Self-report and behavioural approaches to the measurement of self-control: Are we assessing the same construct?

Jumping with control: the interplay between psychological constructs and run-up variability in elite jumpers

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between psychological aspects (emotional regulation, self-control, mood states, and perceived stress) and components of run-up variability in horizontal jumps and to conduct comparisons based on sex, events (long jump and triple jump), and contextual situations (training versus competition).

Methods

A total of 10 elite-level athletes (five males and five females) with a mean age of 27.14 (±4.25) years were recruited for the study. All participants had competed nationally or internationally and had 13.10 (±3.48) years of athletic experience. Data were collected during competitions and training sessions for 5 weeks. The participants completed the Brunel Mood Scale, Emotional Regulation Questionnaire, Brief Self-Control Scale, and Visual Analogical Scale of Perceived Stress before each session. The components of run-up variability of successful and failed attempts were measured using video analysis. Data were analyzed using a t-test, Pearson's correlation, and Cohen's d.

Results

Athletes specializing in long jump and triple jump displayed similar psychological and run-up variability characteristics. However, females showed higher values for tension and depression, whereas males had higher run-up speeds and vigor. In competitions, athletes tended to have higher vigor, lower fatigue and confusion, an earlier beginning of the adjustment phase, fewer failed attempts, and higher run-up speed than during training. Emotional regulation is inversely related to depression in women during competitions, whereas higher self-control is associated with fewer failed jumps.

Conclusion

Athletes competing in the long jump and the triple jump do not differ in psychological traits and run-up characteristics, which suggests that similar training strategies can be used in both events. However, different solutions should be used considering the sex of athletes, with a particular focus on utilizing emotion regulation tools to modulate depression in female jumpers. It is recommended to include training sessions that simulate competition demands, primarily to ensure the early onset of the run-up adjustment phase.

Clarifying the relationship between trait aggression and self-control using random item slope regression

OBJECTIVE

Myriad psychological research evinces a negative association between self-control and aggression with some arguing for self-control failure as a cause of aggression. Recent literature suggests that the relationship between aggression and self-control is likely more complex and even positive in some cases. One source of such conflict in the literature could be the presence of unaccounted for random item slopes in commonly used measures of self-control which may inflate the likelihood of Type I errors. This study (N = 1386) tested the hypothesis that self-control would share random item slopes with the facets of trait aggression using random item slope regression.

METHOD

We measured trait aggression and self-control via two common self-reports: the Buss-Perry Questionnaire and the Brief Self-Control Scale.

RESULTS

Our analyses revealed that the facets of trait aggression shared significant random item slopes with self-control and that many of these slopes were positive, rather than negative. We also found that Type I error inflation was evident in models that did not account for these random slopes.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings may in part explain some of the conflicting results in the literature and that researchers interested in studying self-control and aggression should test for random item slopes.

The contribution and interplay of implicit and explicit processes on physical activity behavior: empirical testing of the physical activity adoption and maintenance (PAAM) model

The adoption and maintenance of physical activity (PA) is an important health behavior. This paper presents the first comprehensive empirical test of the Physical Activity Adoption and Maintenance (PAAM) model, which proposes that a combination of explicit (e.g., intention) and implicit (e.g., habit,, affect) self-regulatory processes is involved in PA adoption and maintenance. Data were collected via online questionnaires in English, German, and Italian at two measurement points four weeks apart. The study included 422 participants (Mage= 25.3, SDage= 10.1; 74.2% women) from Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Canada, and the U.S. The study results largely supported the assumptions of the PAAM model, indicating that intentions and habits significantly mediate the effects of past PA on future PA. In addition, the effect of past PA on future PA was shown to be significant through a mediation chain involving affect and habit. Although the hypothesis that trait self-regulation moderates the intention-behavior relationship was not supported, a significant moderating effect of affect on the same relationship was observed. The results suggest that interventions targeting both explicit and implicit processes may be effective in promoting PA adoption and maintenance.

