemia, and women in the high MedD group had 38% lower odds of anemia with every one-ounce increase in fresh beef intake, suggesting that diet quality indices may be misrepresenting the role of fresh beef within a healthy diet. These findings show that beef intake increases micronutrient intake and may be protective against maternal anemia when consumed within a healthy Mediterranean diet pattern.

Construction of phenolic acids grafted chitosan bioactive microspheres to reduce oxidation and iron absorption in meat digestion

Although iron in meat is an important trace element for human diet, its presence also induces postprandial oxidative stress and aggravates the condition of patients with iron overload. To overcome this situation, a type of new tunable Fe-absorption bioactive materials was constructed in this study. First, four phenolic acids (Caffeic acid, Gallic acid, Protocatechuic acid, Chlorogenic acid) were grafted onto chitosan. Then, the copolymers were prepared into micron-level microspheres by emulsification method, which were characterized in adsorption isotherms (Langmuir model), swelling behavior and digestion characteristics. In order to verify the practical application effect of microspheres, Protocatechuic acid grafted chitosan microspheres as the representative were used in sirloin powder to observe their effects in vitro digestion and rat experiment. In the present study, microspheres were innovatively applied in meat consumption, which significantly inhibited the oxidation of meat in the process of digestion and effectively controlled the iron absorption. These results are expected to play an important role in promoting the healthy consumption of meat around the world, improving gastrointestinal redox status through dietary assistance, and treating diseases related to iron overload.

The Association of Total Meat Intake with Cardio-Metabolic Disease Risk Factors and Measures of Sub-Clinical Atherosclerosis in an Urbanising Community of Southern India: A Cross-Sectional Analysis for the APCAPS Cohort

AIM

Meat is commonly consumed in India; however, in comparison to Western settings, it is eaten in relatively lower quantities and with minimal processing. The association between meat intake and cardio-metabolic diseases (CMDs) and their risk factors in India is currently uncertain. We examined whether meat intake is associated with risk factors for CMDs and the measures of subclinical atherosclerosis in urbanising villages in southern India.

METHODS

We conducted a cross-sectional analysis of 6012 adults (52.3% male) participating in the Andhra Pradesh Children and Parents' Study (APCAPS), which is a large prospective, intergenerational cohort study in Southern India that began with the long-term follow-up of the Hyderabad Nutrition Trial (1987-1990). We used cross-sectional data from the third wave of data collection conducted in 2010-2012, where total meat intake was assessed using 100-item, semi-quantitative validated food frequency questionnaires (FFQ). The FFQs were validated using multiple weighed 24 h dietary recalls. The main predictor, 'total meat intake', was calculated as the sum of chicken, red meat, and fish consumption. The risk factors for CMDs [systolic blood pressure (SBP), diastolic blood pressure (DBP), body mass index (BMI), waist circumference (WC), fasting glucose, total cholesterol, homeostasis model assessment insulin resistance (HOMA-IR), total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, triglycerides, and C-reactive protein] and measures of subclinical atherosclerosis [Carotid Intima-Media Thickness, Pulse Wave Velocity, and Augmentation Index] were assessed using standardised clinical procedures. Stratified by gender, the association of meat intake with the risk factors of CMDs and measures of subclinical atherosclerosis was examined using linear multilevel models with random intercept at the household level.

RESULTS

The mean (SD) age of the male (n = 3128) and female participants (n = 2828) was 34.09 years (15.55) and 34.27 years (12.73), respectively. The median (IQR) intake of meat was 17.79 g/day (8.90, 30.26) in males and 8.90 g/day (4.15, 18.82) in females. In males, a 10 g increase in total meat intake/1000 Kcal/day was positively associated with DBP, BMI, WC, total cholesterol, LDL-C, and triglycerides, whereas in females, a 10 g increase in total meat intake/1000 Kcal/day was positively associated with SBP, DBP, fasting glucose, HOMA-IR, total cholesterol, LDL-C, and triglycerides. There was no relationship between meat consumption and measures of subclinical atherosclerosis.

CONCLUSIONS

Meat intake had a linear positive association with CMD risk factors among the relatively younger Indian population who were consuming meat at lower levels compared to their European counterparts.

