Klotho in the cerebrospinal fluid of adults with and without Alzheimer's disease

Identification of the enzymatic cleavage relationship between anti-aging protein α-Klotho and Alzheimer's disease biomarker BACE1

BACKGROUND

The α-Klotho is known to be involved in longevity and various age-related diseases, including cognitive impairment. BACE1, an important enzyme associated with the pathological process of Alzheimer's disease (AD), serves as a biomarker for predicting changes in cognitive function. Although both proteins are closely linked to age-related cognitive function, the mechanism of their interaction remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

To identify the enzymatic digestion relation between α-Klotho and BACE1 and the specific cleavage site.

METHODS

Thirty elderly and forty-five young individuals were recruited. The cleavage product was identified by Coomassie blue staining, western blot, and MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry. The concentrations of plasma proteins were measured by ELISA.

RESULTS

A new protein product was identified after the digestion reaction. BACE1 cleaved the α-Klotho peptide 951-981 at the F-T residues. When the F-T residues were replaced with K-K, BACE1 was unable to cleave the mutant peptide. The plasma levels of α-Klotho were significantly lower in elderly participants than in young participants (p < 0.0001). However, there was no significant difference in plasma BACE1 levels between elderly and young participants (p = 0.164). In elderly adults, there was a significant positive correlation between plasma BACE1 and α-Klotho protein levels (p = 0.009, r = 0.469), while this correlation was not observed in young adults (p = 0.170, r = -0.208).

CONCLUSIONS

The anti-aging protein α-Klotho is a substrate of BACE1 with a specific cleavage site at F-T. The BACE1/α-Klotho pathway may serve as a common axis for age-related cognitive decline.

Suyin Detoxification Prescription Regulates the Klotho and ERK/NF-κB Signaling Pathways to Alleviate Renal Injury

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD) is an irreversible pathological condition resulting from the gradual accumulation of nephrotoxic substances. The application of the "Kidney Toxicity" theory in CKD treatment holds significant research potential and promising clinical prospects. We established a murine model of unilateral ureteral obstruction (UUO) and administered the traditional Chinese medicine prescription Suyin detoxification prescription (SDP). The efficacy of SDP was assessed by comparing the expression levels of Klotho, NF-κB, pNF-κB, VEGF, α-SMA, pERK1/2, and ERK1/2 proteins with those in the Sham operation group using immunohistochemistry, RT-qPCR, and Western Blot techniques. The study revealed a significant reduction in the expression of Klotho and VEGF proteins during the progression of renal fibrosis in mice, while there was a marked increase in the levels of pNF-κB, α-SMA, and pERK1/2 proteins, demonstrating statistical significance (p < 0.05). In UUO mice treated with a high dose of SDP, these proteins exhibited an opposite expression trend compared to that observed in pure operated model mice, with statistically significant differences (p < 0.05). Subsequently, we investigated the relationship between Klotho protein and the ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway-related proteins in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Knockdown of Klotho protein in HUVECs confirmed its potential as a target for SDP's renal protective effects in vivo by regulating ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway-related proteins to some extent. The renoprotective effect of SDP is mediated through modulation of Klotho protein expression in renal tissues, thereby influencing the ERK/NF-κB signaling pathway and ameliorating the inflammatory processes associated with renal fibrosis. The present study has significantly contributed to the advancement and refinement of the pathogenesis of "Kidney Toxicity" as well as the therapeutic approach of "Kidney Detoxification".

Impact of APOE, Klotho, and sex on cognitive decline with aging

The effects of apolipoprotein E (APOE) and Klotho genes, both implicated in aging, on human cognition as a function of sex and age are yet to be definitively established. Here, we showed in the largest cohort studied to date (N = 320,861) that APOE homozygous ε4 carriers had a greater decline in cognition with aging compared to ε3 carriers (ε3/ε4 and ε3/ε3) as well as smaller hippocampi and amygdala (N = 29,510). Critically, sex and age differentially affected the decline in cognition. Younger (40 to 50 y) female homozygous ε4 carriers showed a cognitive advantage over female ε3 carriers, but this advantage was not present in males. By contrast, Klotho-VS heterozygosity did not affect cognition or brain volume, regardless of APOE genotype, sex, or age. These cognitive trajectories with aging demonstrate clear sex-dependent antagonistic pleiotropy effects of APOE ε4, but no effects of Klotho genotype on cognition and brain volume.

Adeno-Associated Virus Vectors: Principles, Practices, and Prospects in Gene Therapy

Gene therapy offers promising potential as an efficacious and long-lasting therapeutic option for genetic conditions, by correcting defective mutations using engineered vectors to deliver genetic material to host cells. Among these vectors, adeno-associated viruses (AAVs) stand out for their efficiency, versatility, and safety, making them one of the leading platforms in gene therapy. The enormous potential of AAVs has been demonstrated through their use in over 225 clinical trials and the FDA's approval of six AAV-based gene therapy products, positioning these vectors at the forefront of the field. This review highlights the evolution and current applications of AAVs in gene therapy, focusing on their clinical successes, ongoing developments, and the manufacturing processes required for the rapid commercial growth anticipated in the AAV therapy market. It also discusses the broader implications of these advancements for future therapeutic strategies targeting more complex and multi-systemic conditions and biological processes such as aging. Finally, we explore some of the major challenges currently confronting the field.

Systemic immune-inflammation index mediates the association between abdominal obesity and serum klotho levels

The weight-adjusted waist index (WWI) has emerged as a reliable indicator of abdominal obesity. α-Klotho, a transmembrane protein, functions as a suppressor of aging. However, the relationship between these two factors remains underexplored. This study aims to investigate the association between WWI and serum α-Klotho levels in middle-aged and elderly Americans, with a focus on exploring the potential mediating role of the systemic immune inflammation index (SII). A cross-sectional study was conducted using data from 6997 middle-aged and elderly Americans participating in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys (NHANES) between 2011 and 2016. Multiple linear regression analysis was employed to assess the relationship between WWI and serum α-Klotho concentrations. Additionally, mediation analysis was performed to investigate the mediating effect of SII on the relationships. Our analysis revealed a significant negative correlation between WWI and serum α-Klotho levels in the survey-weighted multiple linear regression models (adjusted percent change: -7.79; 95% CI: -10.15, -5.37). Mediation analysis demonstrated that the association between WWI and α-Klotho levels was partially mediated by SII (adjusted percent change: -0.88; 95% CI: -1.24, -0.45), with the proportion of mediation amounting to 11.6%. Further age-stratified results showed that the mediating role of SII was more pronounced among individuals aged ≥ 60 years, exhibiting a mediating effect of 26.3%, in contrast to 4.2% for those < 60 years. The findings suggest that WWI is inversely associated with serum α-Klotho concentrations and that this association is partially mediated by SII, especially in older people.

Serum alpha klotho levels in Parkinson's Disease

PURPOSE

Parkinson's Disease (PD), a neurodegenerative disorder, is associated with substantial morbidity. α-Klotho, an anti-aging protein known for its neuroprotective properties, has gained attention. This study aims to assess serum levels of α-Klotho in PD patients.

METHODS

This study is a cross-sectional case-control study. PD was diagnosed according to UK Parkinson Disease Society Brain Bank criteria. Serum α-Klotho level was measured using a commercially available enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay.

RESULTS

Of the 314 participants in the study, 157 were patients with PD and 157 were controls. Lower levels of α-Klotho were observed in PD (0.85 nmol/L) in comparison to the controls (1.47 nmol/L, p < 0.001). α-Klotho levels were also significantly lower among PD patients with dementia compared to PD patients without dementia. In logistic regression analysis, α-Klotho (OR: 0.04, p < 0.001) demonstrated a significant relationship between PD. A significant correlation was identified between α-Klotho levels and Mini-Mental State Examination scores in PD patients. The sensitivity and the specifity of α-Klotho were 90% and 65% for predicting PD.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that α-klotho could potentially serve as a biomarker. However additional studies are needed to confirm our findings.

