1
|
Lackey EP, Moreira L, Norton A, Hemelt ME, Osorno T, Nguyen TM, Macosko EZ, Lee WCA, Hull CA, Regehr WG. Specialized connectivity of molecular layer interneuron subtypes leads to disinhibition and synchronous inhibition of cerebellar Purkinje cells. Neuron 2024; 112:2333-2348.e6. [PMID: 38692278 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 04/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) account for approximately 80% of the inhibitory interneurons in the cerebellar cortex and are vital to cerebellar processing. MLIs are thought to primarily inhibit Purkinje cells (PCs) and suppress the plasticity of synapses onto PCs. MLIs also inhibit, and are electrically coupled to, other MLIs, but the functional significance of these connections is not known. Here, we find that two recently recognized MLI subtypes, MLI1 and MLI2, have a highly specialized connectivity that allows them to serve distinct functional roles. MLI1s primarily inhibit PCs, are electrically coupled to each other, fire synchronously with other MLI1s on the millisecond timescale in vivo, and synchronously pause PC firing. MLI2s are not electrically coupled, primarily inhibit MLI1s and disinhibit PCs, and are well suited to gating cerebellar-dependent behavior and learning. The synchronous firing of electrically coupled MLI1s and disinhibition provided by MLI2s require a major re-evaluation of cerebellar processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Luis Moreira
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Aliya Norton
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Marie E Hemelt
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Tomas Osorno
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Tri M Nguyen
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Evan Z Macosko
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Wei-Chung Allen Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Court A Hull
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University Medical School, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Wade G Regehr
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Fernández Santoro EM, Karim A, Warnaar P, De Zeeuw CI, Badura A, Negrello M. Purkinje cell models: past, present and future. Front Comput Neurosci 2024; 18:1426653. [PMID: 39049990 PMCID: PMC11266113 DOI: 10.3389/fncom.2024.1426653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024] Open
Abstract
The investigation of the dynamics of Purkinje cell (PC) activity is crucial to unravel the role of the cerebellum in motor control, learning and cognitive processes. Within the cerebellar cortex (CC), these neurons receive all the incoming sensory and motor information, transform it and generate the entire cerebellar output. The relatively homogenous and repetitive structure of the CC, common to all vertebrate species, suggests a single computation mechanism shared across all PCs. While PC models have been developed since the 70's, a comprehensive review of contemporary models is currently lacking. Here, we provide an overview of PC models, ranging from the ones focused on single cell intracellular PC dynamics, through complex models which include synaptic and extrasynaptic inputs. We review how PC models can reproduce physiological activity of the neuron, including firing patterns, current and multistable dynamics, plateau potentials, calcium signaling, intrinsic and synaptic plasticity and input/output computations. We consider models focusing both on somatic and on dendritic computations. Our review provides a critical performance analysis of PC models with respect to known physiological data. We expect our synthesis to be useful in guiding future development of computational models that capture real-life PC dynamics in the context of cerebellar computations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Arun Karim
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Pascal Warnaar
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Chris I. De Zeeuw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | | | - Mario Negrello
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Shakhawat AMD, Foltz JG, Nance AB, Bhateja J, Raymond JL. Systemic pharmacological suppression of neural activity reverses learning impairment in a mouse model of Fragile X syndrome. eLife 2024; 12:RP92543. [PMID: 38953282 PMCID: PMC11219043 DOI: 10.7554/elife.92543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/03/2024] Open
Abstract
The enhancement of associative synaptic plasticity often results in impaired rather than enhanced learning. Previously, we proposed that such learning impairments can result from saturation of the plasticity mechanism (Nguyen-Vu et al., 2017), or, more generally, from a history-dependent change in the threshold for plasticity. This hypothesis was based on experimental results from mice lacking two class I major histocompatibility molecules, MHCI H2-Kb and H2-Db (MHCI KbDb-/-), which have enhanced associative long-term depression at the parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses in the cerebellum (PF-Purkinje cell LTD). Here, we extend this work by testing predictions of the threshold metaplasticity hypothesis in a second mouse line with enhanced PF-Purkinje cell LTD, the Fmr1 knockout mouse model of Fragile X syndrome (FXS). Mice lacking Fmr1 gene expression in cerebellar Purkinje cells (L7-Fmr1 KO) were selectively impaired on two oculomotor learning tasks in which PF-Purkinje cell LTD has been implicated, with no impairment on LTD-independent oculomotor learning tasks. Consistent with the threshold metaplasticity hypothesis, behavioral pre-training designed to reverse LTD at the PF-Purkinje cell synapses eliminated the oculomotor learning deficit in the L7-Fmr1 KO mice, as previously reported in MHCI KbDb-/-mice. In addition, diazepam treatment to suppress neural activity and thereby limit the induction of associative LTD during the pre-training period also eliminated the learning deficits in L7-Fmr1 KO mice. These results support the hypothesis that cerebellar LTD-dependent learning is governed by an experience-dependent sliding threshold for plasticity. An increased threshold for LTD in response to elevated neural activity would tend to oppose firing rate stability, but could serve to stabilize synaptic weights and recently acquired memories. The metaplasticity perspective could inform the development of new clinical approaches for addressing learning impairments in autism and other disorders of the nervous system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amin MD Shakhawat
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | | | - Adam B Nance
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | - Jaydev Bhateja
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford UniversityStanfordUnited States
| | | |
Collapse
|
4
|
Garcia-Garcia MG, Kapoor A, Akinwale O, Takemaru L, Kim TH, Paton C, Litwin-Kumar A, Schnitzer MJ, Luo L, Wagner MJ. A cerebellar granule cell-climbing fiber computation to learn to track long time intervals. Neuron 2024:S0896-6273(24)00366-0. [PMID: 38870929 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/01/2024] [Revised: 03/31/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
In classical cerebellar learning, Purkinje cells (PkCs) associate climbing fiber (CF) error signals with predictive granule cells (GrCs) that were active just prior (∼150 ms). The cerebellum also contributes to behaviors characterized by longer timescales. To investigate how GrC-CF-PkC circuits might learn seconds-long predictions, we imaged simultaneous GrC-CF activity over days of forelimb operant conditioning for delayed water reward. As mice learned reward timing, numerous GrCs developed anticipatory activity ramping at different rates until reward delivery, followed by widespread time-locked CF spiking. Relearning longer delays further lengthened GrC activations. We computed CF-dependent GrC→PkC plasticity rules, demonstrating that reward-evoked CF spikes sufficed to grade many GrC synapses by anticipatory timing. We predicted and confirmed that PkCs could thereby continuously ramp across seconds-long intervals from movement to reward. Learning thus leads to new GrC temporal bases linking predictors to remote CF reward signals-a strategy well suited for learning to track the long intervals common in cognitive domains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Martha G Garcia-Garcia
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Akash Kapoor
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Oluwatobi Akinwale
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Lina Takemaru
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Tony Hyun Kim
- Department of Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Casey Paton
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA
| | - Ashok Litwin-Kumar
- Zuckerman Mind Brain Behavior Institute, Department of Neuroscience, Columbia University, New York, NY 10027, USA
| | - Mark J Schnitzer
- Department of Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA; Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Liqun Luo
- Department of Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA
| | - Mark J Wagner
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20894, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Wang C, Derderian KD, Hamada E, Zhou X, Nelson AD, Kyoung H, Ahituv N, Bouvier G, Bender KJ. Impaired cerebellar plasticity hypersensitizes sensory reflexes in SCN2A-associated ASD. Neuron 2024; 112:1444-1455.e5. [PMID: 38412857 PMCID: PMC11065582 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2024.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2023] [Revised: 01/03/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/29/2024]
Abstract
Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) commonly present with sensory hypersensitivity or abnormally strong reactions to sensory stimuli. Such hypersensitivity can be overwhelming, causing high levels of distress that contribute markedly to the negative aspects of the disorder. Here, we identify a mechanism that underlies hypersensitivity in a sensorimotor reflex found to be altered in humans and in mice with loss of function in the ASD risk-factor gene SCN2A. The cerebellum-dependent vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), which helps maintain one's gaze during movement, was hypersensitized due to deficits in cerebellar synaptic plasticity. Heterozygous loss of SCN2A-encoded NaV1.2 sodium channels in granule cells impaired high-frequency transmission to Purkinje cells and long-term potentiation, a form of synaptic plasticity important for modulating VOR gain. VOR plasticity could be rescued in mice via a CRISPR-activator approach that increases Scn2a expression, demonstrating that evaluation of a simple reflex can be used to assess and quantify successful therapeutic intervention.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenyu Wang
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kimberly D Derderian
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Elizabeth Hamada
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Xujia Zhou
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Andrew D Nelson
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Henry Kyoung
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Nadav Ahituv
- Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Guy Bouvier
- Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Université Paris-Saclay, CNRS, Institut des Neurosciences Paris-Saclay, 91400 Saclay, France.
| | - Kevin J Bender
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Silva NT, Ramírez-Buriticá J, Pritchett DL, Carey MR. Climbing fibers provide essential instructive signals for associative learning. Nat Neurosci 2024; 27:940-951. [PMID: 38565684 PMCID: PMC11088996 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-024-01594-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2022] [Accepted: 02/05/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Supervised learning depends on instructive signals that shape the output of neural circuits to support learned changes in behavior. Climbing fiber (CF) inputs to the cerebellar cortex represent one of the strongest candidates in the vertebrate brain for conveying neural instructive signals. However, recent studies have shown that Purkinje cell stimulation can also drive cerebellar learning and the relative importance of these two neuron types in providing instructive signals for cerebellum-dependent behaviors remains unresolved. In the present study we used cell-type-specific perturbations of various cerebellar circuit elements to systematically evaluate their contributions to delay eyeblink conditioning in mice. Our findings reveal that, although optogenetic stimulation of either CFs or Purkinje cells can drive learning under some conditions, even subtle reductions in CF signaling completely block learning to natural stimuli. We conclude that CFs and corresponding Purkinje cell complex spike events provide essential instructive signals for associative cerebellar learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N Tatiana Silva
- Neuroscience Program, Champalimaud Center for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal
| | | | - Dominique L Pritchett
- Neuroscience Program, Champalimaud Center for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal.