On the relation between oral contraceptive use and self-control

In two studies we examined the relation between oral contraceptive (OC) use and self-reported levels of self-control in undergraduate women using OCs (Study 1: OC group N = 399, Study 2: OC group N = 288) and naturally cycling women not using any form of hormonal contraceptives (Study 1: Non-OC group N = 964, Study 2: Non-OC group N = 997). We assessed the self-overriding aspect of self-control using the Brief Self-Control Scale (BSCS) and strategies for self-regulation using the Regulatory Mode Scale (RMS), which separately measures the tendency to assess one's progress towards a goal (assessment), and the tendency to engage in activities that move one towards an end goal (locomotion). In Study 1, we found no significant differences between OC and non-OC groups in their levels of self-overriding or self-regulatory assessment. However, we found that those in the OC group reported significantly greater levels of self-regulatory locomotion compared to those in the non-OC group, even after controlling for depression symptoms and the semester of data collection. The findings from Study 2 replicated the findings from Study 1 in a different sample of participants, with the exception that OC use was also related to higher levels of assessment in Study 2. These results indicate that OC use is related to increases in self-regulatory actions in service of goal pursuit and perhaps the tendency to evaluate progress towards goals.

Self-regulatory control processes in youths: A temporal network analysis approach

Objective

This study aimed to better understand the temporal interrelationships among self-control, response inhibition, and anger (i.e., momentary state and rumination) on both the within- and between-person levels in male adolescents.

Method

We applied temporal network analyses among 62 male adolescents with a wide range of behavioral difficulties. Self-control, momentary anger, and anger rumination were mapped by self-report measures, whereas we measured response inhibition through an ambulatory Go/No-go task (two measures a day-morning and afternoon-over a 9-day period).

Results

Temporal network analysis, at the within-person level, revealed that morning measures of response inhibition, anger rumination, and self-control were related to the corresponding measure in the afternoon. More efficient response inhibition in the morning was associated with higher self-control in the afternoon. Higher anger rumination in the morning led to higher momentary anger in the afternoon. In a concurrent within-person network, higher momentary anger was reciprocally associated with lower self-control. At the between-person level, higher momentary anger was correlated to higher anger rumination, lower response inhibition, and lower self-control.

Discussion

This study provides insight into the dynamic interactions among self-control, response inhibition, and anger (momentary state and rumination) in male adolescents, advancing the understanding of self-regulatory control functioning.

The many foibles of Likert scales challenge claims that self-report measures of self-control are better than performance-based measures

Self-control and executive functioning are often treated as highly related psychological constructs. However, measures of each rarely correlate with one another. This reflects some combination of true separability between the constructs and measurement differences. Traditionally, executive functioning is objectively measured as performance on computer-controlled tasks in the laboratory, whereas self-control is subjectively measured with self-report scales of predispositions and behaviors in everyday life. Self-report measures tend to better predict outcomes that should be affected by individual differences in control. Our two studies show that the original version of Tangney, Baumeister, and Boone's brief self-control scale (consisting of four positive and nine negative items) strongly correlates with self-esteem, mental health, fluid intelligence, but only weakly with satisfaction with life and happiness. Four variants of the original scale were created by reverse-wording the 13 original items and recombining them to form, for example, versions with all positive or all negative items. As the proportion of items with positive valence increased: (1) the outcomes with strong correlations in the original scale weakened and the weak correlations strengthened and (2) the mean overall scores increased. Both studies replicated a common finding that the original scale yields two factors in an exploratory factor analysis. However, the second factor is generated by method differences, namely, having items with both positive and negative valence. The second factor is induced by the common practice of reverse-coding the items with negative valence and the faulty assumption that Likert scales are equal-interval scales with a neutral-point at midscale.