The Impact of Klotho in Cancer: From Development and Progression to Therapeutic Potential

Klotho, initially identified as an anti-aging gene, has been shown to play significant roles in cancer biology. Alongside α-Klotho, the β-Klotho and γ-Klotho isoforms have also been studied; these studies showed that Klotho functions as a potential tumor suppressor in many different cancers by inhibiting cancer cell proliferation, inducing apoptosis and modulating critical signaling pathways such as the Wnt/β-catenin and PI3K/Akt pathways. In cancers such as breast cancer, colorectal cancer, hepatocellular carcinoma, ovarian cancer, and renal cell carcinoma, reduced Klotho expression often correlates with a poor prognosis. In addition, Klotho's role in enhancing chemotherapy sensitivity and its epigenetic regulation further underscores its potential as a target for cancer treatments. This review details Klotho's multifaceted contributions to cancer suppression and its potential as a therapeutic target, enhancing the understanding of its significance in cancer treatment and prognoses.

Preeclampsia as a Study Model for Aging: The Klotho Gene Paradigm

Aging and pregnancy are often considered opposites in a woman's biological timeline. Aging is defined by a gradual decline in the functional capabilities of an organism over its lifetime, while pregnancy is characterized by the presence of the transient placenta, which fosters the cellular fitness necessary to support fetal growth. However, in the context of preeclampsia, pregnancy and aging share common hallmarks, including clinical complications, altered cellular phenotypes, and heightened oxidative stress. Furthermore, women with pregnancies complicated by preeclampsia tend to experience age-related disorders earlier than those with healthy pregnancies. Klotho, a gene discovered fortuitously in 1997 by researchers studying aging mechanisms, is primarily expressed in the kidneys but also to a lesser extent in several other tissues, including the placenta. The Klotho protein is a membrane-bound protein that, upon cleavage by ADAM10/17, is released into the circulation as soluble Klotho (sKlotho) where it plays a role in modulating oxidative stress. This review focuses on the involvement of sKlotho in the development of preeclampsia and age-related disorders, as well as the expression of the recently discovered Mytho gene, which has been associated with skeletal muscle atrophy.

Dietary caffeine and its negative link to serum Klotho concentrations: evidence from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

Background

This is the initial investigation assessing the association between caffeine consumption through diet and circulating Klotho concentrations, with Klotho being recognized as a key biomarker of healthspan and aging.

Methods

This cross-sectional analysis utilized data from 11,169 adults who participated in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Caffeine consumption was evaluated using 24-h dietary recall interviews by trained professionals, and serum Klotho concentrations were measured via an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Generalized linear models and threshold effect analysis were employed to examine the relationship between caffeine intake and serum Klotho concentrations. Interaction tests and subgroup analyses were conducted to identify potential effect modifiers.

Results

After controlling for covariates, a negative correlation was observed between dietary caffeine consumption and serum Klotho concentrations, with each additional 100 mg of dietary caffeine consumption, Klotho decreased by 3.40 pg./mL (95% confidence interval [CI]: -5.73, -1.07). Participants in the fourth quartile of dietary caffeine consumption showed a 23.00 pg./mL reduction in serum Klotho concentrations (95% CI: -39.41, -6.58) compared to individuals in the first quartile. Threshold effect analysis revealed a threshold point corresponding to natural log-transformed caffeine value >3.74 (equivalent to ~41 mg/day), above which Klotho levels demonstrated a more pronounced decline. Subgroup analyses indicated that this association was more significant in participants with sedentary activity >480 min and without hypertension.

Conclusion

Our study reveals a significant, dose-dependent negative association linking caffeine intake with serum Klotho concentrations in the United States adults aged 40-79 years, with potential thresholds beyond which the effects become more pronounced. Additional studies are required to verify these results and investigate the underlying biological processes involved.

Relationship of Serum Fibroblast Growth Factor 23, Hypoxia-Inducible Factor-1α, and Klotho with In-Stent Restenosis in Elderly Patients with Coronary Artery Disease after the Treatment of Percutaneous Coronary Intervention

In-stent restenosis (ISR) commonly occurs in elderly patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) after percutaneous coronary intervention. Atherosclerosis in elderly patients may be the leading cause of ISR. Therefore, we aim to explore the relationship between vascular calcification-associated factors and ISR occurrence. Elderly patients were enrolled according to standard inclusion and exclusion criteria. The serum fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α), and Klotho levels were determined using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The degree of coronary artery stenosis of the patients with CAD before operation was assessed using the Gensini score. The correlation was analyzed using Pearson analysis. The prediction value was evaluated using receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis. The patients with CAD were classified into the ISR group with 97 cases and the non-ISR (NISR) group with 349 cases. The Gensini score, serum FGF23, and HIF-1α levels increased while Klotho levels decreased in patients with CAD of the ISR group compared with those of the NISR group. Pearson analysis showed that FGF23 and HIF-1α positively correlated while Klotho negatively correlated to the Gensini score. ROC analysis showed all three factors could effectively predict the occurrence of ISR. Furthermore, the joint had a more effective prediction value for ISR occurrence. The dynamic analysis presented that the serum FGF23 and HIF-1α levels dramatically increased while Klotho levels decreased in patients with CAD after 1-year follow-up. Serum FGF23 and HIF-1α positively correlated while serum Klotho negatively correlated to ISR. Conclusively, these three factors effectively predicted the occurrence of ISR.

Association of serum klotho with cognitive function among individuals with nonalcoholic fatty liver disease

Introduction

This study investigated the potential link between serum klotho levels and cognitive function in patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).

Materials and Methods

Utilizing NHANES data from 2011 to 2014, the research included 356 eligible participants. NAFLD was identified with the United States Fatty Liver Index (US-FLI), and cognition was measured by various tests including the Animal Fluency Test (AFT), Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), Immediate Recall Test (IRT), and Delayed Recall Test (DRT). Weighted logistic regression and restricted cubic splines were employed to analyze the relationship between klotho levels and cognitive scores.

Results

A significant nonlinear association was observed between klotho levels and the performance in DSST and Delayed Recall Test (DRT). After controlling for confounding factors, the study found a positive association between higher serum klotho levels and improved cognitive performance in both AFT and DSST. However, there was no significant relationship between klotho levels and the IRT or DRT, regardless of whether the natural logarithm or quartile was considered.

Discussion

The findings suggest that a higher serum klotho level may be positively correlated with better cognitive performance in NAFLD patients.

Amyloid-β positivity is less prevalent in cognitively unimpaired KLOTHO KL-VS heterozygotes

BACKGROUND

Klotho, encoded by the KLOTHO gene, is an anti-aging and neuroprotective protein. KLOTHO KL-VS heterozygosity (KL-VSHET) is hypothesized to be protective against the accumulation of Alzheimer's disease (AD) neuropathological hallmarks (amyloid-β (Aβ) and tau).

OBJECTIVE

We examine whether being positive for Aβ (A+) or tau (T+), or A/T joint status [positive for Aβ (A + T-), tau (A-T+), both (A + T+) or neither (A-T-)] vary by KL-VS and whether serum klotho protein levels vary based on A+, T+, or A/T status in a cohort enriched for AD risk.

METHODS

The sample consisted of 704 cognitively unimpaired, late middle-aged, and older adults; MeanAge(SD) = 64.9(8.3). Serum klotho was available for a sub-sample of 396 participants; MeanAge(SD) = 66.8(7.4). Covariate-adjusted logistic regression examined whether A + or T+, and multinomial regression examined whether A/T status, vary by KL-VS genotype. Covariate-adjusted linear regression examined whether serum klotho levels differ based on A+, T+, or A/T status.

RESULTS

A+ prevalence was lower in KL-VSHET (p = 0.05), with no differences in T + prevalence (p = 0.52). KL-VSHET also had marginally lower odds of being A + T- (p = 0.07). Serum klotho levels did not differ based on A+, T+, or A/T status (all ps ≥ 0.40).

CONCLUSIONS

KL-VSHET is associated with lower odds of being positive for Aβ, regardless of whether one is also positive for tau. Conversely, the likelihood of being tau positive did not differ based on KL-VS genotype. Our findings add to the growing KLOTHO literature and suggests the need for further research focused on understanding the mechanisms underlying KL-VS-related putative resilience to AD.