Rutin, Puerarin and Silymarin Regulated Aluminum-Induced Imbalance of Neurotransmitters and Metal Elements in Brain of Rats

Non-specifically binding of aluminum to various substances in the organism can result in toxicity. The accumulation of large amounts of aluminum can cause an imbalance in metal homeostasis and interfere with the synthesis and release of neurotransmitters. Flavonoids have strong metal chelating activity, which can reduce damage to the central nervous system. The purpose of this study was to investigate the protective effect of three representative flavonoids, rutin, puerarin and silymarin, on the brain toxicity induced by long-term exposure to aluminum trichloride (AlCl3). Sixty-four Wistar rats were randomly divided into eight groups (n = 8). The rats in six intervention groups were given 100 or 200 mg/kg BW/day of three different flavonoids for four weeks after a 4-week exposure to 281.40 mg/kg BW/day AlCl3·6H2O, while the rats in the AlCl3-toxicity and control groups were given the vehicle after the period of AlCl3 exposure. The results showed that rutin, puerarin, and silymarin could increase the concentrations of magnesium, iron, and zinc in the brains of the rats. Moreover, the intake of these three flavonoids regulated the homeostasis of amino acid neurotransmitters and adjusted the concentrations of monoamine neurotransmitters to normal levels. Taken together, our data suggest that rutin, puerarin, and silymarin could ameliorate AlCl3-induced brain toxicity in the rats by regulating imbalance of metal elements and neurotransmitters in the brains of rats.

Association of body mass index and dietary intake with mild cognitive impairment and dementia: a retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

The prevalence of cognitive impairment in older adults is gradually increasing, and this is leading to many adverse outcomes. Common causes of cognitive impairment in advancing age are mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and dementia. However, how the nutritional status and nutrient intake are related to MCI and dementia is controversial. Therefore, we aimed to evaluate the association of body mass index (BMI) and dietary intake with the risk of MCI and dementia.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study involved 821 participants aged ≥ 50 years from a previous population-based cohort study: the Electricity Generating Authority of Thailand (EGAT) study in 2013-2014 (baseline) and 2018-2019 (follow-up). Dietary intake was recorded using a 12-month self-reported food frequency questionnaire. MCI and dementia were diagnosed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) criteria using the Montreal Cognitive Assessment with ADL and the Kessler Psychological Distress Scale (K10) at study entry and at the 5-year follow-up.

RESULTS

Among the 821 participants, the mean age was 60.0 ± 4.3 years, and the incidence rate of MCI and dementia was 42.5 and 11.2 per 1,000 person-years, respectively. The rate of MCI and dementia was higher in participants aged ≥ 60 years and with an education level of < 7 years. The rate of MCI was also higher in those with a BMI of ≥ 25 kg/m² and type 2 diabetes. Compared to BMI 18.5-22.9 kg/m², BMI of ≥ 25 kg/m² (odds ratio 1.91 [95% confidence interval, 1.12-3.26], p < 0.001) was associated with an increased risk of MCI after adjusted for age, education level, and type 2 diabetes. Regarding dietary intake, fresh red meat consumption was inversely associated with the risk of MCI (p = 0.037) and dementia (p = 0.011) after adjusting for age, education level, type 2 diabetes, and BMI.

CONCLUSION

Obesity was associated with a greater risk of MCI. Moreover, low consumption of fresh red meat could be a risk factor for MCI and dementia. Further studies are required to confirm and explain these findings.

Eating more sardines instead of fish oil supplementation: Beyond omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids, a matrix of nutrients with cardiovascular benefits

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) play a significant role in the prevention and management of cardiometabolic diseases associated with a mild chronic pro-inflammatory background, including type 2 diabetes, hypertension, hypertriglyceridaemia, and fatty liver disease. The effects of n-3 PUFA supplements specifically, remain controversial regarding reducing risks of cardiovascular events. n-3 PUFA supplements come at a cost for the consumer and can result in polypharmacy for patients on pharmacotherapy. Sardines are a well-known, inexpensive source of n-3 PUFA and their consumption could reduce the need for n-3 PUFA supplementation. Moreover, sardines contain other cardioprotective nutrients, although further insights are crucial to translate a recommendation for sardine consumption into clinical practice. The present review discusses the matrix of nutrients contained in sardines which confer health benefits for cardiometabolism, beyond n-3 PUFA. Sardines contain calcium, potassium, magnesium, zinc, iron, taurine, arginine and other nutrients which together modulate mild inflammation and exacerbated oxidative stress observed in cardiovascular disease and in haemodynamic dysfunction. In a common serving of sardines, calcium, potassium, and magnesium are the minerals at higher amounts to elicit clinical benefits, whilst other nutrients are present in lower but valuable amounts. A pragmatic approach towards the consumption of such nutrients in the clinical scenario should be adopted to consider the dose-response relationship effects on physiological interactions. As most recommendations currently available are based on an indirect rationale of the physiological actions of the nutrients found in sardines, randomised clinical trials are warranted to expand the evidence on the benefits of sardine consumption.