Time Perspective, Dietary Behavior, and Glycemic Control in Patients With Type 2 Diabetes

BACKGROUND

Dietary behavior is a key component in the self-management of patients with Type 2 diabetes (T2DM), as it is essential for glycemic control and preventing diabetic complications. However, it is challenging for patients with diabetes to make sustainable dietary behavior changes and achieve long-term optimal glycemic control.

OBJECTIVES

Dietary behavior changes involve present efforts to achieve future benefits. The primary aim of this study was to investigate the relationships among time perspective, dietary behaviors, and health outcomes in patients with T2DM. Based on the temporal self-regulation theory and previous research, the secondary aim of the study was to explore how time perspective influences dietary behaviors.

METHODS

Following convenient sampling ( N = 329), a cross-sectional study was conducted in patients with T2DM between November 2021 and October 2022. Data were collected using self-reported questionnaires and the retrieval of clinical information from medical records. Hierarchical regression and path analysis were used to explore the relationships among study variables.

RESULTS

Our analyses showed that a future-oriented time perspective was associated with better dietary behavior but was not significantly related to hemoglobin A1c. Hierarchical regression analysis also demonstrated that having a more future-oriented time perspective was associated with healthier dietary behavior after controlling covariates. Based on the theory and path analysis, there was an indirect effect of future time perspective on dietary behavior through self-control capacity and intention.

DISCUSSION

The study reveals that a future-oriented time perspective can promote healthier dietary behavior when providing care for patients with T2DM. As a theoretical framework, the temporal self-regulation theory offers references for researchers and clinicians to take into consideration patients' time perspectives and their intentions and self-control capacity when developing interventional programs to improve dietary behaviors.

"Have to do" or "willing to do": Examining the relationship between self-control and academic emotions using experience sampling method

The purpose of this study was to examine the antecedents of academic emotions among university students through real-time and multilevel analyses. We explored the link between state self-control and academic emotions, the influence of self-determination on the relationship between them, and the moderating role of trait self-control. The data was collected over seven consecutive days during which university students (N = 155) completed smartphone questionnaires. Data was organized into hierarchical two-level structures, where situations (Level 1) nested within individuals (Level 2). The results showed that positive emotions were negatively predicted by state self-control while negative emotions were positively predicted by state self-control. Moreover, state self-control under low self-determination was a significant negative predictor of positive emotions, whereas high self-determination had no predictive effect on positive emotions. The relationship between self-determination and negative emotions was further moderated by trait self-control. The limitations of this study and future research directions are also discussed.

The relation between Self-Control, Need for Cognition and Action Orientation in secondary school students: A conceptual replication study

Self-Control can be defined as the self-initiated effortful process that enables individuals to resist temptation impulses. It is relevant for conducting a healthy and successful life. For university students, Grass et al. found that Need for Cognition as the tendency to engage in and enjoy thinking, and Action Orientation as the flexible recruitment of control resources in cognitively demanding situations, predict Self-Control. Further, Action Orientation partially mediated the relation between Need for Cognition and Self-Control. In the present conceptual replication study, we investigated the relations between Self-Control, Need for Cognition, and Action Orientation in adolescence (N = 892 9th graders) as a pivotal period for the development of self-control. We replicated the findings that Need for Cognition and Action Orientation predict Self-Control and that Action Orientation partially mediates the relation between Need for Cognition and Self-Control. In addition, Action Orientation moderates the relation between Need for Cognition and Self-Control. This result implies that in more action-oriented students Need for Cognition more strongly predicted Self-Control than in less action-oriented students. Our findings strengthen theoretical assumptions that Need for Cognition and Action Orientation are important cognitive and behavioral mechanisms that contribute to the successful exertion of Self-Control.