- Biology Department, Howard University, Washington, DC, USA.
| | - Megan R Carey
- Neuroscience Program, Champalimaud Center for the Unknown, Lisbon, Portugal.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Shakhawat AM, Foltz JG, Nance AB, Bhateja J, Raymond JL. Systemic pharmacological suppression of neural activity reverses learning impairment in a mouse model of Fragile X syndrome. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.05.561013. [PMID: 37873217 PMCID: PMC10592955 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.05.561013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
The enhancement of associative synaptic plasticity often results in impaired rather than enhanced learning. Previously, we proposed that such learning impairments can result from saturation of the plasticity mechanism (Nguyen-Vu et al., 2017), or, more generally, from a history-dependent change in the threshold for plasticity. This hypothesis was based on experimental results from mice lacking two class I major histocompatibility molecules, MHCI H2-Kb and H2Db (MH-CI KbDb-/-), which have enhanced associative long-term depression at the parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synapses in the cerebellum (PF-Purkinje cell LTD). Here, we extend this work by testing predictions of the threshold metaplasticity hypothesis in a second mouse line with enhanced PF-Purkinje cell LTD, the Fmr1 knockout mouse model of Fragile X syndrome (FXS). Mice lacking Fmr1 gene expression in cerebellar Purkinje cells (L7-Fmr1 KO) were selectively impaired on two oculomotor learning tasks in which PF-Purkinje cell LTD has been implicated, with no impairment on LTD-independent oculomotor learning tasks. Consistent with the threshold metaplasticity hypothesis, behavioral pre-training designed to reverse LTD at the PF-Purkinje cell synapses eliminated the oculomotor learning deficit in the L7-Fmr1 KO mice, as previously reported in MHCI KbDb-/-mice. In addition, diazepam treatment to suppress neural activity and thereby limit the induction of associative LTD during the pre-training period also eliminated the learning deficits in L7-Fmr1 KO mice. These results support the hypothesis that cerebellar LTD-dependent learning is governed by an experience-dependent sliding threshold for plasticity. An increased threshold for LTD in response to elevated neural activity would tend to oppose firing rate stability, but could serve to stabilize synaptic weights and recently acquired memories. The metaplasticity perspective could inform the development of new clinical approaches for addressing learning impairments in autism and other disorders of the nervous system.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amin Md Shakhawat
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5125
| | - Jacqueline G Foltz
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5125
| | | | - Jaydev Bhateja
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5125
| | - Jennifer L Raymond
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-5125
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Rudolph S, Badura A, Lutzu S, Pathak SS, Thieme A, Verpeut JL, Wagner MJ, Yang YM, Fioravante D. Cognitive-Affective Functions of the Cerebellum. J Neurosci 2023; 43:7554-7564. [PMID: 37940582 PMCID: PMC10634583 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1451-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 11/10/2023] Open
Abstract
The cerebellum, traditionally associated with motor coordination and balance, also plays a crucial role in various aspects of higher-order function and dysfunction. Emerging research has shed light on the cerebellum's broader contributions to cognitive, emotional, and reward processes. The cerebellum's influence on autonomic function further highlights its significance in regulating motivational and emotional states. Perturbations in cerebellar development and function have been implicated in various neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism spectrum disorder and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder. An increasing appreciation for neuropsychiatric symptoms that arise from cerebellar dysfunction underscores the importance of elucidating the circuit mechanisms that underlie complex interactions between the cerebellum and other brain regions for a comprehensive understanding of complex behavior. By briefly discussing new advances in mapping cerebellar function in affective, cognitive, autonomic, and social processing and reviewing the role of the cerebellum in neuropathology beyond the motor domain, this Mini-Symposium review aims to provide a broad perspective of cerebellar intersections with the limbic brain in health and disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Rudolph
- Department of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, New York 10461
| | - Aleksandra Badura
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC Rotterdam, Rotterdam, 3015 GD, The Netherlands
| | - Stefano Lutzu
- Department of Neuroscience, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, New York 10461
| | - Salil Saurav Pathak
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, Minnesota 55812
| | - Andreas Thieme
- Department of Neurology and Center for Translational Neuro- and Behavioral Sciences, University Hospital Essen, Essen, D-45147, Germany
| | - Jessica L Verpeut
- Department of Psychology, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287
| | - Mark J Wagner
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders & Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20814
| | - Yi-Mei Yang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, Minnesota 55812
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455
| | - Diasynou Fioravante
- Center for Neuroscience, University of California-Davis, Davis, California 95618
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology and Behavior, University of California-Davis, Davis, California 95618
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Cullen KE. Internal models of self-motion: neural computations by the vestibular cerebellum. Trends Neurosci 2023; 46:986-1002. [PMID: 37739815 PMCID: PMC10591839 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2023.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2023] [Revised: 07/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
The vestibular cerebellum plays an essential role in maintaining our balance and ensuring perceptual stability during activities of daily living. Here I examine three key regions of the vestibular cerebellum: the floccular lobe, anterior vermis (lobules I-V), and nodulus and ventral uvula (lobules X-IX of the posterior vermis). These cerebellar regions encode vestibular information and combine it with extravestibular signals to create internal models of eye, head, and body movements, as well as their spatial orientation with respect to gravity. To account for changes in the external environment and/or biomechanics during self-motion, the neural mechanisms underlying these computations are continually updated to ensure accurate motor behavior. To date, studies on the vestibular cerebellum have predominately focused on passive vestibular stimulation, whereas in actuality most stimulation is the result of voluntary movement. Accordingly, I also consider recent research exploring these computations during active self-motion and emerging evidence establishing the cerebellum's role in building predictive models of self-generated movement.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen E Cullen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Otolaryngology - Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Xia Y, Wang M, Zhu Y. The Effect of Cerebellar rTMS on Modulating Motor Dysfunction in Neurological Disorders: a Systematic Review. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2023; 22:954-972. [PMID: 36018543 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-022-01465-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The effectiveness of cerebellar repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) on motor dysfunction in patients with neurological disorders has received increasing attention because of its potential for neuromodulation. However, studies on the neuromodulatory effects, parameters, and safety of rTMS implementation in the cerebellum to alleviate motor dysfunction are limited. This systematic review aimed to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of cerebellar rTMS treatment for motor dysfunction caused by neurological disorders and to review popular stimulation parameters. Five electronic databases-Medline, Web of Science, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and Embase-were searched for relevant research published from inception to July 2022. All randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that reported the effects of cerebellar rTMS combined with behavioral rating scales on motor dysfunction were eligible for enrollment. Additionally, reference lists of the enrolled studies were manually checked. Among 1156 articles screened, 21 RCTs with 666 subjects were included. rTMS conducted on the cerebellum showed an improvement in stroke (spasticity, balance, and gait), cervical dystonia, Parkinson's disease (tremor), cerebellar ataxia, and essential tremor but not in multiple sclerosis. The 8-shaped coil with a diameter of 70 mm was determined as the most common therapeutic choice. None of the studies reported severe adverse events except mild side effects in three. Therefore, rTMS appears to be a promising and safe technique for the treatment of motor dysfunction, targeting the cerebellum to induce motor behavioral improvement. Further rigorous RCTs, including more samples and longer follow-up periods, are required to precisely explore the effective stimulation parameters and possible mechanisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yifei Xia
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Yangpu District, No. 200 Hengren Road, Shanghai, China
| | - Mingqi Wang
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Yangpu District, No. 200 Hengren Road, Shanghai, China
| | - Yulian Zhu
- School of Kinesiology, Shanghai University of Sport, Yangpu District, No. 200 Hengren Road, Shanghai, China.
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Huashan Hospital, Fudan University, Jing'an District, No. 12 Wulumuqi road, Shanghai, 200040, China.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Zang Y, De Schutter E. Recent data on the cerebellum require new models and theories. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2023; 82:102765. [PMID: 37591124 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2023.102765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Revised: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/23/2023] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
The cerebellum has been a popular topic for theoretical studies because its structure was thought to be simple. Since David Marr and James Albus related its function to motor skill learning and proposed the Marr-Albus cerebellar learning model, this theory has guided and inspired cerebellar research. In this review, we summarize the theoretical progress that has been made within this framework of error-based supervised learning. We discuss the experimental progress that demonstrates more complicated molecular and cellular mechanisms in the cerebellum as well as new cell types and recurrent connections. We also cover its involvement in diverse non-motor functions and evidence of other forms of learning. Finally, we highlight the need to explain these new experimental findings into an integrated cerebellar model that can unify its diverse computational functions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yunliang Zang
- Academy of Medical Engineering and Translational Medicine, Medical Faculty, Tianjin University, Tianjin 300072, China; Volen Center and Biology Department, Brandeis University, Waltham, MA 02454, USA.