Dietary Heme-Containing Proteins: Structures, Applications, and Challenges

Heme-containing proteins, commonly abundant in red meat and blood, are considered promising dietary sources for iron supplementation and fortification with higher bioavailability and less side effects. As the precise structures and accurate bioactivity mechanism of various heme-containing proteins (hemoglobin, myoglobin, cytochrome, etc.) are determined, many methods have been explored for iron fortification. Based on their physicochemical and biological functions, heme-containing proteins and the hydrolyzed peptides have been also widely utilized as food ingredients and antibacterial agents in recent years. In this review, we summarized the structural characterization of hemoglobin, myoglobin, and other heme proteins in detail, and highlighted recent advances in applications of naturally occurring heme-containing proteins as dietary iron sources in the field of food science and nutrition. The regulation of absorption rate, auto-oxidation process, and dietary consumption of heme-containing proteins are then discussed. Future outlooks are also highlighted with the aim to suggest a research line to follow for further studies.

Maternal heme-enriched diet promotes a gut pro-oxidative status associated with microbiota alteration, gut leakiness and glucose intolerance in mice offspring

Maternal environment, including nutrition and microbiota, plays a critical role in determining offspring's risk of chronic diseases such as diabetes later in life. Heme iron requirement is amplified during pregnancy and lactation, while excessive dietary heme iron intake, compared to non-heme iron, has shown to trigger acute oxidative stress in the gut resulting from reactive aldehyde formation in conjunction with microbiota reshape. Given the immaturity of the antioxidant defense system in early life, we investigated the extent to which a maternal diet enriched with heme iron may have a lasting impact on gut homeostasis and glucose metabolism in 60-day-old C3H/HeN mice offspring.

As hypothesized, the form of iron added to the maternal diet differentially governed the offspring's microbiota establishment despite identical fecal iron status in the offspring. Importantly, despite female offspring was unaffected, oxidative stress markers were however higher in the gut of male offspring from heme enriched-fed mothers, and were accompanied by increases in fecal lipocalin-2, intestinal para-cellular permeability and TNF-α expression. In addition, male mice displayed blood glucose intolerance resulting from impaired insulin secretion following oral glucose challenge. Using an integrated approach including an aldehydomic analysis, this male-specific phenotype was further characterized and revealed close covariations between unidentified putative reactive aldehydes and bacterial communities belonging to Bacteroidales and Lachnospirales orders.

Our work highlights how the form of dietary iron in the maternal diet can dictate the oxidative status in gut offspring in a sex-dependent manner, and how a gut microbiota-driven oxidative challenge in early life can be associated with gut barrier defects and glucose metabolism disorders that may be predictive of diabetes development.

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Maternal heminic vs. non-heminic iron intake differentially and persistently imprints the offspring's fecal microbiota.

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Males from heme-fed dams exhibit increased gut lumen reactive aldehydes in absence of direct dietary exposure to heme iron.

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Some of the increased reactive aldehydes closely covariated with Orders belonging to Bacteroidales and Lachnospirales.

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Maternal exposure to dietary heme iron impairs gut barrier and glucose tolerance in male offspring.

Iron Absorption: Factors, Limitations, and Improvement Methods

Iron is an essential element for human life since it participates in many functions in the human body, including oxygen transport, immunity, cell division and differentiation, and energy metabolism. Iron homeostasis is mainly controlled by intestinal absorption because iron does not have active excretory mechanisms for humans. Thus, efficient intestinal iron bioavailability is essential to reduce the risk of iron deficiency anemia. There are two forms of iron, heme and nonheme, found in foods. The average daily dietary iron intake is 10 to 15 mg in humans since only 1 to 2 mg is absorbed through the intestinal system. Nutrient-nutrient interactions may play a role in dietary intestinal iron absorption. Dietary inhibitors such as calcium, phytates, polyphenols and enhancers such as ascorbic acid and proteins mainly influence iron bioavailability. Numerous studies have been carried out for years to enhance iron bioavailability and combat iron deficiency. In addition to traditional methods, innovative techniques are being developed day by day to enhance iron bioavailability. This review will provide information about iron bioavailability, factors affecting absorption, iron deficiency, and recent studies on improving iron bioavailability.