From asking to observing. Behavioural measures of socio-emotional and motivational skills in large-scale assessments

Socio-emotional and motivational skills are routinely measured using self-reports in large-scale educational assessments. Measures exploiting test-takers' behaviour during the completion of questionnaires or cognitive tests are increasingly used as alternatives to self-reports in the economics of education literature. We compute behavioural measures of socio-emotional and motivational skills using data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). We find that these measures capture important aspects of students' academic profiles: some are importantly associated with contemporaneous performance and educational attainment and most measures have a high degree of stability over time. However, these measures are only limitedly correlated among themselves and have low correlations with self-report measures of the same constructs. This is likely a reflection of the fact that behavioural measures are representations of the test taker current 'state', rather than descriptions of the participant view of their own 'trait' like the self-report measures. Moreover, the low correlation across measures suggests that they capture different behavioural responses to the test-taking situation. These differences are still limitedly understood because the measures are constructed ex-post using collateral information collected during the administration of assessments rather than developed ex ante in line with theoretical models of human cognition and affect.

Go to bed! A systematic review and meta-analysis of bedtime procrastination correlates and sleep outcomes

Bedtime procrastination is defined as the volitional delay of going to bed, without any external circumstances causing the delay, and is associated with inadequate sleep. Alleviating bedtime procrastination is an important target for interventions promoting adequate sleep, yet the correlates of bedtime procrastination are poorly understood. This study examined (1) correlates of bedtime procrastination, and (2) strength and direction of the association between bedtime procrastination and sleep outcomes. Six databases (CINAHL, EMBASE, PsychINFO, PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science) were searched from inception to September 2021 against pre-determined eligibility criteria. Forty-three studies were included (GRADE = low). Meta-analysis revealed that bedtime procrastination had a moderate negative association with self-control (z = -0.39; CI: -0.45, -0.29) and a moderate positive association with evening chronotype (z = 0.43; CI: 0.32, 0.48). Furthermore, bedtime procrastination was moderately negatively associated with sleep duration (z = -0.31; CI: -0.37, -0.24), sleep quality (z = -0.35; CI: -0.42, -0.27) and moderately positively associated with daytime fatigue (z = 0.32; CI: 0.25, 0.38). Further high-quality studies are needed to identify causal relationships between bedtime procrastination and correlates, as well as bedtime procrastination and sleep. Future work will guide the development of interventions targeting bedtime procrastination for improved sleep outcomes. STUDY REGISTRATION: PROSPERO registration number CRD42021248891.

Utility of temporal self‐regulation theory in health and social behaviours: A meta‐analysis

PURPOSE

Temporal self-regulation theory was developed to address an observed intention-behaviour gap across behaviours. However, a synthesis of studies has not yet been conducted to investigate the theory's utility to explain behaviour and bridge the intention-behaviour gap. This review aimed to evaluate the predictive ability of temporal self-regulation theory to understanding behaviour and pre-registered at PROSPERO (ID: CRD42021253174).

METHOD

Forward citation searches on the original theory publication through Google Scholar until May 2021 identified 37 eligible articles, including, 12,555 participants assessing at least two of the three theory constructs. Random-effects meta-analyses assessed the strength of associations between theory constructs on behaviour and random effects meta-regressions assessed moderators of behaviour.

RESULTS

Findings provide support for temporal self-regulation theory to explain behaviour with very weak (self-regulatory capacity r = .039, CI = .00, -.07) to moderate (intention r = .331, CI = .26, .40; behavioural pre-potency r = .379, CI = .32, .44) effect sizes. Further, the strength of associations varied across behaviour types and contexts. However, there was high heterogeneity across studies and some moderating effects could not be assessed due to insufficient numbers of studies assessing interactions.

CONCLUSIONS

We urge researchers to assess and report interactions for better understanding of the drivers of behaviour to develop effective interventions for positive behaviour change.