| | - Erik De Schutter
- Computational Neuroscience Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology, Japan. https://twitter.com/DeschutterOIST
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Chao OY, Pathak SS, Zhang H, Augustine GJ, Christie JM, Kikuchi C, Taniguchi H, Yang YM. Social memory deficit caused by dysregulation of the cerebellar vermis. Nat Commun 2023; 14:6007. [PMID: 37752149 PMCID: PMC10522595 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-41744-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Social recognition memory (SRM) is a key determinant of social interactions. While the cerebellum emerges as an important region for social behavior, how cerebellar activity affects social functions remains unclear. We selectively increased the excitability of molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) to suppress Purkinje cell firing in the mouse cerebellar vermis. Chemogenetic perturbation of MLIs impaired SRM without affecting sociability, anxiety levels, motor coordination or object recognition. Optogenetic interference of MLIs during distinct phases of a social recognition test revealed the cerebellar engagement in the retrieval, but not encoding, of social information. c-Fos mapping after the social recognition test showed that cerebellar manipulation decreased brain-wide interregional correlations and altered network structure from medial prefrontal cortex and hippocampus-centered to amygdala-centered modules. Anatomical tracing demonstrated hierarchical projections from the central cerebellum to the social brain network integrating amygdalar connections. Our findings suggest that the cerebellum organizes the neural matrix necessary for SRM.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Owen Y Chao
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN, 55812, USA
| | - Salil Saurav Pathak
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN, 55812, USA
| | - Hao Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN, 55812, USA
| | - George J Augustine
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 308232, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jason M Christie
- University of Colorado School of Medicine, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Chikako Kikuchi
- Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Hiroki Taniguchi
- Department of Pathology, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
- Chronic Brain Injury, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, 43210, USA
| | - Yi-Mei Yang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Minnesota Medical School, Duluth, MN, 55812, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 55455, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Lackey EP, Moreira L, Norton A, Hemelt ME, Osorno T, Nguyen TM, Macosko EZ, Lee WCA, Hull CA, Regehr WG. Cerebellar circuits for disinhibition and synchronous inhibition. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.09.15.557934. [PMID: 37745401 PMCID: PMC10516046 DOI: 10.1101/2023.09.15.557934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/26/2023]
Abstract
The cerebellar cortex contributes to diverse behaviors by transforming mossy fiber inputs into predictions in the form of Purkinje cell (PC) outputs, and then refining those predictions1. Molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) account for approximately 80% of the inhibitory interneurons in the cerebellar cortex2, and are vital to cerebellar processing1,3. MLIs are thought to primarily inhibit PCs and suppress the plasticity of excitatory synapses onto PCs. MLIs also inhibit, and are electrically coupled to, other MLIs4-7, but the functional significance of these connections is not known1,3. Behavioral studies suggest that cerebellar-dependent learning is gated by disinhibition of PCs, but the source of such disinhibition has not been identified8. Here we find that two recently recognized MLI subtypes2, MLI1 and MLI2, have highly specialized connectivity that allows them to serve very different functional roles. MLI1s primarily inhibit PCs, are electrically coupled to each other, fire synchronously with other MLI1s on the millisecond time scale in vivo, and synchronously pause PC firing. MLI2s are not electrically coupled, they primarily inhibit MLI1s and disinhibit PCs, and are well suited to gating cerebellar-dependent learning8. These findings require a major reevaluation of processing within the cerebellum in which disinhibition, a powerful circuit motif present in the cerebral cortex and elsewhere9-17, greatly increases the computational power and flexibility of the cerebellum. They also suggest that millisecond time scale synchronous firing of electrically-coupled MLI1s helps regulate the output of the cerebellar cortex by synchronously pausing PC firing, which has been shown to evoke precisely-timed firing in PC targets18.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth P Lackey
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, United States
| | - Luis Moreira
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, United States
| | - Aliya Norton
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, United States
| | - Marie E Hemelt
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University Medical School, Durham, United States
| | - Tomas Osorno
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, United States
| | - Tri M Nguyen
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, United States
| | - Evan Z Macosko
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, United States
- Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Wei-Chung Allen Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, United States
- Kirby Neurobiology Center, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Court A Hull
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University Medical School, Durham, United States
| | - Wade G Regehr
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston MA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Binda F, Spaeth L, Kumar A, Isope P. Excitation and Inhibition Delays within a Feedforward Inhibitory Pathway Modulate Cerebellar Purkinje Cell Output in Mice. J Neurosci 2023; 43:5905-5917. [PMID: 37495382 PMCID: PMC10436687 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0091-23.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/18/2023] [Indexed: 07/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The cerebellar cortex computes sensorimotor information from many brain areas through a feedforward inhibitory (FFI) microcircuit between the input stage, the granule cell (GC) layer, and the output stage, the Purkinje cells (PCs). Although in other brain areas FFI underlies a precise excitation versus inhibition temporal correlation, recent findings in the cerebellum highlighted more complex behaviors at GC-molecular layer interneuron (MLI)-PC pathway. To dissect the temporal organization of this cerebellar FFI pathway, we combined ex vivo patch-clamp recordings of PCs in male mice with a viral-based strategy to express Channelrhodopsin2 in a subset of mossy fibers (MFs), the major excitatory inputs to GCs. We show that although light-mediated MF activation elicited pairs of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic currents in PCs, excitation (E) from GCs and inhibition (I) from MLIs reached PCs with a wide range of different temporal delays. However, when GCs were directly stimulated, a low variability in E/I delays was observed. Our results demonstrate that in many recordings MF stimulation recruited different groups of GCs that trigger E and/or I, and expanded PC temporal synaptic integration. Finally, using a computational model of the FFI pathway, we showed that this temporal expansion could strongly influence how PCs integrate GC inputs. Our findings show that specific E/I delays may help PCs encoding specific MF inputs.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Sensorimotor information is conveyed to the cerebellar cortex by mossy fibers. Mossy fiber inputs activate granule cells that excite molecular interneurons and Purkinje cells, the sole output of the cerebellar cortex, leading to a sequence of synaptic excitation and inhibition in Purkinje cells, thus defining a feedforward inhibitory pathway. Using electrophysiological recordings, optogenetic stimulation, and mathematical modeling, we demonstrated that different groups of granule cells can elicit synaptic excitation and inhibition with various latencies onto Purkinje cells. This temporal variability controls how granule cells influence Purkinje cell discharge and may support temporal coding in the cerebellar cortex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Binda
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg, France
| | - Ludovic Spaeth
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg, France
| | - Arvind Kumar
- Division of Computational Science and Technology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, SE-100 44 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Philippe Isope
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Université de Strasbourg, 67084 Strasbourg, France
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Zhang K, Yang Z, Gaffield MA, Gross GG, Arnold DB, Christie JM. Molecular layer disinhibition unlocks climbing-fiber-instructed motor learning in the cerebellum. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.08.04.552059. [PMID: 38654827 PMCID: PMC11037867 DOI: 10.1101/2023.08.04.552059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2024]
Abstract
Climbing fibers supervise cerebellar learning by providing signals to Purkinje cells (PCs) that instruct adaptive changes to mistakenly performed movements. Yet, climbing fibers are regularly active, even during well performed movements, suggesting that a mechanism dynamically regulates the ability of climbing fibers to induce corrective plasticity in response to motor errors. We found that molecular layer interneurons (MLIs), whose inhibition of PCs powerfully opposes climbing-fiber-mediated excitation, serve this function. Optogenetically suppressing the activity of floccular MLIs in mice during the vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) induces a learned increase in gain despite the absence of performance errors. Suppressing MLIs when the VOR is mistakenly underperformed reveled that their inhibitory output is necessary to orchestrate gain-increase learning by conditionally permitting climbing fibers to instruct plasticity induction during ipsiversive head turns. Ablation of an MLI circuit for PC disinhibition prevents gain-increase learning during VOR performance errors which was rescued by re-imposing PC disinhibition through MLI activity suppression. Our findings point to a decisive role for MLIs in gating climbing-fiber-mediated learning through their context-dependent inhibition of PCs.
Collapse
|
16
|
Busch SE, Hansel C. Climbing fiber multi-innervation of mouse Purkinje dendrites with arborization common to human. Science 2023; 381:420-427. [PMID: 37499000 PMCID: PMC10962609 DOI: 10.1126/science.adi1024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2023] [Accepted: 06/16/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023]
Abstract
Canonically, each Purkinje cell (PC) in the adult cerebellum receives only one climbing fiber (CF) from the inferior olive. Underlying current theories of cerebellar function is the notion that this highly conserved one-to-one relationship renders Purkinje dendrites into a single computational compartment. However, we discovered that multiple primary dendrites are a near-universal morphological feature in humans. Using tract tracing, immunolabeling, and in vitro electrophysiology, we found that in mice ~25% of mature multibranched cells receive more than one CF input. Two-photon calcium imaging in vivo revealed that separate dendrites can exhibit distinct response properties to sensory stimulation, indicating that some multibranched cells integrate functionally independent CF-receptive fields. These findings indicate that PCs are morphologically and functionally more diverse than previously thought.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Silas E. Busch
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuroscience Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| | - Christian Hansel
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuroscience Institute, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Kanaya T, Ito R, Morizawa YM, Sasaki D, Yamao H, Ishikane H, Hiraoka Y, Tanaka K, Matsui K. Glial modulation of the parallel memory formation. Glia 2023. [PMID: 37364894 DOI: 10.1002/glia.24431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 06/04/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023]
Abstract
Actions from glial cells could affect the readiness and efficacy of learning and memory. Using a mouse cerebellar-dependent horizontal optokinetic response motor learning paradigm, short-term memory (STM) formation during the online training period and long-term memory (LTM) formation during the offline rest period were studied. A large variability of online and offline learning efficacies was found. The early bloomers with booming STM often had a suppressed LTM formation and late bloomers with no apparent acute training effect often exhibited boosted offline learning performance. Anion channels containing LRRC8A are known to release glutamate. Conditional knockout of LRRC8A specifically in astrocytes including cerebellar Bergmann glia resulted in a complete loss of STM formation while the LTM formation during the rest period remained. Optogenetic manipulation of glial activity by channelrhodopsin-2 or archaerhodopsin-T (ArchT) during the online training resulted in enhancement or suppression of STM formation, respectively. STM and LTM are likely to be triggered simultaneously during online training, but LTM is expressed later during the offline period. STM appears to be volatile and the achievement during the online training is not handed over to LTM. In addition, we found that glial ArchT photoactivation during the rest period resulted in the augmentation of LTM formation. These data suggest that STM formation and LTM formation are parallel separate processes. Strategies to weigh more on the STM or the LTM could depend on the actions of the glial cells.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Teppei Kanaya
- Super-Network Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Ryo Ito
- Super-Network Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Yosuke M Morizawa
- Super-Network Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Daichi Sasaki
- Super-Network Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Hiroki Yamao
- Super-Network Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| | - Hiroshi Ishikane
- Department of Psychology, Graduate School of Humanities, Senshu University, Kawasaki, Japan
| | - Yuichi Hiraoka
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute (MRI), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kohichi Tanaka
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuroscience, Medical Research Institute (MRI), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU), Tokyo, Japan
| | - Ko Matsui
- Super-Network Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Medicine, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- Super-Network Brain Physiology, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Wang C, Derderian KD, Hamada E, Zhou X, Nelson AD, Kyoung H, Ahituv N, Bouvier G, Bender KJ. Impaired cerebellar plasticity hypersensitizes sensory reflexes in SCN2A-associated ASD. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.06.05.543814. [PMID: 37333267 PMCID: PMC10274749 DOI: 10.1101/2023.06.05.543814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/20/2023]
Abstract
Children diagnosed with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) commonly present with sensory hypersensitivity, or abnormally strong reactions to sensory stimuli. Such hypersensitivity can be overwhelming, causing high levels of distress that contribute markedly to the negative aspects of the disorder. Here, we identify the mechanisms that underlie hypersensitivity in a sensorimotor reflex found to be altered in humans and in mice with loss-of-function in the ASD risk-factor gene SCN2A. The cerebellum-dependent vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR), which helps maintain one's gaze during movement, was hypersensitized due to deficits in cerebellar synaptic plasticity. Heterozygous loss of SCN2A-encoded NaV1.2 sodium channels in granule cells impaired high-frequency transmission to Purkinje cells and long-term potentiation, a form of synaptic plasticity important for modulating VOR gain. VOR plasticity could be rescued in adolescent mice via a CRISPR-activator approach that increases Scn2a expression, highlighting how evaluation of simple reflexes can be used as quantitative readout of therapeutic interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenyu Wang
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kimberly D. Derderian
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Elizabeth Hamada
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Xujia Zhou
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Andrew D. Nelson
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Henry Kyoung
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Nadav Ahituv
- Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Department of Bioengineering and Therapeutic Sciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Institute for Human Genetics, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Guy Bouvier
- Department of Physiology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Kevin J Bender
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
- Weill Institute for Neurosciences, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Hirono M, Nakata M. Ghrelin signaling in the cerebellar cortex enhances GABAergic transmission onto Purkinje cells. Sci Rep 2023; 13:2150. [PMID: 36750743 PMCID: PMC9905081 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-29226-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2022] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Ghrelin, an orexigenic peptide ligand for growth hormone secretagogue receptor 1a (GHS-R1a), occurs not only in the stomach but also in the brain, and modulates neuronal activity and synaptic efficacy. Previous studies showed that GHS-R1a exists in the cerebellum, and ghrelin facilitates spontaneous firing of Purkinje cells (PCs). However, the effects of ghrelin on cerebellar GABAergic transmission have yet to be elucidated. We found that ghrelin enhanced GABAergic transmission between molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) and PCs using electrophysiological recordings in mouse cerebellar slices. This finding was consistent with the possibility that blocking synaptic transmission enhanced the ghrelin-induced facilitation of PC firing. Ghrelin profoundly increased the frequency of spontaneous inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) in PCs without affecting miniature or stimulation-evoked IPSCs, whereas it significantly facilitated spontaneous firing of MLIs. This facilitation of MLI spiking disappeared during treatments with blockers of GHS-R1a, type 1 transient receptor potential canonical (TRPC1) channels and KCNQ channels. These results suggest that both activating TRPC1 channels and inhibiting KCNQ channels occur downstream the ghrelin-GHS-R1a signaling pathway probably in somatodendritic sites of MLIs. Thus, ghrelin can control PC firing directly and indirectly via its modulation of GABAergic transmission, thereby impacting activity in cerebellar circuitry.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Moritoshi Hirono
- Department of Physiology, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan.