Digestibility of Meat Mineral and Proteins from Broilers Fed with Graded Levels of Chlorella vulgaris

The incorporation of sustainable protein sources in animal feeding is a growing trend. So far, no study has investigated in vitro digestion of meat, from broilers fed microalgae, in a human model. This research aimed to evaluate the effect of incorporating Chlorella vulgaris in the broilers diet on human protein digestibility, and mineral bioaccessibility. The study used 240 male Ross 308 broilers randomly allocated to groups fed a control diet or a diet where soybean meal was replaced with 10% (CV10%), 15% (CV15%), or 20% (CV15%) of C. vulgaris for 40 days. The microalga supplementation increased the protein and lowered the fat content in the muscle. Results on the percentages of amino acids highlighted that arginine and threonine proportions increased and lysine and cysteine proportions decreased with microalga inclusion. CV15% and CV20% meat had higher amount of K, Ca, Mg, P, and Fe in raw breasts, improving the nutrient composition of the meat. Cooking caused a decrease in Na and K and an increase in other minerals. CV20% had higher bioaccessibility of K, Ca, Mg, P, and Mg, compared to the control. Replacing soybean meal in broiler feed with higher concentrations of C. vugaris could improve the digestibility of meat protein and minerals.

Dietary Approaches to Iron Deficiency Prevention in Childhood—A Critical Public Health Issue

Iron is an essential nutrient, and individual iron status is determined by the regulation of iron absorption, which is driven by iron requirements. Iron deficiency (ID) disproportionately affects infants, children, and adolescents, particularly those who live in areas with unfavorable socioeconomic conditions. The main reason for this is that diet provides insufficient bioavailable iron to meet their needs. The consequences of ID include poor immune function and response to vaccination, and moderate ID anemia is associated with depressed neurodevelopment and impaired cognitive and academic performances. The persistently high prevalence of ID worldwide leads to the need for effective measures of ID prevention. The main strategies include the dietary diversification of foods with more bioavailable iron and/or the use of iron-fortified staple foods such as formula or cereals. However, this strategy may be limited due to its cost, especially in low-income countries where biofortification is a promising approach. Another option is iron supplementation. In terms of health policy, the choice between mass and targeted ID prevention depends on local conditions. In any case, this remains a critical public health issue in many countries that must be taken into consideration, especially in children under 5 years of age.

Association of Healthy Diet and Physical Activity With Breast Cancer: Lifestyle Interventions and Oncology Education

Global cancer statistics suggest that breast cancer (BC) is the most diagnosed cancer in women, with an estimated 2. 3 million new cases reported in 2020. Observational evidence shows a clear link between prevention and development of invasive BC and lifestyle-based interventions such as a healthy diet and physical activity. The recent findings reveal that even minimal amounts of daily exercise and a healthy diet reduced the risk of BC, mitigated the side effects of cancer treatment, and stopped the recurrence of cancer in the survivors. Despite the myriad benefits, the implementation of these lifestyle interventions in at-risk and survivor populations has been limited to date. Given the need to disseminate information about the role of physical activity and nutrition in BC reduction, the review aimed to present the recent scientific outreach and update on associations between the lifestyle interventions and BC outcomes to narrow the gap and strengthen the understanding more clearly. This review covers more direct, detailed, and updated scientific literature to respond to frequently asked questions related to the daily lifestyle-based interventions and their impact on BC risk and survivors. This review also highlights the importance of the oncology provider's job and how oncology education can reduce the BC burden.

Identification of Candidate Genes for Meat Color of Chicken by Combing Selection Signature Analyses and Differentially Expressed Genes

Meat color, an important index of chicken quality, is highly related to heme pigment, glycolysis, and intramuscular fat metabolisms. The objective of this study is to obtain candidate genes associated with meat color in chickens based on the comparison of fast-growing, white-feathered chickens (Line B) and slow-growing, yellow-feathered chickens (Jingxing Yellow), which have significant differences in meat color. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) between Line B and Jingxing Yellow were identified in beast muscle. The fixation index (F_ST) method was used to detect signatures of positive selection between the two breeds. Screening of 1109 genes by the F_ST and 1317 candidate DEGs identified by RNA-seq. After gene ontology analysis along with the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes, 16 genes associated with glycolysis, fatty acid metabolism, protein metabolism, and heme content were identified as candidate genes that regulate the color of chicken breast meat, especially TBXAS1 (redness), GDPD5 (yellowness), SLC2A6 (lightness), and MMP27 (lightness). These findings should be helpful for further elucidating the molecular mechanisms and developing molecular markers to facilitate the selection of chicken meat color.

Recent advances in the development of healthier meat products

Meat products are an excellent source of high biological value proteins, in addition to the high content of minerals, vitamins, and bioactive compounds. However, meat products contain compounds that can cause a variety of adverse health effects and pose a serious health threat to humans. In this sense, this chapter will address recent strategies to assist in the development of healthier meat products. The main advances about the reduction of sodium and animal fat in meat products will be presented. In addition, strategies to make the lipid profile of meat products more nutritionally advantageous for human health will also be discussed. Finally, the reduction of substances of safety concern in meat products will be addressed, including phosphates, nitrites, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, heterocyclic aromatic amines, as well as products from lipid and protein oxidation.