A Question of Method and Subjective Beliefs

Abstract. Need for Cognition (NFC) describes the relatively stable intrinsic motivation to engage in cognitive endeavors. Recent research has revealed the importance of NFC for affective adjustment, especially in combination with self-control. We followed up on those findings by addressing methodological issues as well as processes that may underlie relations of NFC to self-control. Study 1 ( N = 102) examined whether NFC is associated with self-control independently of the measure or facet considered. Implicit willpower theories, that is, subjective beliefs concerning the limitation of self-control resources, were examined as a mediator for NFC predicting self-control. Higher NFC was associated with increased trait self-control but also with believing in unlimited self-control resources. The relation of NFC to willpower theories also mediated the prediction of trait self-control. Study 2 ( N = 188) replicated relations of NFC to self-control. We further pursued the explanatory approach from Study 1 and experimentally manipulated willpower theories to provide insight into their association with NFC. Willpower theories were related to NFC but had no mediating role in predicting self-control. The experimental manipulation had no impact on situation-specific NFC. Altogether, both studies provided first evidence that relations of NFC to self-control depend on the self-control measure and that willpower theories may be crucial for explaining the association with self-control.

When the UPPS-P Model of Impulsivity Meets a Revised Approach: The Development and Validation of the TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale

There is inconsistency in the measurement of impulsivity resulting from the diversity in its conceptualization. We aimed to develop a revised measure based on the Urgency, Premeditation (lack of), Perseverance (lack of), Sensation Seeking - Positive Urgency (UPPS-P) model (i.e., TRUE Multidimensional Impulsivity Scale; TRUE-MIS) considering the limitations and strengths of the existing measures. We conceptualized impulsivity as a personality trait referring to the inability to restrain one's urges without thinking about the future consequences in various contexts. A total of 535 adults (262 females, M = 34.1, SD = 12.7) participated in Study 1. Principal component analyses indicated a four-factor structure (internal urgency, social urgency, lack of premeditation, and lack of perseverance) with satisfactory internal consistency and validity evidence by significant relations with self-control. Confirmatory factor analysis in Study 2 confirmed the factor structure obtained in Study 1. Hierarchical linear regression analyses provided further validity evidence through establishing differential links between the subscales and Big Five personality traits, emotion regulation, depression, anxiety, and smartphone addiction in a sample of 556 adults (368 females, M = 24.0, SD = 7.4). Overall, TRUE-MIS is a valid and reliable measure of impulsivity addressing the arguments regarding the conceptual structure of the construct.

Age-differences in network models of self-regulation and executive control functions

Self-regulation (SR) and executive control functions (EF) are broad theoretical concepts that subsume various cognitive abilities supporting the regulation of behavior, thoughts, and emotions (c.f. Inzlicht et al., 2021; Wiebe & Karbach, 2017). However, many of these concepts stem from different psychological disciplines relying on distinct methodologies, such as self-reports (common in SR research) and performance-based tasks (common in EF research). Despite the striking overlap between SR and EF on the theoretical level, recent evidence suggests that correlations between self-report measures and behavioral tasks can be difficult to observe (e.g., Eisenberg et al., 2019). In our study, participants from a life-span sample (14-82 years) completed self-report measures and behavioral tasks, which were selected to include a variety of different facets of SR (e.g., sensation seeking, mindfulness, grit, or eating behavior) and EF (working memory, inhibition, shifting). Using this broad approach, we systematically investigated connections and overlap of different aspects of SR and EF to improve their conceptual understanding. By comparing network models of a youth, middle-aged, and older-aged group, we identified key variables that are well connected in the SR and EF construct space. In general, we found connections to be stronger within the clusters of SR and EF than between them. However, older adults demonstrated more connections between SR and EF than younger individuals, likely because of declining cognitive resources. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Meta-Analysis of the Associations Among Constructs of Intrapersonal Emotion Knowledge

To better define the boundaries of conceptually overlapping constructs of intrapersonal emotion knowledge (EK), we examined meta-analytic correlations among five intrapersonal EK-related constructs (affect labelling, alexithymia, emotional awareness, emotional clarity, emotion differentiation) and attention to emotion. Affect labelling, alexithymia, and emotional clarity were strongly associated, and they were moderately associated with attention to emotion. Alexithymia and emotional awareness were weakly associated, and emotion differentiation was unrelated with emotional clarity. Sample characteristics and measures moderated some of the associations. Publication bias was not found, except for the alexithymia-emotional awareness association. This study helped to clarify the extent to which similarly defined constructs overlap or are distinct, which can inform our decision to adequately label important constructs and employ corresponding measures.