Mechanistic and therapeutic role of NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive neurodegenerative disorder, has emerged as the most common form of dementia in the elderly. Several pathological hallmarks have been identified, including neuroinflammation. A comprehensive insight into the underlying mechanisms that can fuel the development of novel therapeutic approaches is necessary because of the alarmingly rapid increase in the frequency of incidence. Recently, NLRP3 inflammasome was identified as a critical mediator of neuroinflammation. Activation of nucleotide-binding domain (NOD)-like receptor protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome by amyloid, neurofibrillary tangles, impaired autophagy and endoplasmic reticulum stress, triggers the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β and IL-18. Subsequently, these cytokines can promote neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment. It is well established that genetic or pharmacological ablation of NLRP3 alleviates AD-related pathological features in in vitro and in vivo models. Therefore, several synthetic and natural compounds have been identified that exhibit the potential to inhibit NLRP3 inflammasome and alleviate AD-associated pathology. The current review article will highlight the various mechanisms by which activation of NLRP3 inflammation occurs during Alzheimer's disease, and how it influences neuroinflammation, neurodegeneration and cognitive impairment. Moreover, we will summarise the different small molecules that possess the potential to inhibit NLRP3 and can pave the path for developing novel therapeutic interventions for AD.

Lessons from Klotho mouse models to understand mineral homeostasis

AIM

Klotho, a key component of the endocrine fibroblast growth factor receptor-fibroblast growth factor axis, is a multi-functional protein that impacts renal electrolyte handling. The physiological significance of Klotho will be highlighted in the regulation of calcium, phosphate, and potassium metabolism.

METHODS

In this review, we compare several murine models with different renal targeted deletions of Klotho and the insights into the molecular and physiological function that these models offer.

RESULTS

In vivo, Klotho deficiency is associated with severely impaired mineral metabolism, with consequences on growth, longevity and disease development. Additionally, we explore the perspectives of Klotho in renal pathology and vascular events, as well as potential Klotho treatment options.

CONCLUSION

This comprehensive review emphasizes the use of Klotho to shed light on deciphering the renal molecular in vivo mechanisms in electrolyte handling, as well as novel therapeutic interventions.

Insulin Resistance, a Risk Factor for Alzheimer's Disease: Pathological Mechanisms and a New Proposal for a Preventive Therapeutic Approach

Peripheral insulin resistance (IR) is a well-documented, independent risk factor for the development of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer and cellular senescence. Recently, the brain has also been identified as an insulin-responsive region, where insulin acts as regulator of the brain metabolism. Despite the clear link between IR and the brain, the exact mechanisms underlying this relationship remain unclear. Therapeutic intervention in patients showing symptoms of neurodegenerative diseases has produced little or no results. It has been demonstrated that insulin resistance plays a significant role in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases, particularly cognitive decline. Peripheral and brain IR may represent a modifiable state that could be used to prevent major brain disorders. In this review, we will analyse the scientific literature supporting IR as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease and suggest some therapeutic strategies to provide a new proposal for the prevention of brain IR and its consequences.

Association between plasma trans fatty acids and serum α-klotho levels in adults in the United States of America: an analysis of the NHANES 2009-2010 datasets

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to explore the potential associations between trans fatty acid (TFA) and α-klotho levels.

METHODS

Datasets from the 2009-2010 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) were analysed for this study. Multivariable linear regression and restricted cubic spline (RCS) analyses were performed to examine the relationships between plasma TFA and serum α-klotho levels.

RESULTS

A total of 1,205 participants were included, with a geometric mean (GM) of 803.60 (95% CI: 787.45, 820.00) pg/mL for serum α-klotho levels. RCS analysis revealed L-shaped relationships between TFA and α-klotho levels. The inflection points for palmitelaidic acid (PA), vaccinic acid (VA), elaidic acid (EA), and total TFA levels were 4.55, 20.50, 18.70, and 46.40 µmol/L, respectively. Before reaching the inflection point, serum α-klotho levels were negatively correlated with plasma PA, VA, EA and total TFA levels, with β values (95% CI) of -0.15 (-0.24, -0.06), -0.16 (-0.23, -0.09), -0.14 (-0.22, -0.05) and - 0.19 (-0.27, -0.11), respectively. Linolelaidic acid (LA) levels exhibited an inverse and linear association with α-klotho levels ( Pnonlinearity=0.167, Poverall<0.001). L-shaped relationships between TFA and α-klotho levels were also observed in the subgroups of participants who were aged < 65 years, were male, did not exercise, were ex-smokers, and were overweight/obese.

CONCLUSIONS

L-shaped correlations between plasma PA, VA, EA, and total TFA levels and serum α-klotho levels were observed among adults in the United States.

FNDC5/Irisin in dementia and cognitive impairment: update and novel perspective

Epidemiological surveys show that the incidence of age-related dementia and cognitive impairment is increasing and it has been a heavy burden for society, families, and healthcare systems, making the preservation of cognitive function in an increasingly aging population a major challenge. Exercise is beneficial for brain health, and FDNC5/irisin, a new exercise-induced myokine, is thought to be a beneficial mediator to cognitive function and plays an important role in the crosstalk between skeletal muscle and brain. This review provides a critical assessment of the recent progress in both fundamental and clinical research of FDNC5/irisin in dementia and cognitive impairment-related disorders. Furthermore, we present a novel perspective on the therapeutic effectiveness of FDNC5/irisin in alleviating these conditions.

Dietary folate intake and serum klotho levels in adults aged 40-79 years: a cross-sectional study from the national health and nutrition examination survey 2007-2016

Objective

This study aims to explore the relationship between dietary folate intake and serum Klotho levels in adults from aged 40 to 79 years in the United States, seeking to elucidate the intricacies of their interaction.

Methods

Analyzing data from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) spanning 2007 to 2016. The survey research determined folate intake through a 24-h dietary recall and nutrient density modeling, and assessed Klotho levels using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). The relationship between folate intake and Klotho levels was evaluated using weighted linear regression, and complemented by analysis via smoothed curve models for nuanced understanding.

Results

The study encompassed 10,278 participants, with an average age of 57.64 years, revealing a noteworthy positive correlation between dietary folate and serum Klotho levels. The regression coefficient stood at 0.11 (95% confidence interval, 0.05, 0.18) post-adjustment for various covariates. When dietary folate intake was categorized into quartiles, the second, third, and fourth quartiles exhibited statistically significant differences compared to the lowest quartile. This indicates that higher folate intake correlates with increased serum Klotho levels. These findings underscore the potential benefits of elevating folate intake to enhance serum Klotho levels. Stratified analysis indicated that this association was more pronounced among males aged 60 years or older and individuals with hypertension.

Conclusion

The findings suggest a significant correlation between increased dietary folate intake and elevated serum Klotho levels in adults aged 40-79 years. Hinting at the potential nutritional influences on the aging process and associated health conditions. This calls for further exploration into the mechanisms and broader implications of this association.

Molecular mechanisms linking type 2 diabetes mellitus and late-onset Alzheimer's disease: A systematic review and qualitative meta-analysis

Research evidence indicating common metabolic mechanisms through which type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) increases risk of late-onset Alzheimer's dementia (LOAD) has accumulated over recent decades. The aim of this systematic review is to provide a comprehensive review of common mechanisms, which have hitherto been discussed in separate perspectives, and to assemble and evaluate candidate loci and epigenetic modifications contributing to polygenic risk linkages between T2DM and LOAD. For the systematic review on pathophysiological mechanisms, both human and animal studies up to December 2023 are included. For the qualitative meta-analysis of genomic bases, human association studies were examined; for epigenetic mechanisms, data from human studies and animal models were accepted. Papers describing pathophysiological studies were identified in databases, and further literature gathered from cited work. For genomic and epigenomic studies, literature mining was conducted by formalised search codes using Boolean operators in search engines, and augmented by GeneRif citations in Entrez Gene, and other sources (WikiGenes, etc.). For the systematic review of pathophysiological mechanisms, 923 publications were evaluated, and 138 gene loci extracted for testing candidate risk linkages. 3 57 publications were evaluated for genomic association and descriptions of epigenomic modifications. Overall accumulated results highlight insulin signalling, inflammation and inflammasome pathways, proteolysis, gluconeogenesis and glycolysis, glycosylation, lipoprotein metabolism and oxidation, cell cycle regulation or survival, autophagic-lysosomal pathways, and energy. Documented findings suggest interplay between brain insulin resistance, neuroinflammation, insult compensatory mechanisms, and peripheral metabolic dysregulation in T2DM and LOAD linkage. The results allow for more streamlined longitudinal studies of T2DM-LOAD risk linkages.