| | - Masanori Nakata
- Department of Physiology, Wakayama Medical University, 811-1 Kimiidera, Wakayama, Wakayama, 641-8509, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
20
|
Lai SK, Wu KLK, Ma CW, Ng KP, Hu XQ, Tam KW, Yung WH, Wang YT, Wong TP, Shum DKY, Chan YS. Timely insertion of AMPA receptor in developing vestibular circuits is required for manifestation of righting reflexes and effective navigation. Prog Neurobiol 2023; 221:102402. [PMID: 36608782 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2023.102402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Vestibular information processed first by the brainstem vestibular nucleus (VN), and further by cerebellum and thalamus, underlies diverse brain function. These include the righting reflexes and spatial cognitive behaviour. While the cerebellar and thalamic circuits that decode vestibular information are known, the importance of VN neurons and the temporal requirements for their maturation that allow developmental consolidation of the aforementioned circuits remains unclear. We show that timely unsilencing of glutamatergic circuits in the VN by NMDA receptor-mediated insertion of AMPAR receptor type 1 (GluA1) subunits is critical for maturation of VN and successful consolidation of higher circuits that process vestibular information. Delayed unsilencing of NMDA receptor-only synapses of neonatal VN neurons permanently decreased their functional connectivity with inferior olive circuits. This was accompanied by delayed pruning of the inferior olive inputs to Purkinje cells and permanent reduction in their plasticity. These derangements led to deficits in associated vestibular righting reflexes and motor co-ordination during voluntary movement. Vestibular-dependent recruitment of thalamic neurons was similarly reduced, resulting in permanently decreased efficiency of spatial navigation. The findings thus show that well-choreographed maturation of the nascent vestibular circuitry is prerequisite for functional integration of vestibular signals into ascending pathways for diverse vestibular-related behaviours.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Suk-King Lai
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Kenneth Lap Kei Wu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Chun-Wai Ma
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Ka-Pak Ng
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Xiao-Qian Hu
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Kin-Wai Tam
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Wing-Ho Yung
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, PR China
| | - Yu Tian Wang
- Department of Medicine and Brain Research Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute and University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Tak Pan Wong
- Douglas Mental Health University Institute, Montreal, Quebec, Canada; Department of Psychiatry McGill University, Montreal, Quebec, Canada.
| | - Daisy Kwok-Yan Shum
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China.
| | - Ying-Shing Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, PR China.
| |
Collapse
|
21
|
Expression of a Form of Cerebellar Motor Memory Requires Learned Alterations to the Activity of Inhibitory Molecular Layer Interneurons. J Neurosci 2023; 43:601-612. [PMID: 36639897 PMCID: PMC9888511 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0731-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Revised: 11/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Procedural memories formed in the cerebellum in response to motor errors depend on changes to Purkinje cell (PC) spiking patterns that correct movement when the erroneous context is repeated. Because molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) inhibit PCs, learning-induced changes to MLI output may participate in reshaping PC spiking patterns. However, it remains unclear whether error-driven learning alters MLI activity and whether such changes are necessary for the memory engram. We addressed this knowledge gap by measuring and manipulating MLI activity in the flocculus of both sexes of mice before and after vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) adaptation. We found that MLIs are activated during vestibular stimuli and that their population response exhibits a phase shift after the instantiation of gain-increase VOR adaptation, a type of error-driven learning thought to require climbing-fiber-mediated instructive signaling. Although acute optogenetic suppression of MLI activity did not affect baseline VOR performance, it negated the expression of gain-increase learning, demonstrating a specific role of MLI activity changes in motor memory expression. This effect was transitory; after a multiday consolidation period, the expression of VOR gain-increase learning was no longer sensitive to MLI activity suppression. Together, our results indicate that error-driven alteration of MLI activity is necessary for labile, climbing-fiber-induced motor memory expression.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In the cerebellum, motor learning induces an associative memory of the sensorimotor context of an erroneous movement that, when recalled, results in a new pattern of output that improves subsequent trials of performance. Our study shows that error-driven motor learning induces changes to the activity pattern of cerebellar molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) and that this new pattern of activity is required to express the corrective motor memory.
Collapse
|
22
|
Structured cerebellar connectivity supports resilient pattern separation. Nature 2023; 613:543-549. [PMID: 36418404 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05471-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellum is thought to help detect and correct errors between intended and executed commands1,2 and is critical for social behaviours, cognition and emotion3-6. Computations for motor control must be performed quickly to correct errors in real time and should be sensitive to small differences between patterns for fine error correction while being resilient to noise7. Influential theories of cerebellar information processing have largely assumed random network connectivity, which increases the encoding capacity of the network's first layer8-13. However, maximizing encoding capacity reduces the resilience to noise7. To understand how neuronal circuits address this fundamental trade-off, we mapped the feedforward connectivity in the mouse cerebellar cortex using automated large-scale transmission electron microscopy and convolutional neural network-based image segmentation. We found that both the input and output layers of the circuit exhibit redundant and selective connectivity motifs, which contrast with prevailing models. Numerical simulations suggest that these redundant, non-random connectivity motifs increase the resilience to noise at a negligible cost to the overall encoding capacity. This work reveals how neuronal network structure can support a trade-off between encoding capacity and redundancy, unveiling principles of biological network architecture with implications for the design of artificial neural networks.
Collapse
|
23
|
Forsthofer M, Straka H. Homeostatic plasticity of eye movement performance in Xenopus tadpoles following prolonged visual image motion stimulation. J Neurol 2023; 270:57-70. [PMID: 35947153 PMCID: PMC9813097 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-022-11311-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 07/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Visual image motion-driven ocular motor behaviors such as the optokinetic reflex (OKR) provide sensory feedback for optimizing gaze stability during head/body motion. The performance of this visuo-motor reflex is subject to plastic alterations depending on requirements imposed by specific eco-physiological or developmental circumstances. While visuo-motor plasticity can be experimentally induced by various combinations of motion-related stimuli, the extent to which such evoked behavioral alterations contribute to the behavioral demands of an environment remains often obscure. Here, we used isolated preparations of Xenopus laevis tadpoles to assess the extent and ontogenetic dependency of visuo-motor plasticity during prolonged visual image motion. While a reliable attenuation of large OKR amplitudes can be induced already in young larvae, a robust response magnitude-dependent bidirectional plasticity is present only at older developmental stages. The possibility of older larvae to faithfully enhance small OKR amplitudes coincides with the developmental maturation of inferior olivary-Purkinje cell signal integration. This conclusion was supported by the loss of behavioral plasticity following transection of the climbing fiber pathway and by the immunohistochemical demonstration of a considerable volumetric extension of the Purkinje cell dendritic area between the two tested stages. The bidirectional behavioral alterations with different developmental onsets might functionally serve to standardize the motor output, comparable to the known differential adaptability of vestibulo-ocular reflexes in these animals. This homeostatic plasticity potentially equilibrates the working range of ocular motor behaviors during altered visuo-vestibular conditions or prolonged head/body motion to fine-tune resultant eye movements.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael Forsthofer
- Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Großhaderner Str. 2, 82152, Planegg, Germany.,Graduate School of Systemic Neurosciences, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Großhaderner Str. 2, 82152, Planegg, Germany
| | - Hans Straka
- Faculty of Biology, Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich, Großhaderner Str. 2, 82152, Planegg, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Lyu C, Yu C, Sun G, Zhao Y, Cai R, Sun H, Wang X, Jia G, Fan L, Chen X, Zhou L, Shen Y, Gao L, Li X. Deconstruction of Vermal Cerebellum in Ramp Locomotion in Mice. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2022; 10:e2203665. [PMID: 36373709 PMCID: PMC9811470 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202203665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Revised: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The cerebellum is involved in encoding balance, posture, speed, and gravity during locomotion. However, most studies are carried out on flat surfaces, and little is known about cerebellar activity during free ambulation on slopes. Here, it has been imaged the neuronal activity of cerebellar molecular interneurons (MLIs) and Purkinje cells (PCs) using a miniaturized microscope while a mouse is walking on a slope. It has been found that the neuronal activity of vermal MLIs specifically enhanced during uphill and downhill locomotion. In addition, a subset of MLIs is activated during entire uphill or downhill positions on the slope and is modulated by the slope inclines. In contrast, PCs showed counter-balanced neuronal activity to MLIs, which reduced activity at the ramp peak. So, PCs may represent the ramp environment at the population level. In addition, chemogenetic inactivation of lobule V of the vermis impaired uphill locomotion. These results revealed a novel micro-circuit in the vermal cerebellum that regulates ambulatory behavior in 3D terrains.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenfei Lyu
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital and Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and TechnologyZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310027China
| | - Chencen Yu
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital and Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and TechnologyZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310027China
| | - Guanglong Sun
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital and Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and TechnologyZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310027China
| | - Yue Zhao
- Department of Physiology and Department of PsychiatrySir Run Run Shaw HospitalZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310058China
| | - Ruolan Cai
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital and Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and TechnologyZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310027China
| | - Hao Sun
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital and Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and TechnologyZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310027China
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of EducationCollege of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Xintai Wang
- Department of Physiology and Department of PsychiatrySir Run Run Shaw HospitalZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310058China
| | - Guoqiang Jia
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital and Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and TechnologyZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310027China
| | - Lingzhu Fan
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital and Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and TechnologyZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310027China
| | - Xi Chen
- Department of NeuroscienceCity University of Hong KongKowloonHong KongChina
| | - Lin Zhou
- Department of Physiology and Department of PsychiatrySir Run Run Shaw HospitalZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310058China
| | - Ying Shen
- Department of Physiology and Department of PsychiatrySir Run Run Shaw HospitalZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310058China
| | - Lixia Gao
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital and Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and TechnologyZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310027China
- Key Laboratory for Biomedical Engineering of Ministry of EducationCollege of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, Zhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
- MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Science and Brain‐machine IntegrationSchool of Brain Science and Brain MedicineZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
| | - Xinjian Li
- Department of Neurology of the Second Affiliated Hospital and Interdisciplinary Institute of Neuroscience and TechnologyZhejiang University School of MedicineHangzhou310027China
- MOE Frontier Science Center for Brain Science and Brain‐machine IntegrationSchool of Brain Science and Brain MedicineZhejiang UniversityHangzhou310027China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology of Zhejiang ProvinceHangzhou310027China
| |
Collapse
|
25
|