An out of box thinking: the changes of iron-porphyrin during meat processing and gastrointestinal tract and some methods for reducing its potential health hazard

Iron-porphyrin is a very important substance in organisms, especially in animals. It is not only the source of iron in human body, but is also the catalytic center of many reactions. Previous studies suggested that adequate intake of iron was important for the health of human, especially for children and pregnant women. However, associated diseases caused by iron over-intake and excessive meat consumption suggested its potential harmfulness for human health. During meat processing, Iron-porphyrin will cause the oxidation of proteins and fatty acids. In the gastrointestinal tract, iron-porphyrin can induce the production of malondialdehyde, fats oxidation, and indirectly cause oxidation of amino acids and nitrates etc. Iron-porphyrin enters the intestinal tract and disturbs the balance of intestinal flora. Finally, some common measures for inhibiting its activity are introduced, including the use of chelating agent, antioxidants, competitive inhibitor, etc., as well as give the hypothesis that sodium chloride increases the catalytic activity of iron-porphyrin. The purpose of this review is to present an overview of current knowledge about the changes of iron-porphyrin in the whole technico- and gastrointesto- processing axis and to provide ideas for further research in meat nutrition.

Meat and Human Health-Current Knowledge and Research Gaps

Meat is highly nutritious and contributes with several essential nutrients which are difficult to obtain in the right amounts from other food sources. Industrially processed meat contains preservatives including salts, possibly exerting negative effects on health. During maturation, some processed meat products develop a specific microbiota, forming probiotic metabolites with physiological and biological effects yet unidentified, while the concentration of nutrients also increases. Meat is a source of saturated fatty acids, and current WHO nutrition recommendations advise limiting saturated fat to less than ten percent of total energy consumption. Recent meta-analyses of both observational and randomized controlled trials do not support any effect of saturated fat on cardiovascular disease or diabetes. The current evidence regarding the effect of meat consumption on health is potentially confounded, and there is a need for sufficiently powered high-quality trials assessing the health effects of meat consumption. Future studies should include biomarkers of meat intake, identify metabolic pathways and include detailed study of fermented and other processed meats and their potential of increasing nutrient availability and metabolic effects of compounds.

Analysis of Environmental Determinants of Heme and Nonheme Iron Intake in a National Sample of Polish Adolescents

Intake of sufficient amounts of iron by adolescents is a matter of great concern. Therefore, it is crucial to determine the factors that may influence iron intake in this specific population. The present study aimed to analyze the environmental determinants of the intake of heme and nonheme iron in a national homogenous sample of Polish adolescents. Adolescents (aged 15-20 years) were randomly chosen from all the regions of Poland by performing a sampling of secondary schools (random quota sampling). The total iron intake, as well as the intake of heme iron, nonheme iron, animal iron, plant iron, and iron from various food products, was assessed among 1385 female respondents and 1025 male respondents using the validated IRON Intake Calculation-Food Frequency Questionnaire (IRONIC-FFQ). The intake was compared between the subgroups stratified by meat intake in the region, gross domestic product (GDP) in the region, and size of the city (rural vs. urban environment). It was observed that meat intake in the region did not influence the intake of total iron, as well as the intake of heme iron, nonheme iron, animal iron, plant iron, and iron from various food products (p > 0.05). However, GDP and the size of the city were determined as the most influencing factors, as they were associated with iron intake in both female and male adolescents, with the most prominent differences between the subgroups found in the case of females. Female adolescents from high-GDP regions had significantly higher intake of heme iron (p = 0.0047) and animal iron (p = 0.0029), and lower intake of nonheme iron compared to those from low-GDP regions (p = 0.0342). The total iron intake was higher among female adolescents who were from medium cities than those from big cities (p = 0.0350), but significantly higher animal iron intake (p = 0.0404) and plant iron intake (p = 0.0385) were observed among females from villages and small towns compared to females from other groups. Based on the results, it may be concluded that size of the city and the economic status of the region are the most important environmental determinants of iron intake in adolescents and, hence, they should be taken into account while developing educational programs, especially for the female adolescent population.

Iron-Enriched Nutritional Supplements for the 2030 Pharmacy Shelves

Iron deficiency (ID) affects people of all ages in many countries. Due to intestinal blood loss and reduced iron absorption, ID is a threat to IBD patients, women, and children the most. Current therapies can efficiently recover normal serum transferrin saturation and hemoglobin concentration but may cause several side effects, including intestinal inflammation. ID patients may benefit from innovative nutritional supplements that may satisfy iron needs without side effects. There is a growing interest in new iron-rich superfoods, like algae and mushrooms, which combine antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties with iron richness.