Knockout of the longevity gene Klotho perturbs aging and Alzheimer's disease-linked brain microRNAs and tRNA fragments

Overexpression of the longevity gene Klotho prolongs lifespan, while its knockout shortens lifespan and impairs cognition via perturbation of myelination and synapse formation. However, comprehensive analysis of Klotho knockout effects on mammalian brain transcriptomics is lacking. Here, we report that Klotho knockout alters the levels of aging- and cognition related mRNAs, long non-coding RNAs, microRNAs and tRNA fragments. These include altered neuronal and glial regulators in murine models of aging and Alzheimer's disease and in human Alzheimer's disease post-mortem brains. We further demonstrate interaction of the knockout-elevated tRNA fragments with the spliceosome, possibly affecting RNA processing. Last, we present cell type-specific short RNA-seq datasets from FACS-sorted neurons and microglia of live human brain tissue demonstrating in-depth cell-type association of Klotho knockout-perturbed microRNAs. Together, our findings reveal multiple RNA transcripts in both neurons and glia from murine and human brain that are perturbed in Klotho deficiency and are aging- and neurodegeneration-related.

Serum soluble alpha-klotho klotho and cognitive functioning in older adults aged 60 and 79: an analysis of cross-sectional data of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2011 to 2014

OBJECTIVES

Klotho, consisting of membrane klotho and soluble alpha-klotho, is found to be associated with better cognitive outcomes in small samples of the aged population. We aimed to examine the association of serum soluble alpha-klotho with cognitive functioning among older adults using a nationally representative sample of U.S. older adults.

METHOD

A total of 2,173 U.S. older adults aged 60-79 years in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey from 2011 to 2014 were included in this cross-sectional analysis. Serum soluble alpha-klotho was measured in the laboratory and analyzed with an ELISA kit. Cognitive function was measured using the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease Word Learning subtest (CERAD-WL) immediate and delayed memory, the Animal fluency test (AFT), and the Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST). Test-specific and global cognition z-scores were calculated based on sample means and standard deviations. Multivariable linear regression models were applied to examine the association of quartiles and continuous value of serum soluble alpha-klotho with test-specific and global cognition z-scores. Subgroup analysis was conducted by sex. The following covariates were included in the analysis- age, sex, race/ethnicity, education, depressive symptoms, smoking status, body mass index (BMI), physical activity, stroke, prevalent coronary heart disease, total cholesterol, and systolic blood pressure. All the information was self-reported or obtained from health exams.

RESULTS

Serum soluble alpha-klotho level in the lowest quartile was associated with lower z-scores for DSST (beta [β] =-0.13, 95% confidence interval [CI]: -0.25, -0.01). For subgroup analysis, serum soluble alpha-klotho level in the lowest quartile was associated with lower z-scores for DSST (β=-0.16, 95% CI: -0.32, -0.003) and global cognition (β=-0.14, 95% CI: -0.28, -0.01) among female participants. No association was found between continuous serum soluble alpha-klotho and cognitive functioning among the participants.

CONCLUSIONS

Lower serum soluble alpha-klotho quartile was associated with poorer cognitive functioning among older women. Future studies are expected to examine the longitudinal association between klotho levels and cognitive outcomes.

Soluble Klotho, a Potential Biomarker of Chronic Kidney Disease-Mineral Bone Disorders Involved in Healthy Ageing: Lights and Shadows

Shortly after the discovery of Klotho, interest grew in its potential role in chronic kidney disease (CKD). There are three isoforms of the Klotho protein: αKlotho, βKlotho and γKlotho. This review will focus on αKlotho due to its relevance as a biomarker in CKD. αKlotho is synthesized mainly in the kidneys, but it can be released into the bloodstream and urine as soluble Klotho (sKlotho), which undertakes systemic actions, independently or in combination with FGF23. It is usually accepted that sKlotho levels are reduced early in CKD and that lower levels of sKlotho might be associated with the main chronic kidney disease-mineral bone disorders (CKD-MBDs): cardiovascular and bone disease. However, as results are inconsistent, the applicability of sKlotho as a CKD-MBD biomarker is still a matter of controversy. Much of the inconsistency can be explained due to low sample numbers, the low quality of clinical studies, the lack of standardized assays to assess sKlotho and a lack of consensus on sample processing, especially in urine. In recent decades, because of our longer life expectancies, the prevalence of accelerated-ageing diseases, such as CKD, has increased. Exercise, social interaction and caloric restriction are considered key factors for healthy ageing. While exercise and social interaction seem to be related to higher serum sKlotho levels, it is not clear whether serum sKlotho might be influenced by caloric restriction. This review focuses on the possible role of sKlotho as a biomarker in CKD-MBD, highlighting the difference between solid knowledge and areas requiring further research, including the role of sKlotho in healthy ageing.

Klotho: a potential therapeutic target in aging and neurodegeneration beyond chronic kidney disease-a comprehensive review from the ERA CKD-MBD working group

Klotho, a multifunctional protein, acts as a co-receptor in fibroblast growth factor 23 and exerts its impact through various molecular pathways, including Wnt, hypoxia-inducible factor and insulin-like growth factor 1 pathways. The physiological significance of Klotho is the regulation of vitamin D and phosphate metabolism as well as serving as a vital component in aging and neurodegeneration. The role of Klotho in aging and neurodegeneration in particular has gained considerable attention. In this narrative review we highlight several key insights into the molecular basis and physiological function of Klotho and synthesize current research on the role of Klotho in neurodegeneration and aging. Klotho deficiency was associated with cognitive impairment, reduced growth, diminished longevity and the development of age-related diseases in vivo. Serum Klotho levels showed a decline in individuals with advanced age and those affected by chronic kidney disease, establishing its potential diagnostic significance. Additionally, multiple medications have been demonstrated to influence Klotho levels. Therefore, this comprehensive review suggests that Klotho could open the door to novel interventions aimed at addressing the challenges of aging and neurodegenerative disorders.

The association of serum neurofilament light chains with early symptoms related to Parkinson's disease: A cross-sectional study

Neurofilament light chains (NfL), released with neural axon injury, is considered as a potential biomarker for Parkinson's disease (PD). The relationship between NfL and PD has been studied mainly in diagnosed patients. Few large-scale studies analyze the association between NfL levels and multiple non-motor symptoms linked to early PD in the general population. Therefore, this study aims to determine the association of NfL with early symptoms of PD, and effectively respond to the development of early symptoms of PD. We examined the relationship between serum NfL and early non-motor symptoms of PD (smell dysfunction, sleep problems, cognitive function) and serum Klotho levels in the general population using data from the 2013-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). The relationship between serum NfL and early symptoms of PD in 1125 participants was analyzed by multiple linear regression and logistic regression models. The results showed a significant association between serum NfL and early symptoms of PD. There was a significant positive correlation between NfL and smell dysfunction, short sleep and long sleep. There was a significant negative correlation between NfL and Klotho levels and cognitive function test results. Further, we observed gender and age differences in the association of NfL with early symptoms of PD. Our study demonstrate that elevated serum NfL levels are positively associated with an increased risk of early PD-related symptoms, suggesting that serum NfL can be a promising biomarker for early PD.

The possible anti-seizure properties of Klotho

Recurrent seizures in epilepsy may lead to progressive neuronal damage, which can diminish health-related quality of life. Evaluation and control of pathological processes in the brain is valuable. It seems imperative that new markers and approaches for seizure alleviation be discovered. Klotho (Kl), an antiaging protein, has protective effects in the brain against neurological disorders. It may also have antiseizure effects by improving creatine transfer to the brain, upregulating excitatory amino acid transporters, and inhibiting insulin/insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), Wingless (Wnt), transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β), and retinoic-acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)/nuclear translocation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathways. Stimulation and activation of the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1)/p38 mitogen‑activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways could also be considered other possible antiseizure mechanisms of Kl. In the present review, the roles of Kl in the central nervous system as well as its possible anti-seizure properties are discussed for the first time.

Urinary Klotho Excretion: A Key Regulator of Sodium Homeostasis in Chronic Kidney Disease Stage 2-4

BACKGROUND Soluble alpha-klotho (klotho) is considered an important regulator of mineral homeostasis in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). Since the mineral transport proteins are located on the apical membrane of renal tubular cells, we hypothesized that urine klotho may also be involved in their homeostasis. We aimed to investigate the associations between serum and urine klotho and their impacts on mineral homeostasis in patients with stage 2 to 4 CKD. MATERIAL AND METHODS Serum, spot urine, and 24-h urine of klotho were measured by using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Fractional excretion of sodium, potassium, calcium, phosphate, magnesium, and klotho were calculated. RESULTS A total of 53 patients with CKD stages 2 to 4 were enrolled in this cross-sectional study. The mean age was 71.1±10.5 years, and 68% were men. Linear regression analysis showed that serum log-transformed klotho was negatively associated with log-transformed fractional excretion of klotho (log-FEKlotho) (ß=-0.085, P=0.02), showing that urinary klotho excretion could negatively regulate serum klotho levels. Moreover, our multivariate stepwise regression showed log-fractional excretion of sodium was positively associated with log-FEKlotho (ß=0.138, P=0.032). This implied urinary klotho excretion positively regulated urinary sodium excretion. CONCLUSIONS Our study showed that urine klotho excretion resulted in decreased serum klotho levels and enhanced urinary sodium excretion in patients with CKD stages 2 to 4. In addition to serum klotho, we found, for the first time, that urine klotho also played a significant role in sodium homeostasis.