The role of environmental cues in sugar-sweetened beverage consumption using a temporal self-regulation theory framework

Sugar-sweetened beverage consumption is related to adverse health outcomes such as obesity and Type 2 diabetes. The present research further examined the utility of the temporal self-regulation theory in predicting sugar-sweetened beverage consumption. In addition, the research aimed to identify salient cues that trigger intake. Two-hundred and eighty-seven participants were recruited using convenience sampling in US and Australian populations. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used, and the final model accounted for 27.1% of the variance in consumption, providing partial support for the temporal self-regulation theory (ƒ² = 0.37). Intention accounted for a significant 7.0% of variance (R² = 0.07, p < .001), behavioural prepotency variables (past behaviour, habit, and cues) together combined for an additional 15.1% of variance (R² = 0.15, p < .001), but neither measure of self-regulatory capacity (trait self-control, inhibition) was a significant predictor. No cues emerged as unique predictors, however the findings suggest that consumption may be influenced by a combination of cues across different situations. Behavioural prepotency moderated the intention-behaviour relationship such that as behavioural prepotency increased, the greater the influence intention had on behaviour. Further support for the role of both intention and automatic processes in sugar-sweetened beverage consumption was garnered, but more research is needed to identify when specific cues influence consumption most.

The Mediational Role of Desire for Cultural Tightness on Concern With COVID-19 and Perceived Self-Control

When ecological threats are more severe or prevalent, societies are more likely to tighten their social norms and punishments. Moreover, when people follow clear and tight rules, they are more prone to regulate their behavior (i.e., self-control) in order to avoid punishment. Therefore, we examined the mediating role of people’s endorsement of cultural tightness (i.e., support and desire) on the relationship between concern with COVID-19 threat and personal self-control. Our hypothesis was tested through a mediation model in two studies with a sample of (N=315, 77.1% females, M_age=23.71) university students (Study 1) and with a heterogeneous sample of (N=239, 65.7% females, M_age=36.55) participants (Study 2). Empirical support for the proposed model was found in both studies. Implications of this research will be discussed. The main implication is related to the possibility that people’s desire for strong norms to cope with the COVID-19 threat could promote greater self-regulated preventive behavior in order to protect their health.

Self-control and smoking in a sample of adults living with HIV/AIDS: A cross-sectional survey

INTRODUCTION

Cigarette smoking prevalences are very high in persons living with HIV (PLWH). Identifying variables among PLWH that are linked to smoking in community samples (e.g., self-control) can inform smoking treatments for PLWH. The current study examined the association of self-reported self-control and smoking (e.g., smoking status, cigarette dependence) in a sample of PLWH.

METHODS

Adult PLWH were recruited from the Center for Positive Living (Montefiore Medical Center, Bronx, New York, US). All participants completed measures of demographics, cigarette smoking, and self-control. Participants who reported current cigarette smoking completed measures of cigarette dependence; intolerance for smoking abstinence; and motivation, confidence, and desire to quit smoking.

RESULTS

The overall sample included 285 PLWH (49.1% cigarette users, 55.4% male, 52.7% Black race, 54.8% Latino/a ethnicity). PLWH with current cigarette smoking reported lower self-control than PLWH with no current cigarette smoking (M = 116.88, SD = 17.07 versus M = 127.39, SD = 20.32; t = -4.15, df = 211, p < 0.001). Among PLWH with current cigarette smoking, lower self-control was associated with greater cigarette dependence (ρ = -0.272, p < 0.01), and lower confidence in quitting smoking cigarettes (ρ = 0.214, p < 0.05). Lower self-control was associated with greater overall smoking abstinence intolerance (ρ = -0.221, p < 0.05) and withdrawal intolerance (ρ = -0.264, p < 0.01).