Nettekoven C, Mitchell L, Clarke WT, Emir U, Campbell J, Johansen-Berg H, Jenkinson N, Stagg CJ. Cerebellar GABA Change during Visuomotor Adaptation Relates to Adaptation Performance and Cerebellar Network Connectivity: A Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopic Imaging Study. J Neurosci 2022; 42:7721-7732. [PMID: 36414012 PMCID: PMC9581563 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0096-22.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor adaptation is crucial for performing accurate movements in a changing environment and relies on the cerebellum. Although cerebellar involvement has been well characterized, the neurochemical changes in the cerebellum underpinning human motor adaptation remain unknown. We used a novel magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging (MRSI) technique to measure changes in the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA in the human cerebellum during visuomotor adaptation. Participants (n = 17, six female) used their right hand to adapt to a rotated cursor in the scanner, compared with a control task requiring no adaptation. We spatially resolved adaptation-driven GABA changes at the cerebellar nuclei and cerebellar cortex in the left and the right cerebellar hemisphere independently and found that simple right-hand movements increase GABA in the right cerebellar nuclei and decreases GABA in the left. When isolating adaptation-driven GABA changes, we found that GABA in the left cerebellar nuclei and the right cerebellar nuclei diverged, although GABA change from baseline at the right cerebellar nuclei was not different from zero at the group level. Early adaptation-driven GABA fluctuations in the right cerebellar nuclei correlated with adaptation performance. Participants showing greater GABA decrease adapted better, suggesting early GABA change is behaviorally relevant. Early GABA change also correlated with functional connectivity change in a cerebellar network. Participants showing greater decreases in GABA showed greater strength increases in cerebellar network connectivity. Results were specific to GABA, to adaptation, and to the cerebellar network. This study provides first evidence for plastic changes in cerebellar neurochemistry during motor adaptation. Characterizing these naturally occurring neurochemical changes may provide a basis for developing therapeutic interventions to facilitate human motor adaptation.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Despite motor adaptation being fundamental to maintaining accurate movements, its neurochemical basis remains poorly understood, perhaps because measuring neurochemicals in the human cerebellum is technically challenging. Using a novel magnetic resonance spectroscopic imaging method, this study provides evidence for GABA changes in the left compared with the right cerebellar nuclei driven by both simple movement and motor adaptation. Although right cerebellar GABA changes were not significantly different from zero at the group level, the adaptation-driven GABA fluctuations in the right cerebellar nuclei correlated with adaptation performance and with functional connectivity change in a cerebellar network. These results show the first evidence for plastic changes in cerebellar neurochemistry during a cerebellar learning task. This provides the basis for developing therapeutic interventions that facilitate these naturally occurring changes to amplify cerebellar-dependent learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Nettekoven
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU UK
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7JX, UK
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TH UK
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7JX UK
| | - Leah Mitchell
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU UK
| | - William T Clarke
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU UK
- Medical Research Council Brain Network Dynamics Unit, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TH UK
| | - Uzay Emir
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, Purdue, Indiana 47907
| | - Jon Campbell
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU UK
| | - Heidi Johansen-Berg
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU UK
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7JX, UK
| | - Ned Jenkinson
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham B15 2TT UK
| | - Charlotte J Stagg
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Functional MRI of the Brain, Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 9DU UK
- Oxford Centre for Human Brain Activity, Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7JX, UK
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Abstract
The cerebellar cortex is an important system for relating neural circuits and learning. Its promise reflects the longstanding idea that it contains simple, repeated circuit modules with only a few cell types and a single plasticity mechanism that mediates learning according to classical Marr-Albus models. However, emerging data have revealed surprising diversity in neuron types, synaptic connections, and plasticity mechanisms, both locally and regionally within the cerebellar cortex. In light of these findings, it is not surprising that attempts to generate a holistic model of cerebellar learning across different behaviors have not been successful. While the cerebellum remains an ideal system for linking neuronal function with behavior, it is necessary to update the cerebellar circuit framework to achieve its great promise. In this review, we highlight recent advances in our understanding of cerebellar-cortical cell types, synaptic connections, signaling mechanisms, and forms of plasticity that enrich cerebellar processing.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Court Hull
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina, USA;
| | - Wade G Regehr
- Department of Neurobiology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA;
| |
Collapse
|
27
|
Candelabrum cells are ubiquitous cerebellar cortex interneurons with specialized circuit properties. Nat Neurosci 2022; 25:702-713. [PMID: 35578131 PMCID: PMC9548381 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-022-01057-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
To understand how the cerebellar cortex transforms mossy fiber (MF) inputs into Purkinje cell (PC) outputs, it is vital to delineate the elements of this circuit. Candelabrum cells (CCs) are enigmatic interneurons of the cerebellar cortex that have been identified based on their morphology, but their electrophysiological properties, synaptic connections and function remain unknown. Here, we clarify these properties using electrophysiology, single-nucleus RNA sequencing, in situ hybridization and serial electron microscopy in mice. We find that CCs are the most abundant PC layer interneuron. They are GABAergic, molecularly distinct and present in all cerebellar lobules. Their high resistance renders CC firing highly sensitive to synaptic inputs. CCs are excited by MFs and granule cells and are strongly inhibited by PCs. CCs in turn primarily inhibit molecular layer interneurons, which leads to PC disinhibition. Thus, inputs, outputs and local signals converge onto CCs to allow them to assume a unique role in controlling cerebellar output.
Collapse
|
28
|
Dorgans K, Guo D, Kurima K, Wickens J, Uusisaari MY. Designing AAV Vectors for Monitoring the Subtle Calcium Fluctuations of Inferior Olive Network in vivo. Front Cell Neurosci 2022; 16:825056. [PMID: 35573836 PMCID: PMC9093741 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2022.825056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 03/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors, used as vehicles for gene transfer into the brain, are a versatile and powerful tool of modern neuroscience that allow identifying specific neuronal populations, monitoring and modulating their activity. For consistent and reproducible results, the AAV vectors must be engineered so that they reliably and accurately target cell populations. Furthermore, transgene expression must be adjusted to sufficient and safe levels compatible with the physiology of studied cells. We undertook the effort to identify and validate an AAV vector that could be utilized for researching the inferior olivary (IO) nucleus, a structure gating critical timing-related signals to the cerebellum. By means of systematic construct generation and quantitative expression profiling, we succeeded in creating a viral tool for specific and strong transfection of the IO neurons without adverse effects on their physiology. The potential of these tools is demonstrated by expressing the calcium sensor GCaMP6s in adult mouse IO neurons. We could monitor subtle calcium fluctuations underlying two signatures of intrinsic IO activity: the subthreshold oscillations (STOs) and the variable-duration action potential waveforms both in-vitro and in-vivo. Further, we show that the expression levels of GCaMP6s allowing such recordings are compatible with the delicate calcium-based dynamics of IO neurons, inviting future work into the network dynamics of the olivo-cerebellar system in behaving animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kevin Dorgans
- Neuronal Rhythms in Movement Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Da Guo
- Neuronal Rhythms in Movement Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Kiyoto Kurima
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Jeff Wickens
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
| | - Marylka Yoe Uusisaari
- Neuronal Rhythms in Movement Unit, Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology Graduate University, Okinawa, Japan
- *Correspondence: Marylka Yoe Uusisaari
| |
Collapse
|
29
|
Kostadinov D, Häusser M. Reward signals in the cerebellum: origins, targets, and functional implications. Neuron 2022; 110:1290-1303. [PMID: 35325616 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2022.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The cerebellum has long been proposed to play a role in cognitive function, although this has remained controversial. This idea has received renewed support with the recent discovery that signals associated with reward can be observed in the cerebellar circuitry, particularly in goal-directed learning tasks involving an interplay between the cerebellar cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebral cortex. Remarkably, a wide range of reward contingencies-including reward expectation, delivery, size, and omission-can be encoded by specific circuit elements in a manner that reflects the microzonal organization of the cerebellar cortex. The facts that reward signals have been observed in both the mossy fiber and climbing fiber input pathways to the cerebellar cortex and that their convergence may trigger plasticity in Purkinje cells suggest that these interactions may be crucial for the role of the cerebellar cortex in learned behavior. These findings strengthen the emerging consensus that the cerebellum plays a pivotal role in shaping cognitive processing and suggest that the cerebellum may combine both supervised learning and reinforcement learning to optimize goal-directed action. We make specific predictions about how cerebellar circuits can work in concert with the basal ganglia to guide different stages of learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dimitar Kostadinov
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, UK.
| | - Michael Häusser
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, London, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
30
|
Romano V, Zhai P, van der Horst A, Mazza R, Jacobs T, Bauer S, Wang X, White JJ, De Zeeuw CI. Olivocerebellar control of movement symmetry. Curr Biol 2022; 32:654-670.e4. [PMID: 35016009 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2021.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2021] [Revised: 10/26/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Coordination of bilateral movements is essential for a large variety of animal behaviors. The olivocerebellar system is critical for the control of movement, but its role in bilateral coordination has yet to be elucidated. Here, we examined whether Purkinje cells encode and influence synchronicity of left-right whisker movements. We found that complex spike activity is correlated with a prominent left-right symmetry of spontaneous whisker movements within parts, but not all, of Crus1 and Crus2. Optogenetic stimulation of climbing fibers in the areas with high and low correlations resulted in symmetric and asymmetric whisker movements, respectively. Moreover, when simple spike frequency prior to the complex spike was higher, the complex spike-related symmetric whisker protractions were larger. This finding alludes to a role for rebound activity in the cerebellar nuclei, which indeed turned out to be enhanced during symmetric protractions. Tracer injections suggest that regions associated with symmetric whisker movements are anatomically connected to the contralateral cerebellar hemisphere. Together, these data point toward the existence of modules on both sides of the cerebellar cortex that can differentially promote or reduce the symmetry of left and right movements in a context-dependent fashion.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Romano
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Peipei Zhai
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | | | - Roberta Mazza
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Thomas Jacobs
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Staf Bauer
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Xiaolu Wang
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Joshua J White
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - C I De Zeeuw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, the Netherlands; Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| |
Collapse
|
31
|
Gilbert M. Gating by Memory: a Theory of Learning in the Cerebellum. THE CEREBELLUM 2021; 21:926-943. [PMID: 34757585 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-021-01325-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
This paper presents a model of learning by the cerebellar circuit. In the traditional and dominant learning model, training teaches finely graded parallel fibre synaptic weights which modify transmission to Purkinje cells and to interneurons that inhibit Purkinje cells. Following training, input in a learned pattern drives a training-modified response. The function is that the naive response to input rates is displaced by a learned one, trained under external supervision. In the proposed model, there is no weight-controlled graduated balance of excitation and inhibition of Purkinje cells. Instead, the balance has two functional states-a switch-at synaptic, whole cell and microzone level. The paper is in two parts. The first is a detailed physiological argument for the synaptic learning function. The second uses the function in a computational simulation of pattern memory. Against expectation, this generates a predictable outcome from input chaos (real-world variables). Training always forces synaptic weights away from the middle and towards the limits of the range, causing them to polarise, so that transmission is either robust or blocked. All conditions teach the same outcome, such that all learned patterns receive the same, rather than a bespoke, effect on transmission. In this model, the function of learning is gating-that is, to select patterns that trigger output merely, and not to modify output. The outcome is memory-operated gate activation which operates a two-state balance of weight-controlled transmission. Group activity of parallel fibres also simultaneously contains a second code contained in collective rates, which varies independently of the pattern code. A two-state response to the pattern code allows faithful, and graduated, control of Purkinje cell firing by the rate code, at gated times.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mike Gilbert
- School of Psychology, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
32
|
NMDARs in granule cells contribute to parallel fiber-Purkinje cell synaptic plasticity and motor learning. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:2102635118. [PMID: 34507990 PMCID: PMC8449340 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2102635118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Long-term synaptic plasticity is believed to be the cellular substrate of learning and memory. Synaptic plasticity rules are defined by the specific complement of receptors at the synapse and the associated downstream signaling mechanisms. In young rodents, at the cerebellar synapse between granule cells (GC) and Purkinje cells (PC), bidirectional plasticity is shaped by the balance between transcellular nitric oxide (NO) driven by presynaptic N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) activation and postsynaptic calcium dynamics. However, the role and the location of NMDAR activation in these pathways is still debated in mature animals. Here, we show in adult rodents that NMDARs are present and functional in presynaptic terminals where their activation triggers NO signaling. In addition, we find that selective genetic deletion of presynaptic, but not postsynaptic, NMDARs prevents synaptic plasticity at parallel fiber-PC (PF-PC) synapses. Consistent with this finding, the selective deletion of GC NMDARs affects adaptation of the vestibulo-ocular reflex. Thus, NMDARs presynaptic to PCs are required for bidirectional synaptic plasticity and cerebellar motor learning.