Relationship of Klotho with cognition and dementia: Results from the NHANES 2011-2014 and Mendelian randomization study

The relationships of Klotho levels with cognition and dementia are poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the association between Klotho levels and cognitive function and to determine causality between Klotho and dementia using Mendelian randomization (MR). Based on data from the National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHANES) 2011-2014, this study consisted of 1875 older adults aged 60-79 years. Cognitive function was assessed by the digit symbol substitution test (DSST). We performed weighted multivariable-adjusted linear regression to assess the association between Klotho concentrations and cognitive function. Then, 2-sample MR was conducted to assess the causal relationship between Klotho and dementia. The inverse variance weighted (IVW) method was used as the primary analysis. We observed a positive association between serum Klotho concentrations and the results of the Digit Symbol Substitution test (DSST) (T2: β 2.16, 95% CI: 0.30-4.01, P = 0.03, T3: β 2.48, 95% CI: 0.38-4.57, P = 0.02) after adjusting for the covariates. Moreover, there was also a potential nonlinear relationship between Klotho and DSST. The IVW method showed that genetically predicted high Klotho levels were not significantly associate with any type of dementia, including Alzheimer's disease (OR = 1.03, 95% CI: 0.96-1.10, P = 0.46), vascular dementia (OR = 1.04, 95% CI: 0.87-1.25, P = 0.66), frontotemporal dementia (OR = 0.73, 95% CI: 0.47-1.14, P = 0.16), or dementia with Lewy bodies (OR = 1.03, 95% CI: 0.87-1.23, P = 0.73). In the cross-sectional observational study, Klotho and cognitive function were significantly correlated; however, findings from MR studies did not indicate a causal relationship between Klotho and dementia.

The fibroblast growth factor-Klotho axis at molecular level

Klotho is a recently discovered protein that has positive effects on all systems of the body, for example, regulating calcium and phosphorus metabolism, protecting nerves, delaying aging and so on. Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) are a group of polypeptides that function throughout the body by binding with cell surface FGF receptors (FGFRs). Endocrine FGFs require Klotho as a co-receptor for FGFRs. There is increasing evidence that Klotho participates in calcium and phosphorus regulation and metabolic regulation via the FGF-Klotho axis. Moreover, soluble Klotho can function as a separate hormone to regulate homeostasis on various ion channels and carrier channels on the cell surface. This review mainly explains the molecular basis of the membrane signaling mechanism of Klotho.

The Importance of α-Klotho in Depression and Cognitive Impairment and Its Connection to Glutamate Neurotransmission-An Up-to-Date Review

Depression is a serious neuropsychiatric disease affecting an increasing number of people worldwide. Cognitive deficits (including inattention, poor memory, and decision-making difficulties) are common in the clinical picture of depression. Cognitive impairment has been hypothesized to be one of the most important components of major depressive disorder (MDD; referred to as clinical depression), although typical cognitive symptoms are less frequent in people with depression than in people with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder (BD; sometimes referred to as manic-depressive disorder). The importance of α-Klotho in the aging process has been well-documented. Growing evidence points to the role of α-Klotho in regulating other biological functions, including responses to oxidative stress and the modulation of synaptic plasticity. It has been proven that a Klotho deficit may contribute to the development of various nervous system pathologies, such as behavioral disorders or neurodegeneration. Given the growing evidence of the role of α-Klotho in depression and cognitive impairment, it is assumed that this protein may be a molecular link between them. Here, we provide a research review of the role of α-Klotho in depression and cognitive impairment. Furthermore, we propose potential mechanisms (related to oxidative stress and glutamatergic transmission) that may be important in α-Klotho-mediated regulation of mental and cognitive function.

Klotho increases antioxidant defenses in astrocytes and ubiquitin-proteasome activity in neurons

Klotho is an antiaging protein, and its levels decline with age and chronic stress. The exogenous administration of Klotho can enhance cognitive performance in mice and negatively modulate the Insulin/IGF1/PI3K/AKT pathway in terms of metabolism. In humans, insulin sensitivity is a hallmark of healthy longevity. Therefore, this study aimed to determine if exogenous Klotho, when added to neuronal and astrocytic cell cultures, could reduce the phosphorylation levels of certain insulin signaling effectors and enhance antioxidant strategies in these cells. Primary cell cultures of cortical astrocytes and neurons from mice were exposed to 1 nM Klotho for 24 h, with or without glucose. Klotho decreased pAKT and mTOR levels. However, in astrocytes, Klotho increased FOXO-3a activity and catalase levels, shielding them from intermediate oxidative stress. In neurons, Klotho did not alter FOXO-3 phosphorylation levels but increased proteasome activity, maintaining lower levels of PFKFB3. This study offers new insights into the roles of Klotho in regulating energy metabolism and the redox state in the brain.

Relationships between serum Klotho concentrations and cognitive performance among older chronic kidney disease patients with albuminuria in NHANES 2011-2014

Background

The potential relationship between Klotho and cognitive function is limited and controversial. This study aimed to quantify the association of Klotho and cognitive impairment in chronic kidney disease (CKD) patients with albuminuria.

Methods

Serum Klotho was measured by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Patients with urine albumin to creatinine ratio (UACR) > 30mg/g from the National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHANES) 2011-2014 were divided into 4 groups according to the quartile of Klotho. Cognitive function was examined using the Consortium to Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD), Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), and Animal Fluency Test. The relationship between Klotho and cognitive function was analyzed by multivariable regression and subgroup analysis.

Results

Among 368 CKD patients with albuminuria, we found that Klotho was negatively associated with creatinine, and positively associated with hemoglobin, and estimated glomerular filtration rate. No significant linear relationship was showed between Klotho (as a continuous variable) and cognitive function. When regarded Klotho as a category variable, patients in the quartile 3 group were at a better cognitive performance for CEARD-word learning subset and DSST, especially in the CKD patients with 30 mg/g < UACR <300 mg/g, but not in participants with UACR > 300 mg/g.

Conclusions

The increased Klotho was associated with an increased cognitive function in CKD patients with microalbuminuria. Further studies are needed to demonstrate whether Klotho may be a beneficial biomarker of cognitive health and neurodegeneration.

Neuroprotective Role of Klotho on Dementia

Klotho, a gene found on chromosome 13q12, is involved in a variety of processes and signaling pathways in the human body related to vitamin D metabolism; cardiovascular, renal, musculoskeletal, and skin diseases; and cancer biology. However, more importantly, it has been linked to beneficial effects related to anti-aging. The levels of soluble Klotho in the blood have been found to decline with age, increasing the risk of age-related diseases. When the Klotho gene was silenced or defective, it caused a shorter lifespan. However, when the gene was overexpressed, it resulted in a longer lifespan. Klotho has positive benefits on the neurological system by causing a higher representation of useful longevity genes, preventing further neuronal damage, and offering neuroprotection. Thus, it has the potential to become a new treatment for many age-related diseases that cause dementia, including multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease. In this review, we discuss the mechanisms of Klotho's benefits and roles on various organ systems, specifically on nervous system disorders that lead to dementia.