Public health risk-benefit assessment of red meat in France: Current consumption and alternative scenarios

Consumption of red meat has been associated with the risks of colorectal cancer (CRC), cardiovascular disease (CVD), foodborne-pathogen related diseases and with the potential benefit obtained by reduction of iron deficiency anemia (IDA). Based on probabilistic models, current risks and benefit for the French population were aggregated into a single metric, the disability adjusted life years (DALY). In France, per 100,000 people, current red meat consumption was responsible for a mean of 19 DALYs due to CRC, 21 DALYs to CVD and 7 DALYs to foodborne diseases. Current consumption of iron throughout the diet led to a mean of 15 DALYs due to IDA. To mitigate the risks, scenarios were built per sub-population of age and gender. Among adult and elderly population, the big meat eaters would benefit to adhere to the current recommendation (less than 500 g/w): the risks of CRC and CVD would decrease. Regarding IDA (scenario built with fixed ground beef amount), for young population, a consumption of 375g/w would be sufficient to eliminate the burden while for 25-44 years-old females, 455g/w would reduce IDA, but not entirely. This study highlighted the importance of assessing health risk-benefit per sub-populations and the necessity of communicating the results accordingly.

Low Serum Zinc Levels and Associated Risk Factors in Hospitalized Patients Receiving Oral or Enteral Nutrition: A Case-control Study

PURPOSE

To assess whether hospitalization and feeding strategy impact the risk of hypozincemia and associated risk factors.

METHODS

In this case-control study, serum zinc levels were compared between inpatients fed oral nutrition (ON) (n = 76) or enteral nutrition (EN) (n = 191) with outpatient controls (n = 1095).

FINDINGS

Zinc levels were significantly lower in inpatients receiving EN compared with those receiving ON (P = 0.001). Significant (P < 0.001) β-values of -11.16 and -17.58 for serum zinc concentrations were found for inpatients receiving ON or EN, respectively, compared with the outpatients. Hospitalization and old age were both independent predictors of zinc deficiency. More than 75% of patients >60 years of age fed EN had a zinc concentration <68.75 μg/dL. Low hemoglobin levels increased the risk of low zinc levels for inpatients receiving EN (P = 0.003) and ON (P = 0.026). Age (P < 0.001), noninvasive mechanical ventilatory support (P = 0.016), and critical care (P = 0.018) were risk factors for hypozincemia in patients receiving ON. Low iron levels were associated with hypozincemia (P = 0.001) in patients receiving EN.

IMPLICATIONS

Hospitalization and being >60 years of age were risk factors for zinc deficiency. Intensive care and noninvasive mechanical ventilatory support were risk factors for hypozincemia in hospitalized patients who were fed orally. Low hemoglobin levels increased the risk of low zinc concentrations for inpatients receiving EN and ON, and low iron levels were associated with hypozincemia only after EN.

Human Health Risk Assessment through Roasted Meats Consumption

Data on the content of metals and metalloids in roasted meats with different types of wood and charcoal are still scarce in the literature. The concentrations of metals (Al, Cr, Cd, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, Ni, V, and Zn) and metalloid (As) were determined by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-OES) after microwave digestion, and the estimated daily intake (EDI) for adults was assessed to determine the hazard quotient (HQ). The concentrations of Al, Cr, Cu, and Fe in raw meats were below the data obtained in other countries. The concentration of As (0.17 ± 0.42-0.23 ± 0.10 mg/kg), Mg (206.77 ± 3.99-291.95 ± 8.87 mg/kg), V (0.42 ± 0.14-6.66 ± 0.80 mg/kg), and Zn (6.66 ± 0.80-48.13 ± 0.56 mg/kg) in raw meats exceeded the values in the literature. The concentrations of Mg, As, Cr, Fe, V, and Zn are high when the meat is roasted using wood. All levels of Al, As, Cr, Cu, Fe, Mg, Mn, Mo, V, and Zn in raw meats are lower than those of meat roasted with coal and wood. The content of As in meat roasted with Chromed Copper Arsenate (CCA) wood (15.10 ± 0.27-26.25 ± 1.47 mg/kg) is higher than meat roasted with charcoal (0.46 ± 0.09-1.16 ± 0.50 mg/kg). EDI and HQ values revealed a minimal exposure of the adult population to those metals through roasted-meats consumption. However, EDI values of As in some roasted meats are above standard limits. Roast meats with wood showed higher levels of major and trace elements than meats roasted with coal. High exposures, in the long-term, may cause damage to health.