Collapse
|
33
|
Fanning A, Shakhawat A, Raymond JL. Population calcium responses of Purkinje cells in the oculomotor cerebellum driven by non-visual input. J Neurophysiol 2021; 126:1391-1402. [PMID: 34346783 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00715.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The climbing fiber input to the cerebellum conveys instructive signals that can induce synaptic plasticity and learning by triggering complex spikes accompanied by large calcium transients in Purkinje cells. In the cerebellar flocculus, which supports oculomotor learning, complex spikes are driven by image motion on the retina, which could indicate an oculomotor error. In the same neurons, complex spikes also can be driven by non-visual signals. It has been shown that the calcium transients accompanying each complex spike can vary in amplitude, even within a given cell, therefore, we compared the calcium responses associated with the visual and non-visual inputs to floccular Purkinje cells. The calcium indicator GCaMP6f was selectively expressed in Purkinje cells, and fiber photometry was used to record the calcium responses from a population of Purkinje cells in the flocculus of awake behaving mice. During visual (optokinetic) stimuli and pairing of vestibular and visual stimuli, the calcium level increased during contraversive retinal image motion. During performance of the vestibulo-ocular reflex in the dark, calcium increased during contraversive head rotation and the associated ipsiverse eye movements. The amplitude of this non-visual calcium response was comparable to that during conditions with retinal image motion present that induce oculomotor learning. Thus, population calcium responses of Purkinje cells in the cerebellar flocculus to visual and non-visual input are similar to what has been reported previously for complex spikes, suggesting that multimodal instructive signals control the synaptic plasticity supporting oculomotor learning.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Fanning
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Amin Shakhawat
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Jennifer L Raymond
- Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
34
|
Autonomous Purkinje cell activation instructs bidirectional motor learning through evoked dendritic calcium signaling. Nat Commun 2021; 12:2153. [PMID: 33846328 PMCID: PMC8042043 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-22405-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The signals in cerebellar Purkinje cells sufficient to instruct motor learning have not been systematically determined. Therefore, we applied optogenetics in mice to autonomously excite Purkinje cells and measured the effect of this activity on plasticity induction and adaptive behavior. Ex vivo, excitation of channelrhodopsin-2-expressing Purkinje cells elicits dendritic Ca2+ transients with high-intensity stimuli initiating dendritic spiking that additionally contributes to the Ca2+ response. Channelrhodopsin-2-evoked Ca2+ transients potentiate co-active parallel fiber synapses; depression occurs when Ca2+ responses were enhanced by dendritic spiking. In vivo, optogenetic Purkinje cell activation drives an adaptive decrease in vestibulo-ocular reflex gain when vestibular stimuli are paired with relatively small-magnitude Purkinje cell Ca2+ responses. In contrast, pairing with large-magnitude Ca2+ responses increases vestibulo-ocular reflex gain. Optogenetically induced plasticity and motor adaptation are dependent on endocannabinoid signaling, indicating engagement of this pathway downstream of Purkinje cell Ca2+ elevation. Our results establish a causal relationship among Purkinje cell Ca2+ signal size, opposite-polarity plasticity induction, and bidirectional motor learning. Plastic reweighting of parallel fiber synaptic strength is a mechanism for the acquisition of cerebellum-dependent motor learning. Here, the authors found that optogenetic activation of PCs generates dendritic Ca2+ signals that induce plasticity in vitro and instruct learned changes to coincident eye movements in vivo.
Collapse
|
35
|
Arlt C, Häusser M. Microcircuit Rules Governing Impact of Single Interneurons on Purkinje Cell Output In Vivo. Cell Rep 2021; 30:3020-3035.e3. [PMID: 32130904 PMCID: PMC7059114 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2020.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2017] [Revised: 01/07/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The functional impact of single interneurons on neuronal output in vivo and how interneurons are recruited by physiological activity patterns remain poorly understood. In the cerebellar cortex, molecular layer interneurons and their targets, Purkinje cells, receive excitatory inputs from granule cells and climbing fibers. Using dual patch-clamp recordings from interneurons and Purkinje cells in vivo, we probe the spatiotemporal interactions between these circuit elements. We show that single interneuron spikes can potently inhibit Purkinje cell output, depending on interneuron location. Climbing fiber input activates many interneurons via glutamate spillover but results in inhibition of those interneurons that inhibit the same Purkinje cell receiving the climbing fiber input, forming a disinhibitory motif. These interneuron circuits are engaged during sensory processing, creating diverse pathway-specific response functions. These findings demonstrate how the powerful effect of single interneurons on Purkinje cell output can be sculpted by various interneuron circuit motifs to diversify cerebellar computations.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte Arlt
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Michael Häusser
- Wolfson Institute for Biomedical Research and Department of Neuroscience, Physiology and Pharmacology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
36
|
De Zeeuw CI, Lisberger SG, Raymond JL. Diversity and dynamism in the cerebellum. Nat Neurosci 2021; 24:160-167. [PMID: 33288911 DOI: 10.1038/s41593-020-00754-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 30.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2020] [Accepted: 11/09/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The past several years have brought revelations and paradigm shifts in research on the cerebellum. Historically viewed as a simple sensorimotor controller with homogeneous architecture, the cerebellum is increasingly implicated in cognitive functions. It possesses an impressive diversity of molecular, cellular and circuit mechanisms, embedded in a dynamic, recurrent circuit architecture. Recent insights about the diversity and dynamism of the cerebellum provide a roadmap for the next decade of cerebellar research, challenging some old concepts, reinvigorating others and defining major new research directions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chris I De Zeeuw
- Department of Neuroscience, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
- Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Academy of Sciences (KNAW), Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
37
|
The Cellular Electrophysiological Properties Underlying Multiplexed Coding in Purkinje Cells. J Neurosci 2021; 41:1850-1863. [PMID: 33452223 PMCID: PMC7939085 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1719-20.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuronal firing patterns are crucial to underpin circuit level behaviors. In cerebellar Purkinje cells (PCs), both spike rates and pauses are used for behavioral coding, but the cellular mechanisms causing code transitions remain unknown. We use a well-validated PC model to explore the coding strategy that individual PCs use to process parallel fiber (PF) inputs. We find increasing input intensity shifts PCs from linear rate-coders to burst-pause timing-coders by triggering localized dendritic spikes. We validate dendritic spike properties with experimental data, elucidate spiking mechanisms, and predict spiking thresholds with and without inhibition. Both linear and burst-pause computations use individual branches as computational units, which challenges the traditional view of PCs as linear point neurons. Dendritic spike thresholds can be regulated by voltage state, compartmentalized channel modulation, between-branch interaction and synaptic inhibition to expand the dynamic range of linear computation or burst-pause computation. In addition, co-activated PF inputs between branches can modify somatic maximum spike rates and pause durations to make them carry analog signals. Our results provide new insights into the strategies used by individual neurons to expand their capacity of information processing. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Understanding how neurons process information is a fundamental question in neuroscience. Purkinje cells (PCs) were traditionally regarded as linear point neurons. We used computational modeling to unveil their electrophysiological properties underlying the multiplexed coding strategy that is observed during behaviors. We demonstrate that increasing input intensity triggers localized dendritic spikes, shifting PCs from linear rate-coders to burst-pause timing-coders. Both coding strategies work at the level of individual dendritic branches. Our work suggests that PCs have the ability to implement branch-specific multiplexed coding at the cellular level, thereby increasing the capacity of cerebellar coding and learning.