Interaction between KLOTHO-VS Heterozygosity and APOE ε4 Allele Predicts Rate of Cognitive Decline in Late-Onset Alzheimer's Disease

KLOTHO-VS heterozygosity (KL-VShet+) promotes longevity and protects against cognitive decline in aging. To determine whether KL-VShet+ mitigates Alzheimer's disease (AD) progression, we used longitudinal linear-mixed models to compare the rate of change in multiple cognitive measures in AD patients stratified by APOE ε4 carrier status. We aggregated data on 665 participants (208 KL-VShet-/ε4-, 307 KL-VShet-/ε4+, 66 KL-VShet+/ε4-, and 84 KL-VShet+/ε4+) from two prospective cohorts, the National Alzheimer's Coordinating Center and the Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative. All participants were initially diagnosed with mild cognitive impairment, later developed AD dementia during the study, and had at least three subsequent visits. KL-VShet+ conferred slower cognitive decline in ε4 non-carriers (+0.287 MMSE points/year, p = 0.001; -0.104 CDR-SB points/year, p = 0.026; -0.042 ADCOMS points/year, p < 0.001) but not in ε4 carriers who generally had faster rates of decline than non-carriers. Stratified analyses showed that the protective effect of KL-VShet+ was particularly prominent in male participants, those who were older than the median baseline age of 76 years, or those who had an education level of at least 16 years. For the first time, our study provides evidence that KL-VShet+ status has a protective effect on AD progression and interacts with the ε4 allele.

Novel approaches to increase synaptic resilience as potential treatments for Alzheimer's disease

A significant proportion of brains with Alzheimer's disease pathology are obtained from patients that were cognitively normal, suggesting that differences within the brains of these individuals made them resilient to the disease. Here, we describe recent approaches that specifically increase synaptic resilience, as loss of synapses is considered to be the first change in the brains of Alzheimer's patients. We start by discussing studies showing benefit from increased expression of neurotrophic factors and protective genes. Methods that effectively make dendritic spines stronger, specifically by acting through actin network proteins, scaffolding proteins and inhibition of phosphatases are described next. Importantly, the therapeutic strategies presented in this review tackle Alzheimer's disease not by targeting plaques and tangles, but instead by making synapses resilient to the pathology associated with Alzheimer's disease, which has tremendous potential.

The relationship between serum klotho and cognitive performance in a nationally representative sample of US adults

Purpose

Aging is the primary risk factor for cognitive decline. Serum klotho, as an anti-aging protein, may be involved in cognitive decline. Thus, we aim to explorer the correlation between serum klotho and cognitive performance among an older adult population in the United States.

Methods

We performed a cross-sectional study using data from NHANES 2011-2014. Serum klotho was analyzed by ELISA. Cognitive function was measured by Establish a Registry for Alzheimer's Disease (CERAD) test, Animal Fluency test and Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST) score. The relationship between serum klotho and cognition was analyzed by a multivariable regression model.

Results

A total of 2,171 participants aged 60-79 years were included. Median serum klotho concentration was 851.52 pg./ml (SD = 294.07). We also categorized serum klotho concentrates into quartiles. After fully adjusting pertinent variables, compared to those with lowest klotho levels (206.3-658.4 pg./ml), individuals with highest klotho concentrates (983.3-3,456 pg./ml) had a higher CERAD score [β (95%CI): 0.97 (0.25, 1.69) p = 0.008] and DSST score [β (95%CI): 1.86 (0.25, 3.47), p = 0.024].

Conclusion

Our findings indicated that, among the general population of American older adults, serum klotho concentrates may serve as a marker of cognitive health. The benefits of klotho on aging process and neurodegenerative disorders should be paid more attention.

Klotho Gene Expression Is Decreased in Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cells in Patients with Alzheimer's Disease and Frontotemporal Dementia

BACKGROUND

The longevity gene Klotho (KL) was recently associated with neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Its role in the brain has not been completely elucidated, although evidence suggests that KL-VS heterozygosity is associated with a reduced risk of AD in Apolipoprotein E ɛ4 carriers. Conversely, no data about genetic association with frontotemporal dementia (FTD) are available so far.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the involvement of KL in AD and FTD by the determination of the genetic frequency of KL-VS variant and the expression analysis of KL gene.

METHODS

A population consisting of 438 patients and 240 age-matched controls was enrolled for the study. KL-VS and APOE genotypes were assessed by allelic discrimination through a QuantStudio 12K system. KL gene expression analysis was performed in a restricted cohort of patients consisting of 43 AD patients, 41 FTD patients and 19 controls. KL gene expression was assessed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells with specific TaqMan assay. Statistical analysis was performed using GraphPad 9 Prims software.

RESULTS

KL-VS frequency was comparable to the ones found in literature and no differences were found in both allelic and genotypic frequencies between patients and controls were found. Conversely, KL expression levels were significantly lower in AD and FTD patients compared with controls (mean fold regulation - 4.286 and - 6.561 versus controls in AD and FTD, respectively, p = 0.0037).

CONCLUSION

This is the first study investigating KL in FTD. We showed a decreased expression of the gene in AD and FTD, independent of the genotype, suggesting a role of Klotho in common steps during neurodegeneration.

The Interrelated Multifactorial Actions of Cortisol and Klotho: Potential Implications in the Pathogenesis of Parkinson's Disease

The pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) is complex, multilayered, and not fully understood, resulting in a lack of effective disease-modifying treatments for this prevalent neurodegenerative condition. Symptoms of PD are heterogenous, including motor impairment as well as non-motor symptoms such as depression, cognitive impairment, and circadian disruption. Aging and stress are important risk factors for PD, leading us to explore pathways that may either accelerate or protect against cellular aging and the detrimental effects of stress. Cortisol is a much-studied hormone that can disrupt mitochondrial function and increase oxidative stress and neuroinflammation, which are recognized as key underlying disease mechanisms in PD. The more recently discovered klotho protein, considered a general aging-suppressor, has a similarly wide range of actions but in the opposite direction to cortisol: promoting mitochondrial function while reducing oxidative stress and inflammation. Both hormones also converge on pathways of vitamin D metabolism and insulin resistance, also implicated to play a role in PD. Interestingly, aging, stress and PD associate with an increase in cortisol and decrease in klotho, while physical exercise and certain genetic variations lead to a decrease in cortisol response and increased klotho. Here, we review the interrelated opposite actions of cortisol and klotho in the pathogenesis of PD. Together they impact powerful and divergent mechanisms that may go on to influence PD-related symptoms. Better understanding of these hormones in PD would facilitate the design of effective interventions that can simultaneously impact the multiple systems involved in the pathogenesis of PD.

AD-associated CSF biomolecular changes are attenuated in KL-VS heterozygotes

Introduction

Dementia as an inevitable aging consequence has been challenged and underscores the need for investigations of the factors that confer resilience. We examine whether the functionally advantageous KL-VS variant of the putative aging suppressor KLOTHO gene attenuates age-related cognitive decline and deleterious biomolecular changes.

Methods

Trajectories of change in memory and executive function (N = 360; 2-12 visits) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) Alzheimer's disease (AD) biomarkers-amyloid beta (Aβ)42, total tau (t-tau), phosphorylated tau (p-tau) (N = 112; 2-4 samplings)-were compared between KL-VS non-carriers and heterozygotes in middle-aged and older adults from the Wisconsin Registry for Alzheimer's Prevention and the Wisconsin Alzheimer's Disease Research Center studies.

Results

Memory and executive function declined (p's≤ 0.001) and CSF t-tau, p-tau, t-tau/Aβ42, and p-tau/Aβ42 levels increased (all p's≤ 0.004) with age. The rate of p-tau accumulation was attenuated for KL-VS heterozygotes (p = 0.03).

Discussion

KL-VS heterozygosity may confer resilience to AD-associated biomolecular changes.

Aging-suppressor Klotho: Prospects in diagnostics and therapeutics

INTRODUCTION

The protein Klotho (KL) was first discovered in KL-deficient mice, which developed a syndrome similar to premature aging in humans. Since then, KL has been implicated in multiple molecular signaling pathways and diseases. KL has been shown to have anti-aging, healthspan and lifespan extending, cognitive enhancing, anti-oxidative, anti-inflammatory, and anti-tumor properties. KL levels decrease with age and in many diseases. Therefore, it has been of great interest to develop a KL-boosting or restoring drug, or to supplement endogenous Klotho with exogenous Klotho genetic material or recombinant Klotho protein, and to use KL levels in the body as a marker for the efficacy of such drugs and as a biomarker for the diagnosis and management of diseases.

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this study was to provide a comprehensive review of KL levels across age groups in individuals who are healthy or have certain health conditions, using four sources: blood, cerebrospinal fluid, urine, and whole biopsy/necropsy tissue. By doing so, baseline KL levels can be identified across the lifespan, in the absence or presence of disease. In turn, these findings can be used to guide the development of future KL-based therapeutics and biomarkers, which will heavily rely on an individual's baseline KL range to be efficacious.

METHODS

A total of 65 studies were collected primarily using the PubMed database. Research articles that were published up to April 2022 were included. Statistical analysis was conducted using RStudio.