Trace Elements in Home-Processed Food Obtained from Unconventional Animals

Wild animals have been used as food since ancient times and, currently, the consumption of unconventional animals is increasing worldwide. The process of cooking meat using traditional recipes includes a variety of ingredients, which can influence the total metal intake from the diet. In this study, the concentrations of eight essential (Fe, Zn, Cu, Mn, Se, Ni, Mo, and Co) and six non-essential (Pb, Cd, Hg, Al, As, and Cr) trace elements were determined in home-processed food obtained from snails and from three common species of game animals (woodcock, pheasant, and hare), seasoned with anchovies, mushrooms, and different vegetables using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). In general, Fe was the most abundant trace element, ranging from 18 ± 8 µg/g in pheasant to 99 ± 76 µg/g in snail, and Co was the least abundant, ranging from 0.007 ± 0.003 µg/g in hare to 0.093 ± 0.048 µg/g in snail. Regarding the non-essential trace elements, Pb concentrations showed wide variations, reaching a concentration of 17.30 µg/g in hare, while Cd concentrations were higher in snail, ranging from 0.18 to 0.46 µg/g. These alternative food sources can offer an important contribution to the human nutritional requirements of essential trace elements, in particular of Fe. The high concentrations of Pb and Cd present in some samples should be considered as potentially dangerous for the consumers.

Estimation of the Burden of Iron Deficiency Anemia in France from Iron Intake: Methodological Approach

: Dietary iron deficiency (ID) is the first nutritional deficiency in the world, in terms of disability adjusted life years (DALY). This nutritional deficiency may lead to anemia, especially among children, adolescents, and adult women. The aim of this study was to build an original probabilistic model to quantitatively assess the ID, the iron deficiency anemia (IDA) and the subsequent health burden in France expressed in DALY, per age class and gender. The model considered the distribution of absorbed iron intake, the iron requirement distribution established by the European Food Safety Authority and the iron status in France. Uncertainty due to lack of data and variability due to biological diversity were taken into account and separated using a second-order Monte Carlo procedure. A total of 1290 (95% CI = 1230-1350) IDA cases corresponding to 16 (95% CI = 11-20) DALY were estimated per 100,000 individuals per year. The major contributors to IDA burden were menstruating females aged from 25 to 44 years old. Then, a consumption scenario was built with ground beef as intake, an increase in red meat consumption to 100 g/d would not eliminate entirely the IDA burden. The quantitative methodology applied here for France could be reused for other populations.

Regulation of Inflammatory Response and the Production of Reactive Oxygen Species by a Functional Cooked Ham Reformulated with Natural Antioxidants in a Macrophage Immunity Model

Nowadays, more consumers demand healthier products. A way to offer such products is to functionalize them using health-promoting bioactive compounds. Meat and meat products are high in essential nutrients; however, their excessive consumption implies a high intake of other substances that, at levels above recommended uptake limits, have been linked to certain non-communicable chronic diseases. An effective way to reduce this danger is to reformulate meat products. In this study, natural botanical extracts rich in anti-inflammatory and antioxidant compounds were used to improve the health properties of a cooked ham with an optimal nutritional profile (i.e., low in fat and salt). The RAW 264.7 mouse cell line was used as an inflammatory model and was stimulated with Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide to evaluate changes in inflammatory biomarkers such as tumour necrosis factor alpha, the interleukins (ILs) IL-1β and IL-6, nitric oxide and intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results showed that the use of natural extracts in optimized cooked ham significantly downregulated inflammatory markers and reduced the levels of intracellular ROS. Thus, the present study proposed a new functional cooked ham with potential health properties via anti-inflammatory and antioxidant in vitro activity.

Dietary Intakes of Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, and Potassium Elements and the Risk of Colorectal Cancer: a Meta-Analysis

The purpose of this study was to analyze the existing studies and to investigate the relationship between the risk of colorectal cancer (CRC) and intakes of four individual dietary elements calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), and potassium (K). All relevant articles in both Chinese and English were searched and collected from PubMed, Web of Science, and Chinese National Knowledge Infrastructure databases up to December 17, 2017. There were 29 eligible literatures selected for further meta-analysis, including 14 cohort studies and 15 case-control studies. The meta-analysis of cohort studies indicated that the high intakes of dietary Ca and Mg were negatively associated with the risk of CRC, as the hazard ratios (HR) were 0.76 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.72, 0.80) and 0.80 (95% CI 0.73, 0.87), respectively. Nevertheless, high intake of dietary heme Fe was positively correlated to the incidence of colon cancer (HR = 1.01, 95% CI 0.82, 1.19) and rectal cancer (HR = 1.04, 95% CI 0.67, 1.42). A meta-analysis of case-control studies indicated that high intakes of dietary Ca, Mg, and K were negatively related with the occurrence of CRC, because the odds ratios (OR) were 0.36 (95% CI 0.32, 0.40), 0.80 (95% CI 0.63, 0.98) and 0.97 (95% CI 0.74, 1.21), respectively. However, high Fe intake from diet was positively correlated with the rising increasing of CRC (OR = 1.04, 95% CI 0.91, 1.18). More research is needed to indicate the risk relationship between element intake and CRC.