Collapse
|
38
|
Bursting in cerebellar stellate cells induced by pharmacological agents: Non-sequential spike adding. PLoS Comput Biol 2020; 16:e1008463. [PMID: 33315892 PMCID: PMC7769625 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pcbi.1008463] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2020] [Revised: 12/28/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Cerebellar stellate cells (CSCs) are spontaneously active, tonically firing (5-30 Hz), inhibitory interneurons that synapse onto Purkinje cells. We previously analyzed the excitability properties of CSCs, focusing on four key features: type I excitability, non-monotonic first-spike latency, switching in responsiveness and runup (i.e., temporal increase in excitability during whole-cell configuration). In this study, we extend this analysis by using whole-cell configuration to show that these neurons can also burst when treated with certain pharmacological agents separately or jointly. Indeed, treatment with 4-Aminopyridine (4-AP), a partial blocker of delayed rectifier and A-type K+ channels, at low doses induces a bursting profile in CSCs significantly different than that produced at high doses or when it is applied at low doses but with cadmium (Cd2+), a blocker of high voltage-activated (HVA) Ca2+ channels. By expanding a previously revised Hodgkin–Huxley type model, through the inclusion of Ca2+-activated K+ (K(Ca)) and HVA currents, we explain how these bursts are generated and what their underlying dynamics are. Specifically, we demonstrate that the expanded model preserves the four excitability features of CSCs, as well as captures their bursting patterns induced by 4-AP and Cd2+. Model investigation reveals that 4-AP is potentiating HVA, inducing square-wave bursting at low doses and pseudo-plateau bursting at high doses, whereas Cd2+ is potentiating K(Ca), inducing pseudo-plateau bursting when applied in combination with low doses of 4-AP. Using bifurcation analysis, we show that spike adding in square-wave bursts is non-sequential when gradually changing HVA and K(Ca) maximum conductances, delayed Hopf is responsible for generating the plateau segment within the active phase of pseudo-plateau bursts, and bursting can become “chaotic” when HVA and K(Ca) maximum conductances are made low and high, respectively. These results highlight the secondary effects of the drugs applied and suggest that CSCs have all the ingredients needed for bursting. Excitable cells, including neurons, fire action potentials (APs) in their membrane voltage that allow them to communicate with each other and to serve certain physiological purposes. They do so either tonically by firing APs periodically, or episodically by repeatedly firing clusters of APs (called bursts) separated by quiescent periods. Each one of those firing patterns can be neuron-specific and dependent on synaptic inputs and/or their physiological environment. Cerebellar stellate cells (CSCs) that synapse onto Purkinje cells, the sole output of the cerebellum responsible for motor control, are spontaneously active inhibitory interneurons that fire APs tonically. We previously studied the excitability properties of these neurons and showed that they possess several important key features, including type I excitability, runup, non-monotonic first spike latency and switching in responsiveness. In this study, we show that CSCs can also exhibit two modes of burst firing, called square-wave and pseudo-plateau, when treated with certain pharmacological agents. Using bifurcation theory, we demonstrate that spike adding in the square-wave burst is non-sequential, changing by several spikes when certain conductances are altered gradually. This study thus sheds lights onto the overall effects of the pharmacological agents and highlights the ability of CSCs to burst in certain biological conditions.
Collapse
|
39
|
Alexander RPD, Bowie D. Intrinsic plasticity of cerebellar stellate cells is mediated by NMDA receptor regulation of voltage-gated Na + channels. J Physiol 2020; 599:647-665. [PMID: 33146903 DOI: 10.1113/jp280627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2020] [Accepted: 10/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS We show that NMDA receptors (NMDARs) elicit a long-term increase in the firing rates of inhibitory stellate cells of the cerebellum NMDARs induce intrinsic plasticity through a Ca2+ - and CaMKII-dependent pathway that drives shifts in the activation and inactivation properties of voltage-gated Na+ (Nav ) channels An identical Ca2+ - and CaMKII-dependent signalling pathway is triggered during whole-cell recording which lowers the action potential threshold by causing a hyperpolarizing shift in the gating properties of Nav channels. Our findings open the more general possibility that NMDAR-mediated intrinsic plasticity found in other cerebellar neurons may involve similar shifts in Nav channel gating. ABSTRACT Memory storage in the mammalian brain is mediated not only by long-lasting changes in the efficacy of neurotransmitter receptors but also by long-term modifications to the activity of voltage-gated ion channels. Activity-dependent plasticity of voltage-gated ion channels, or intrinsic plasticity, is found throughout the brain in virtually all neuronal types, including principal cells and interneurons. Although intrinsic plasticity has been identified in neurons of the cerebellum, it has yet to be studied in inhibitory cerebellar stellate cells of the molecular layer which regulate activity outflow from the cerebellar cortex by feedforward inhibition onto Purkinje cells. The study of intrinsic plasticity in stellate cells has been particularly challenging as membrane patch breakthrough in electrophysiology experiments unintentionally triggers changes in spontaneous firing rates. Using cell-attached patch recordings to avoid disruption, we show that activation of extrasynaptic N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) elicits a long-term increase in the firing properties of stellate cells by stimulating a rise in cytosolic Ca2+ and activation of Ca²⁺/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII). An identical signalling pathway is triggered during whole-cell recording which lowers the action potential threshold by causing a hyperpolarizing shift in the gating properties of voltage-gated sodium (Nav ) channels. Together, our findings identify an unappreciated role of Nav channel-dependent intrinsic plasticity in cerebellar stellate cells which, in concert with non-canonical NMDAR signalling, provides the cerebellum with an unconventional mechanism to fine-tune motor behaviour.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ryan P D Alexander
- Integrated Program in Neuroscience, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada.,Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Derek Bowie
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, McGill University, Montréal, Québec, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
40
|
Kim J, Augustine GJ. Molecular Layer Interneurons: Key Elements of Cerebellar Network Computation and Behavior. Neuroscience 2020; 462:22-35. [PMID: 33075461 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 10/05/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) play an important role in cerebellar information processing by controlling Purkinje cell (PC) activity via inhibitory synaptic transmission. A local MLI network, constructed from both chemical and electrical synapses, is organized into spatially structured clusters that amplify feedforward and lateral inhibition to shape the temporal and spatial patterns of PC activity. Several recent in vivo studies indicate that such MLI circuits contribute not only to sensorimotor information processing, but also to precise motor coordination and cognitive processes. Here, we review current understanding of the organization of MLI circuits and their roles in the function of the mammalian cerebellum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jinsook Kim
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine Nanyang Technological University Singapore 308238, Singapore
| | - George J Augustine
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine Nanyang Technological University Singapore 308238, Singapore.
| |
Collapse
|
41
|
Ma M, Futia GL, de Souza FMS, Ozbay BN, Llano I, Gibson EA, Restrepo D. Molecular layer interneurons in the cerebellum encode for valence in associative learning. Nat Commun 2020; 11:4217. [PMID: 32868778 PMCID: PMC7459332 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18034-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 07/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The cerebellum plays a crucial role in sensorimotor and associative learning. However, the contribution of molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) to these processes is not well understood. We used two-photon microscopy to study the role of ensembles of cerebellar MLIs in a go-no go task where mice obtain a sugar water reward if they lick a spout in the presence of the rewarded odorant and avoid a timeout when they refrain from licking for the unrewarded odorant. In naive animals the MLI responses did not differ between the odorants. With learning, the rewarded odorant elicited a large increase in MLI calcium responses, and the identity of the odorant could be decoded from the differential response. Importantly, MLIs switched odorant responses when the valence of the stimuli was reversed. Finally, mice took a longer time to refrain from licking in the presence of the unrewarded odorant and had difficulty becoming proficient when MLIs were inhibited by chemogenetic intervention. Our findings support a role for MLIs in learning valence in the cerebellum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ming Ma
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Gregory L Futia
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Fabio M Simoes de Souza
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Center for Mathematics, Computation and Cognition, Federal University of ABC, Sao Bernardo do Campo, SP, Brazil
| | - Baris N Ozbay
- Intelligent Imaging Innovations, Denver, CO, 80216, USA
| | - Isabel Llano
- Saints Pères Paris Institute for Neurosciences, Université Paris Descartes, 75006, Paris, France
| | - Emily A Gibson
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Diego Restrepo
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
42
|
Lisberger SG. The Rules of Cerebellar Learning: Around the Ito Hypothesis. Neuroscience 2020; 462:175-190. [PMID: 32866603 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
As a tribute to Masao Ito, we propose a model of cerebellar learning that incorporates and extends his original model. We suggest four principles that align well with conclusions from multiple cerebellar learning systems. (1) Climbing fiber inputs to the cerebellum drive early, fast, poorly-retained learning in the parallel fiber to Purkinje cell synapse. (2) Learned Purkinje cell outputs drive late, slow, well-retained learning in non-Purkinje cell inputs to neurons in the cerebellar nucleus, transferring learning from the cortex to the nucleus. (3) Recurrent feedback from Purkinje cells to the inferior olive, through interneurons in the cerebellar nucleus, limits the magnitude of fast, early learning in the cerebellar cortex. (4) Functionally different inputs are subjected to plasticity in the cerebellar cortex versus the cerebellar nucleus. A computational neural circuit model that is based on these principles mimics a large amount of neural and behavioral data obtained from the smooth pursuit eye movements of monkeys.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen G Lisberger
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
43
|
Canepari M. Is Purkinje Neuron Hyperpolarisation Important for Cerebellar Synaptic Plasticity? A Retrospective and Prospective Analysis. THE CEREBELLUM 2020; 19:869-878. [PMID: 32654026 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-020-01164-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Two recent studies have demonstrated that the dendritic Ca2+ signal associated with a climbing fibre (CF) input to the cerebellar Purkinje neuron (PN) depends on the membrane potential (Vm). Specifically, when the cell is hyperpolarised, this signal is mediated by T-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels; in contrast, when the cell is firing, the CF-PN signal is mediated by P/Q-type voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. When the CF input is paired with parallel fibre (PF) activity, the signal is locally amplified at the sites of PF-activated synapses according to the Vm at the time of the CF input, suggesting that the standing Vm is a critical parameter for the induction of PF synaptic plasticity. In this review, I analyse how the Vm can potentially play a role in cerebellar learning focussing, in particular, on the hyperpolarised state that appears to occur episodically, since PNs are mostly firing under physiological conditions. By revisiting the recent literature reporting in vivo recordings and synaptic plasticity studies, I speculate on how a putative role of the PN Vm can provide an interpretation for the results of these studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marco Canepari
- University of Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, F-38000, Grenoble, France. .,Laboratories of Excellence, Ion Channel Science and Therapeutics, Valbonne, France. .,Institut National de la Santé et Recherche Médicale, Paris, France.
| |
Collapse
|
44
|
Kawato M, Ohmae S, Hoang H, Sanger T. 50 Years Since the Marr, Ito, and Albus Models of the Cerebellum. Neuroscience 2020; 462:151-174. [PMID: 32599123 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.06.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Revised: 06/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Fifty years have passed since David Marr, Masao Ito, and James Albus proposed seminal models of cerebellar functions. These models share the essential concept that parallel-fiber-Purkinje-cell synapses undergo plastic changes, guided by climbing-fiber activities during sensorimotor learning. However, they differ in several important respects, including holistic versus complementary roles of the cerebellum, pattern recognition versus control as computational objectives, potentiation versus depression of synaptic plasticity, teaching signals versus error signals transmitted by climbing-fibers, sparse expansion coding by granule cells, and cerebellar internal models. In this review, we evaluate different features of the three models based on recent computational and experimental studies. While acknowledging that the three models have greatly advanced our understanding of cerebellar control mechanisms in eye movements and classical conditioning, we propose a new direction for computational frameworks of the cerebellum, that is, hierarchical reinforcement learning with multiple internal models.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuo Kawato
- Brain Information Communication Research Group, Advanced Telecommunications Research Institutes International (ATR), Hikaridai 2-2-2, "Keihanna Science City", Kyoto 619-0288, Japan; Center for Advanced Intelligence Project (AIP), RIKEN, Nihonbashi Mitsui Building, 1-4-1 Nihonbashi, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 103-0027, Japan.