RESULTS

Mean and median blood KL levels in healthy individuals, mean blood KL levels in individuals with renal conditions, and mean blood KL levels in individuals with metabolic or endocrine conditions were shown to decrease with age. Similarly, CSF KL levels in patients with AD also declined compared with age-matched controls.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study confirms the trend that KL levels in blood decrease with age in humans, among those who are healthy, and even further among those with renal and endocrine/metabolic illnesses. Further, by drawing this trend from multiple published works, we were able to provide a general idea of baseline KL ranges, specifically in blood in these populations. These data add to the current knowledge on normal KL levels in the body and how they change with time and in disease, and can potentially support efforts to create KL-based treatments and screening tools to better manage aging, renal, and metabolic/endocrine diseases.

Serum Levels of α-Klotho, Inflammation-Related Cytokines, and Mortality in Hemodialysis Patients

It has been hypothesized that α-Klotho deficiency might contribute to chronic inflammation in patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), especially those on hemodialysis (HD). Serum Klotho levels by some authors are considered a potential predictor of cerebrovascular events. Therefore, we analyzed serum levels of α-Klotho with ELISA and inflammation-related cytokines in HD patients. Sixty-seven HD patients and 19 healthy people were recruited between November 2017 and June 2021. A Cytometric Bead Array (CBA) was used to determine the level of different cytokines: IL-12p70, TNF, IL-10, IL-6, IL-1β, and IL-8. A human Klotho ELISA kit was used to determine the level of α-Klotho in the plasma samples of HD patients. There was no difference in serum levels of α-Klotho between HD patients and healthy people. Patients had increased serum IL-6 and IL-8. Significant positive correlations existed between the concentration of α-Klotho and the serum concentrations of IL-12p70, IL-10, and IL-1β. However, in a multivariable linear regression analysis, only patients' age was associated independently with α-Klotho level. Serum α-Klotho was not associated with higher mortality risk in HD patients. While these results draw attention to potential relationships between α-Klotho proteins and inflammatory markers in HD patients, our cross-sectional study could not confirm the pathogenic link between α-Klotho, inflammation, and cardiovascular mortality.

Association of Klotho Protein Levels and KL-VS Heterozygosity With Alzheimer Disease and Amyloid and Tau Burden

IMPORTANCE

Identification of proteins and genetic factors that reduce Alzheimer disease (AD) pathology is of importance when searching for novel AD treatments. Heterozygosity of the KL-VS haplotype has been associated with reduced amyloid and tau burden. Whether this association is mediated by the Klotho protein remains unclear.

OBJECTIVES

To assess concentrations of Klotho in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma among cognitively healthy controls and patients with AD and to correlate these findings with KL-VS heterozygosity status and amyloid and tau burden.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

This case-control study combined 2 independent case-control AD cohorts consisting of 243 referred patients with AD and volunteer controls recruited from January 1, 2009, to December 31, 2018. Klotho levels were measured in CSF and plasma and correlated with KL-VS heterozygosity status and levels of CSF amyloid-β 42 (Aβ42), total tau, and phosphorylated tau. Statistical analysis was performed from January 1, 2021, to March 1, 2022.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Associations of Klotho levels in CSF and plasma with levels of CSF biomarkers were analyzed using linear regression. Association analyses were stratified separately by clinical groups, APOE4 status, and KL-VS heterozygosity. Pearson correlation was used to assess the correlation between CSF and plasma Klotho levels.

RESULTS

A total of 243 participants were included: 117 controls (45 men [38.5%]; median age, 65 years [range, 41-84 years]), 102 patients with mild cognitive impairment due to AD (AD-MCI; 59 men [57.8%]; median age, 66 years [range, 46-80 years]), and 24 patients with dementia due to AD (AD-dementia; 12 men [50.0%]; median age, 64.5 years [range, 54-75 years]). Median CSF Klotho levels were higher in controls (1236.4 pg/mL [range, 20.4-1726.3 pg/mL]; β = 0.103; 95% CI, 0.023-0.183; P = .01) and patients with AD-MCI (1188.1 pg/mL [range, 756.3-1810.3 pg/mL]; β = 0.095; 95% CI, 0.018-0.172; P = .02) compared with patients with AD-dementia (1073.3 pg/mL [range, 698.2-1661.4 pg/mL]). Higher levels of CSF Klotho were associated with lower CSF Aβ42 burden (β = 0.519; 95% CI, 0.201-0.836; P < .001) and tau burden (CSF total tau levels: β = -0.884; 95% CI, 0.223 to -0.395; P < .001; CSF phosphorylated tau levels: β = -0.672; 95% CI, -1.022 to -0.321; P < .001) independent of clinical, KL-VS heterozygosity, or APOE4 status. There was a weak correlation between Klotho CSF and plasma levels among the entire cohort (Pearson correlation r = 0.377; P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The findings of this case-control study suggest that Klotho protein levels were associated with clinical stages of AD, cognitive decline, and amyloid and tau burden and that these outcomes were more clearly mediated by the protein directly rather than the KL-VS heterozygosity variant. When selecting individuals at risk for clinical trials, the Klotho protein level and not only the genetic profile should be considered.

Association of serum Klotho levels with cancer and cancer mortality: Evidence from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey

BACKGROUND

Klotho has both anticancer and hormone-like functions. But the research on Klotho and cancer is mainly based on animal experiments and small-scale clinical research, thus we explored the association between serum Klotho and cancer and cancer mortality based on the National Health and Nutrition Survey (NHANES).

METHODS

Participants were employed from the NHANES 2007-2016, excluding pregnant, chronic renal insufficiency, and incomplete data of cancer questionnaire and serum Klotho level. The association of serum Klotho with cancer and mortality was analyzed by weighted Logistic regression, weighted Cox regression and competitive risk model, respectively. Correlations between serum Klotho and testosterone and estradiol levels were analyzed by Spearman correlation and restricted cubic spline respectively.

RESULTS

We found Klotho had an inverse effect with risk of pan-cancer (all p < 0.02), with each unit increase in Klotho (1ug/g creatinine) associated with a 0.9%-2.2% reduction in the risk of cancer, and higher levels showing a stronger negative association (all p-trend <= 0.0005). Whereas, we did not observe any association between serum Klotho level with all-cause mortality and cancer-specific mortality (all p > 0.05). Then, stratified analysis found that people aged 60-79, female, overweight and non-Hispanic whites or Mexican Americans were less likely to develop cancer. In addition, there was a strong nonlinear and linear positive correlation of Klotho with estradiol (p-nonlinear = 0.0178) and testosterone only among male participants (β = -0.513, p = 0.0137), respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

We found an inverse association between serum Klotho and cancer, but without cancer mortality. And this effect may be partially mediated by estradiol and testosterone. Further prospective studies are needed to prove these findings.

Pathobiology of the Klotho Antiaging Protein and Therapeutic Considerations

The α-Klotho protein (henceforth denoted Klotho) has antiaging properties, as first observed in mice homozygous for a hypomorphic Klotho gene (kl/kl). These mice have a shortened lifespan, stunted growth, renal disease, hyperphosphatemia, hypercalcemia, vascular calcification, cardiac hypertrophy, hypertension, pulmonary disease, cognitive impairment, multi-organ atrophy and fibrosis. Overexpression of Klotho has opposite effects, extending lifespan. In humans, Klotho levels decline with age, chronic kidney disease, diabetes, Alzheimer’s disease and other conditions. Low Klotho levels correlate with an increase in the death rate from all causes. Klotho acts either as an obligate coreceptor for fibroblast growth factor 23 (FGF23), or as a soluble pleiotropic endocrine hormone (s-Klotho). It is mainly produced in the kidneys, but also in the brain, pancreas and other tissues. On renal tubular-cell membranes, it associates with FGF receptors to bind FGF23. Produced in bones, FGF23 regulates renal excretion of phosphate (phosphaturic effect) and vitamin D metabolism. Lack of Klotho or FGF23 results in hyperphosphatemia and hypervitaminosis D. With age, human renal function often deteriorates, lowering Klotho levels. This appears to promote age-related pathology. Remarkably, Klotho inhibits four pathways that have been linked to aging in various ways: Transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), Wnt and NF-κB. These can induce cellular senescence, apoptosis, inflammation, immune dysfunction, fibrosis and neoplasia. Furthermore, Klotho increases cell-protective antioxidant enzymes through Nrf2 and FoxO. In accord, preclinical Klotho therapy ameliorated renal, cardiovascular, diabetes-related and neurodegenerative diseases, as well as cancer. s-Klotho protein injection was effective, but requires further investigation. Several drugs enhance circulating Klotho levels, and some cross the blood-brain barrier to potentially act in the brain. In clinical trials, increased Klotho was noted with renin-angiotensin system inhibitors (losartan, valsartan), a statin (fluvastatin), mTOR inhibitors (rapamycin, everolimus), vitamin D and pentoxifylline. In preclinical work, antidiabetic drugs (metformin, GLP-1-based, GABA, PPAR-γ agonists) also enhanced Klotho. Several traditional medicines and/or nutraceuticals increased Klotho in rodents, including astaxanthin, curcumin, ginseng, ligustilide and resveratrol. Notably, exercise and sport activity increased Klotho. This review addresses molecular, physiological and therapeutic aspects of Klotho.