DISCUSSION

Among a sample of PLWH, lower self-control was related to cigarette smoking (versus no smoking), greater cigarette dependence, lower confidence in quitting smoking, and greater intolerance for smoking abstinence. It may be useful to target self-control among PLWH to increase confidence in quitting and abstinence intolerance with the goal of improving smoking cessation outcomes.

Autism Traits Predict Self-reported Executive Functioning Deficits in Everyday Life and an Aversion to Exercise

Are Autism Quotient (AQ) scores related to executive functioning (EF)? We sampled 200 students of normal intelligence and examined the relationship between AQ scores and: (a) 5 self-ratings of EF, (b) 5 performance-based measures of EF, and (c) 5 types of activities or experiences that are assumed to recruit EF and sometimes enhance EF. Our findings reveal that as AQ scores increase, self-rated EF ability decreases. AQ scores and self-reported EF measures do not correlate with objective EF task performance. Furthermore, AQ scores were shown to be negatively associated with many specific types of physical activity. As AQ scores increase, individuals report fewer positive reasons for exercise and more rationalizations for not engaging in more exercise.

Chronic stress, executive functioning, and real-life self-control: An experience sampling study

OBJECTIVE

To test the hypothesis that chronic stress impairs the use of cognitive control for self-control, we examined how chronic stress affects the relation between individual differences in general executive functioning (GEF) and self-control in real-life situations.

METHOD

About 338 young adults with varying degrees of chronic stress underwent experience sampling of real-life self-control for 7 days and completed a battery of nine executive function tasks from which a latent variable representing individual differences in GEF was derived.

RESULTS

Structural equation models showed that higher levels of chronic stress were associated with stronger desires and a less negative relationship between GEF and desire strength. Chronic stress and GEF did not predict desire enactment in situations where effortful resistance was attempted.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that chronic stress may impair self-control by reducing the use of cognitive control for "early" desire regulation strategies while leaving "late" resistance strategies unaffected. That relationships between executive functioning and real-life self-control can be moderated by third factors such as chronic stress may to some extent explain the common finding of weak or missing associations between laboratory measures of executive functioning and real-life self-control.

Does cognitive control ability mediate the relationship between reward-related mechanisms, impulsivity, and maladaptive outcomes in adolescence and young adulthood?

Neurobiological models explain increased risk-taking behaviours in adolescence and young adulthood as arising from staggered development of subcortical reward networks and prefrontal control networks. In this study, we examined whether individual variability in impulsivity and reward-related mechanisms is associated with higher level of engagement in risky behaviours and vulnerability to maladaptive outcomes and whether this relationship is mediated by cognitive control ability. A community sample of adolescents, young adults, and adults (age = 15-35 years) completed self-report measures and behavioural tasks of cognitive control, impulsivity, and reward-related mechanisms, and self-reported level of maladaptive outcomes. Behavioural, event-related potential (ERP), and multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) measures of proactive control were derived from a task-switching paradigm. Adolescents, but not young adults, reported higher levels of impulsivity, reward-seeking behaviours and maladaptive outcomes than adults. They also had lower cognitive control ability, as measured by both self-report and task-based measures. Consistent with models of risk-taking behaviour, self-reported level of cognitive control mediated the relationship between self-reported levels of impulsivity and psychological distress, but the effect was not moderated by age. In contrast, there was no mediation effect of behavioural or EEG-based measures of cognitive control. These findings suggest that individual variability in cognitive control is more crucial to the relationship between risk-taking/impulsivity and outcomes than age itself. They also highlight large differences in measurement between self-report and task-based measures of cognitive control and decision-making under reward conditions, which should be considered in any studies of cognitive control.