| | - Shogo Ohmae
- Department of Neuroscience, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas, USA
| | - Huu Hoang
- Brain Information Communication Research Group, Advanced Telecommunications Research Institutes International (ATR), Hikaridai 2-2-2, "Keihanna Science City", Kyoto 619-0288, Japan
| | - Terry Sanger
- Department of Electrical Engineering, University of California, Irvine, 4207 Engineering Hall, Irvine CA 92697-2625, USA; Children's Hospital of Orange County, 1201 W La Veta Ave, Orange, CA 92868, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
45
|
Bao J, Graupner M, Astorga G, Collin T, Jalil A, Indriati DW, Bradley J, Shigemoto R, Llano I. Synergism of type 1 metabotropic and ionotropic glutamate receptors in cerebellar molecular layer interneurons in vivo. eLife 2020; 9:56839. [PMID: 32401196 PMCID: PMC7220378 DOI: 10.7554/elife.56839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 04/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Type 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1s) are key elements in neuronal signaling. While their function is well documented in slices, requirements for their activation in vivo are poorly understood. We examine this question in adult mice in vivo using 2-photon imaging of cerebellar molecular layer interneurons (MLIs) expressing GCaMP. In anesthetized mice, parallel fiber activation evokes beam-like Cai rises in postsynaptic MLIs which depend on co-activation of mGluR1s and ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluRs). In awake mice, blocking mGluR1 decreases Cai rises associated with locomotion. In vitro studies and freeze-fracture electron microscopy show that the iGluR-mGluR1 interaction is synergistic and favored by close association of the two classes of receptors. Altogether our results suggest that mGluR1s, acting in synergy with iGluRs, potently contribute to processing cerebellar neuronal signaling under physiological conditions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jin Bao
- Université de Paris, CNRS, SPPIN - Saints-Pères Paris Institute for the Neurosciences, Paris, France.,The Brain Cognition and Brain Disease Institute (BCBDI), Shenzhen Institutes of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences; Shenzhen-Hong Kong Institute of Brain Science-Shenzhen Fundamental Research Institutions, Shenzhen, China
| | - Michael Graupner
- Université de Paris, CNRS, SPPIN - Saints-Pères Paris Institute for the Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Guadalupe Astorga
- Université de Paris, CNRS, SPPIN - Saints-Pères Paris Institute for the Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Thibault Collin
- Université de Paris, CNRS, SPPIN - Saints-Pères Paris Institute for the Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Abdelali Jalil
- Université de Paris, CNRS, SPPIN - Saints-Pères Paris Institute for the Neurosciences, Paris, France
| | - Dwi Wahyu Indriati
- Division of Cerebral Structure, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (Sokendai), Okazaki, Japan
| | - Jonathan Bradley
- Université de Paris, CNRS, SPPIN - Saints-Pères Paris Institute for the Neurosciences, Paris, France.,Institut de Biologie de l'Ecole Normale Superieure (IBENS), Ecole Normale Superieure, CNRS, INSERM, PSL Research University, Paris, France
| | - Ryuichi Shigemoto
- Division of Cerebral Structure, National Institute for Physiological Sciences, The Graduate University for Advanced Studies (Sokendai), Okazaki, Japan.,IST Austria, Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Isabel Llano
- Université de Paris, CNRS, SPPIN - Saints-Pères Paris Institute for the Neurosciences, Paris, France
| |
Collapse
|
46
|
Herzfeld DJ, Hall NJ, Tringides M, Lisberger SG. Principles of operation of a cerebellar learning circuit. eLife 2020; 9:e55217. [PMID: 32352914 PMCID: PMC7255800 DOI: 10.7554/elife.55217] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We provide behavioral evidence using monkey smooth pursuit eye movements for four principles of cerebellar learning. Using a circuit-level model of the cerebellum, we link behavioral data to learning's neural implementation. The four principles are: (1) early, fast, acquisition driven by climbing fiber inputs to the cerebellar cortex, with poor retention; (2) learned responses of Purkinje cells guide transfer of learning from the cerebellar cortex to the deep cerebellar nucleus, with excellent retention; (3) functionally different neural signals are subject to learning in the cerebellar cortex versus the deep cerebellar nuclei; and (4) negative feedback from the cerebellum to the inferior olive reduces the magnitude of the teaching signal in climbing fibers and limits learning. Our circuit-level model, based on these four principles, explains behavioral data obtained by strategically manipulating the signals responsible for acquisition and recall of direction learning in smooth pursuit eye movements across multiple timescales.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- David J Herzfeld
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of MedicineDurhamUnited States
| | - Nathan J Hall
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of MedicineDurhamUnited States
| | - Marios Tringides
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of MedicineDurhamUnited States
| | - Stephen G Lisberger
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of MedicineDurhamUnited States
| |
Collapse
|
47
|
Hull C. Prediction signals in the cerebellum: beyond supervised motor learning. eLife 2020; 9:54073. [PMID: 32223891 PMCID: PMC7105376 DOI: 10.7554/elife.54073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 86] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2019] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
While classical views of cerebellar learning have suggested that this structure predominantly operates according to an error-based supervised learning rule to refine movements, emerging evidence suggests that the cerebellum may also harness a wider range of learning rules to contribute to a variety of behaviors, including cognitive processes. Together, such evidence points to a broad role for cerebellar circuits in generating and testing predictions about movement, reward, and other non-motor operations. However, this expanded view of cerebellar processing also raises many new questions about how such apparent diversity of function arises from a structure with striking homogeneity. Hence, this review will highlight both current evidence for predictive cerebellar circuit function that extends beyond the classical view of error-driven supervised learning, as well as open questions that must be addressed to unify our understanding cerebellar circuit function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Court Hull
- Department of Neurobiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, United States
| |
Collapse
|
48
|
The Origin of Physiological Local mGluR1 Supralinear Ca 2+ Signals in Cerebellar Purkinje Neurons. J Neurosci 2020; 40:1795-1809. [PMID: 31969470 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.2406-19.2020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/09/2019] [Revised: 01/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In mouse cerebellar Purkinje neurons (PNs), the climbing fiber (CF) input provides a signal to parallel fiber (PF) synapses, triggering PF synaptic plasticity. This signal is given by supralinear Ca2+ transients, associated with the CF synaptic potential and colocalized with the PF Ca2+ influx, occurring only when PF activity precedes the CF input. Here, we unravel the biophysical determinants of supralinear Ca2+ signals associated with paired PF-CF synaptic activity. We used membrane potential (V m) and Ca2+ imaging to investigate the local CF-associated Ca2+ influx following a train of PF synaptic potentials in two cases: (1) when the dendritic V m is hyperpolarized below the resting V m, and (2) when the dendritic V m is at rest. We found that supralinear Ca2+ signals are mediated by type-1 metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR1s) when the CF input is delayed by 100-150 ms from the first PF input in both cases. When the dendrite is hyperpolarized only, however, mGluR1s boost neighboring T-type channels, providing a mechanism for local coincident detection of PF-CF activity. The resulting Ca2+ elevation is locally amplified by saturation of endogenous Ca2+ buffers produced by the PF-associated Ca2+ influx via the mGluR1-mediated nonselective cation conductance. In contrast, when the dendritic V m is at rest, mGluR1s increase dendritic excitability by inactivating A-type K+ channels, but this phenomenon is not restricted to the activated PF synapses. Thus, V m is likely a crucial parameter in determining PF synaptic plasticity, and the occurrence of hyperpolarization episodes is expected to play an important role in motor learning.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT In Purkinje neurons, parallel fiber synaptic plasticity, determined by coincident activation of the climbing fiber input, underlies cerebellar learning. We unravel the biophysical mechanisms allowing the CF input to produce a local Ca2+ signal exclusively at the sites of activated parallel fibers. We show that when the membrane potential is hyperpolarized with respect to the resting membrane potential, type-1 metabotropic glutamate receptors locally enhance Ca2+ influx mediated by T-type Ca2+ channels, and that this signal is amplified by saturation of endogenous buffer also mediated by the same receptors. The combination of these two mechanisms is therefore capable of producing a Ca2+ signal at the activated parallel fiber sites, suggesting a role of Purkinje neuron membrane potential in cerebellar learning.
Collapse
|
49
|
Yang H, Yang C, Zhu Q, Wei M, Li Y, Cheng J, Liu F, Wu Y, Zhang J, Zhang C, Wu H. Rack1 Controls Parallel Fiber-Purkinje Cell Synaptogenesis and Synaptic Transmission. Front Cell Neurosci 2019; 13:539. [PMID: 31920545 PMCID: PMC6927999 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2019.00539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 11/20/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Purkinje cells (PCs) in the cerebellum receive two excitatory afferents including granule cells-derived parallel fiber (PF) and the climbing fiber. Scaffolding protein Rack1 is highly expressed in the cerebellar PCs. Here, we found delayed formation of specific cerebellar vermis lobule and impaired motor coordination in PC-specific Rack1 conditional knockout mice. Our studies further revealed that Rack1 is essential for PF–PC synapse formation. In addition, Rack1 plays a critical role in regulating synaptic plasticity and long-term depression (LTD) induction of PF–PC synapses without changing the expression of postsynaptic proteins. Together, we have discovered Rack1 as the crucial molecule that controls PF–PC synaptogenesis and synaptic plasticity. Our studies provide a novel molecular insight into the mechanisms underlying the neural development and neuroplasticity in the cerebellum.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Haihong Yang
- Department of Neurobiology, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,Department of Anesthesiology, The General Hospital of Western Theater Command, Chengdu, China
| | - Chaojuan Yang
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Qian Zhu
- Department of Neurobiology, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Mengping Wei
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Ying Li
- Department of Neurobiology, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Juanxian Cheng
- Department of Neurobiology, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fengjiao Liu
- Department of Neurobiology, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Wu
- Department of Neurobiology, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jiyan Zhang
- Department of Neuroimmunology and Antibody Engineering, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Capital Medical University, Beijing, China
| | - Haitao Wu
- Department of Neurobiology, Beijing Institute of Basic Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,Chinese Institute for Brain Research, Beijing, China.,Key Laboratory of Neuroregeneration, Co-innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, China
| |
Collapse
|
50
|
Wagner MJ, Luo L. Neocortex-Cerebellum Circuits for Cognitive Processing. Trends Neurosci 2019; 43:42-54. [PMID: 31787351 DOI: 10.1016/j.tins.2019.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Although classically thought of as a motor circuit, the cerebellum is now understood to contribute to a wide variety of cognitive functions through its dense interconnections with the neocortex, the center of brain cognition. Recent investigations have shed light on the nature of cerebellar cognitive processing and information exchange with the neocortex. We review findings that demonstrate widespread reward-related cognitive input to the cerebellum, as well as new studies that have characterized the codependence of processing in the neocortex and cerebellum. Together, these data support a view of the neocortex-cerebellum circuit as a joint dynamic system both in classical sensorimotor contexts and reward-related, cognitive processing. These studies have also expanded classical theory on the computations performed by the cerebellar circuit.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mark J Wagner
- Department of Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| | - Liqun Luo
- Department of Biology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
| |
Collapse
|