AAV-mediated expression of secreted and transmembrane αKlotho isoforms rescues relevant aging hallmarks in senescent SAMP8 mice

Senescence represents a stage in life associated with elevated incidence of morbidity and increased risk of mortality due to the accumulation of molecular alterations and tissue dysfunction, promoting a decrease in the organism's protective systems. Thus, aging presents molecular and biological hallmarks, which include chronic inflammation, epigenetic alterations, neuronal dysfunction, and worsening of physical status. In this context, we explored the AAV9-mediated expression of the two main isoforms of the aging-protective factor Klotho (KL) as a strategy to prevent these general age-related features using the senescence-accelerated mouse prone 8 (SAMP8) model. Both secreted and transmembrane KL isoforms improved cognitive performance, physical state parameters, and different molecular variables associated with aging. Epigenetic landscape was recovered for the analyzed global markers DNA methylation (5-mC), hydroxymethylation (5-hmC), and restoration occurred in the acetylation levels of H3 and H4. Gene expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators in central nervous system such as TNF-α and IL-10, respectively, had improved levels, which were comparable to the senescence-accelerated-mouse resistant 1 (SAMR1) healthy control. Additionally, this improvement in neuroinflammation was supported by changes in the histological markers Iba1, GFAP, and SA β-gal. Furthermore, bone tissue structural variables, especially altered during senescence, recovered in SAMP8 mice to SAMR1 control values after treatment with both KL isoforms. This work presents evidence of the beneficial pleiotropic role of Klotho as an anti-aging therapy as well as new specific functions of the KL isoforms for the epigenetic regulation and aged bone structure alteration in an aging mouse model.

Klotho an Autophagy Stimulator as a Potential Therapeutic Target for Alzheimer’s Disease: A Review

Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is an age-associated neurodegenerative disease; it is the most common cause of senile dementia. Klotho, a single-pass transmembrane protein primarily generated in the brain and kidney, is active in a variety of metabolic pathways involved in controlling neurodegeneration and ageing. Recently, many studies have found that the upregulation of Klotho can improve pathological cognitive deficits in an AD mice model and have demonstrated that Klotho plays a role in the induction of autophagy, a major contributing factor for AD. Despite the close association between Klotho and neurodegenerative diseases, such as AD, the underlying mechanism by which Klotho contributes to AD remains poorly understood. In this paper, we will introduce the expression, location and structure of Klotho and its biological functions. Specifically, this review is devoted to the correlation of Klotho protein and the AD phenotype, such as the effect of Klotho in upregulating the amyloid-beta clearance and in inducing autophagy for the clearance of toxic proteins, by regulating the autophagy lysosomal pathway (ALP). In summary, the results of multiple studies point out that targeting Klotho would be a potential therapeutic strategy in AD treatment.

The impact of uremic toxins on Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia, pathologically characterized by accumulation of senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is highly prevalent in elderly population closely associated with occurrence of dementia. Recent epidemiological and experimental studies suggest a potential association of CKD with AD. Both diseases share a panel of identical risk factors, such as type 2 diabetes; and hypertension. However, the relationship between CKD and AD is unclear. Lower clearance of a panel of uremic toxin including cystatin-C, guanidine, and adiponectin due to CKD is implied to contribute to AD pathogenesis. In this review we summarize the current evidence from epidemiological, experimental and clinical studies on the potential contribution of uremic toxins to AD pathogenesis. We describe outstanding questions and propose an outlook on the link between uremic toxins and AD.

Actions of Klotho on hippocampal neuronal cells

Klotho gene was originally recognized as a putative aging-suppressor and its prominent age-regulating effects are mostly attributed to the modulation of mineral homeostasis in the kidney. However, recent studies link alterations in hippocampal Klotho expression with cognitive impairment and neurodegenerative diseases. This suggests that hippocampal neurons require Klotho for health and proper functionality. Klotho protects against neuronal dysfunction and regulates several intracellular signaling pathways including oxidative stress response, inflammation, DNA damage, autophagy, endoplasmic reticulum stress response, and multiple types of cell death. Specifically, this chapter covers the current knowledge as to how Klotho protein affects the hippocampal neuronal cells, with special attention paid to underlying molecular mechanisms, and thus influences hippocampal development, hippocampal-dependent cognition, behavior, and motor skills as well as mediates neurodegenerative processes.

Circulating Klotho Is Higher in Cerebrospinal Fluid than Serum and Elevated Among KLOTHO Heterozygotes in a Cohort with Risk for Alzheimer's Disease

BACKGROUND

Klotho is a longevity and neuroprotective hormone encoded by the KLOTHO gene, and heterozygosity for the KL-VS variant confers a protective effect against neurodegenerative disease.

OBJECTIVE

Test whether klotho concentrations in serum or cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) vary as a function of KLOTHO KL-VS genotype, determine whether circulating klotho concentrations from serum and CSF differ from one another, and evaluate whether klotho levels are associated with Alzheimer's disease risk factors.

METHODS

Circulating klotho was measured in serum (n = 1,116) and CSF (n = 183) of cognitively intact participants (aged 62.4 ± 6.5 years; 69.5% female). KLOTHO KL-VS zygosity (non-carrier; heterozygote; homozygote) was also determined. Linear regression was used to test whether klotho hormone concentration varied as a function of KL-VS genotype, specimen source, and demographic and clinical characteristics.

RESULTS

Serum and CSF klotho were higher in KL-VS carriers than non-carriers. Klotho concentration was higher in CSF than in serum. Females had higher serum and CSF klotho, while younger age was associated with higher klotho in CSF.

CONCLUSION

In a cohort enriched for risk for Alzheimer's disease, heterozygotic and homozygotic carriers of the KL-VS allele, females, and younger individuals have higher circulating klotho. Fluid source, KL-VS genotype, age, and sex should be considered in analyses of circulating klotho on brain health.

Serum Levels of α-Klotho Are Correlated with Cerebrospinal Fluid Levels and Predict Measures of Cognitive Function

BACKGROUND

α-klotho might play a role in neurodegenerative diseases.

OBJECTIVE

To determine levels of α-klotho and apoE in serum and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) samples and their relationship with the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) and Clinical Dementia Rating (CDR).

METHODS

All subjects were between age 39 to 83+ (n = 94). CDR and MMSE were administered to all participants. CSF was collected in the early afternoon by lumbar puncture.

RESULTS

Serum and CSF levels of α-klotho are positively correlated and both predict scores on the MMSE and CDR, regardless of sex or apoE4 status.

CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate that α-klotho may be an important biomarker of cognitive health and neurodegeneration, and that relatively non-invasive sampling of α-klotho from serum is likely highly reflective of CSF levels.

Klotho and Mesenchymal Stem Cells: A Review on Cell and Gene Therapy for Chronic Kidney Disease and Acute Kidney Disease

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and acute kidney injury (AKI) are public health problems, and their prevalence rates have increased with the aging of the population. They are associated with the presence of comorbidities, in particular diabetes mellitus and hypertension, resulting in a high financial burden for the health system. Studies have indicated Klotho as a promising therapeutic approach for these conditions. Klotho reduces inflammation, oxidative stress and fibrosis and counter-regulates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system. In CKD and AKI, Klotho expression is downregulated from early stages and correlates with disease progression. Therefore, the restoration of its levels, through exogenous or endogenous pathways, has renoprotective effects. An important strategy for administering Klotho is through mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). In summary, this review comprises in vitro and in vivo studies on the therapeutic potential of Klotho for the treatment of CKD and AKI through the administration of MSCs.