Estimation of the burden of disease attributable to red meat consumption in France: Influence on colorectal cancer and cardiovascular diseases

The consumption of red meat has been associated with colorectal cancer (CRC) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) worldwide. The objective of this study was to assess quantitatively the burden of disease of CRC and CVD due to the consumption of red meat in France. A probabilistic risk assessment model quantifying the risk, deaths and disability adjusted life years (DALY) of both outcomes was built. In the model, uncertainty and variability were propagated separately. The model used data on current CRC and CVD incidence and red meat consumption in France, as well as dose-response from epidemiological studies. Results were given by age class and gender. A total of 19 [95% CI = 8-33] DALY per 100,000 people per year for CRC associated with red meat consumption was estimated. For CVD, 21 [95% CI = 12-32] DALY per 100,000 people per year was estimated. The uncertainty was mainly due to the dose-response, as revealed by a sensitivity analysis. A scenario analysis, performed on red meat intake, highlighted that consumption of less than 65 g per day could limit the risk of CRC and CVD in the most affected sub-populations.

Australian Lamb Meat - The Response to Societal and Ethnic Influences

Lamb has long been considered a traditional meal within Australia; however as consumer preferences have changed since the 1950’s, consumption of lamb has decreased from the 1980’s. This is the result of changing societal roles, particularly for females, decreasing household sizes and increasing awareness of the impact of food choices on human health. Since the 1980’s improvement of farm practices and increases in genetic gains has addressed part of this decline by increasing the amount of lean meat and decreasing fat in lamb retail cuts. Yet, this has created a challenge for the industry to utilise the larger carcases now being produced. Thus, a whole value chain approach to increasing consumption has been undertaken through several research programs to create cuts which suit the modern consumer, examine nutritional and eating quality and increase adoption of value added cuts. Therefore, this paper outlines this history of changing consumer patterns and the consequent research to address these changes.

Rabbit meat in need of a hat-trick: from tradition to innovation (and back)

Consumption of rabbit meat traces back to the ancient civilizations that prospered around the Mediterranean. Due to their small size, rabbits have mostly been included in traditional meals for direct consumption, with little historical urgency to develop preservation methods. Therefore, rabbit-based dishes are widespread throughout Europe, but few processed products are found. Despite its longstanding culinary value, an overall decline in the consumption of rabbit meat is discernible. As for all meat, this is related to a complex assemblage of contemporary anxieties about health, animal welfare, and the environment. Also, specific categorial dynamics are at play because rabbits have superimposed roles (e.g., livestock, game, vermin, and pets). For instance, their aspect of cuteness seems to interfere with their acceptability as a food. To counter the declining consumption of this valuable meat, reassuring discourses are required to point out its historical merit in health and culture ("story meat"). Also, its distinctive sensorial traits, nutritional profile, and technological properties should be valorized.

Maintaining the appeal of Australian lamb to the modern consumer

Aligning the production of lamb cuts with consumer preferences is an ongoing challenge for the Australian lamb supply chain. In recent decades, genetic and on-farm management practices have improved, while the demographics of consumers and their consumption patterns have changed. This has resulted in larger traditional lamb cuts, which have less appeal to modern consumers. Therefore, research has been conducted to determine the potential to fabricate new value-added lamb cuts from heavier carcasses, determine consumer preferences for lamb roasts, investigate the impact of increasing carcass weight and fat depths on the production of value-added retail cuts and determine the nutritional composition of these cuts. In an effort to address these issues, a new value-added cut, the compact shoulder roast, was developed from the forequarter of the carcass to provide an option for retailers processing heavier lamb carcasses. A subsequent survey of consumer preferences highlighted that preferences for roast weight and size were affected by frequency of consumption, with daily consumers preferring the heaviest roasts and younger consumers preferring lighter roasts, implying the need for further fabrication, such as that required for the compact shoulder roast. However, the time taken to fabricate these value-added cuts increases with each kilo increase in carcass weight and decreasing saleable meat yield of lamb carcasses results as the degree of value-adding increases, indicating that a higher average price per kilo is required at retail. Subsequently, value-added cuts will need to be marketed on the basis of other product qualities such as nutritive value. However, profiling of lamb cuts has also shown that there is little data on the nutritive value of a range of lamb cuts, apart from the loin, so work has been undertaken to address this deficiency using grass-fed lamb through a major supply chain.