Becoming More Conscientious or More Open to Experience? Effects of a Two–Week Smartphone–Based Intervention for Personality Change

Research indicates that it might be possible to change personality traits through intervention, but this clinical research has primarily focused on changing neuroticism. To date, there are no established, proven techniques for changing other domains of personality, such as conscientiousness and openness. This research examined the effects of a two–week smartphone–based intervention to either change one facet of conscientiousness (i.e. self–discipline) or one facet of openness to experience (i.e. openness to action). Two intervention studies (total N = 255) with two active intervention groups for mutual comparisons were conducted. Results of self–reports and observer reports showed that people who wanted to become more self–disciplined were less self–disciplined at pretest. Similarly, people who wanted to become more open to action were less open to action at pretest. The results showed that people who chose the self–discipline intervention showed greater increases in self–discipline, and people who chose the openness to action intervention showed greater increases in openness to action compared with the other group. Changes were maintained until follow–up two and six weeks after the end of the intervention. Future work is needed to examine whether these personality changes are enduring or reflect temporary accentuation as a result of participation in the intervention. © 2020 European Association of Personality Psychology

Interference scores have inadequate concurrent and convergent validity: Should we stop using the flanker, Simon, and spatial Stroop tasks?

BACKGROUND

Two-hundred one college undergraduates completed four nonverbal interference tasks (Simon, spatial Stroop, vertical Stroop, and flanker) and trait scales of self-control and impulsivity. Regression analyses tested 11 predictors of the composite interference scores derived from three of the four tasks and each task separately. The purpose of the study was to examine the relationships between laboratory measures of self-control, self-report measures, and the degree to which control might be related to extensive experience in activities that logically require self-control.

RESULTS

Fluid intelligence and sex were significant predictors of the composite measure, but bilingualism, music training, video gaming, mindfulness/meditation, self-control, impulsivity, SES, and physical exercise were not.

CONCLUSIONS

Common laboratory measures of inhibitory control do not correlate with self-reported measures of self-control or impulsivity and consequently appear to be measuring different constructs. Bilingualism, mindfulness/meditation, playing action video games, and music training or performance provide weak and inconsistent improvements to laboratory measures of interference control. Flanker, Simon, and spatial Stroop effects should not be used or interpreted as measures of domain-general inhibitory control.

Why Self-Report Measures of Self-Control and Inhibition Tasks Do Not Substantially Correlate

Trait self-control is often defined as the ability to inhibit dominant responses including thoughts, emotions, and behavioral impulses. Despite the pivotal role of inhibition for trait self-control, a growing body of evidence found small-to-zero correlations between self-report measures of trait self-control and behavioral inhibition tasks. These observations seem puzzling considering that both types of measures are often seen as operationalizations of the same or at least closely related theoretical constructs. Previous explanations for this non-correspondence focused on psychometric properties of the measures. Here, we discuss three further factors that may explain the empirical non-correspondence between trait self-control scales and behavioral inhibition tasks: (1) the distinction between typical and maximum performance, (2) the measurement of single versus repeated performance, and (3) differences between impulses in different domains. Specifically, we argue that a) self-report measures of trait self-control are designed to assess typical performance, and relative to these, behavioral inhibition tasks are designed to assess maximum performance; b) self-report measures of trait self-control capture central tendencies of aggregates of many different instances of behavior, whereas behavioral inhibition tasks are momentary, one-time state measures; and c) most self-report measures of trait self-control are designed to measure general, cross-domain inhibition, whereas behavioral inhibition tasks also measure narrower, domain-specific inhibition to a substantial degree. In conclusion, we argue that it is implausible to hypothesize more than a low correlation between self-report measures of trait self-control and behavioral inhibition tasks as they genuinely focus on different aspects of the theoretical construct of self-control. We also discuss the broader implications of these issues for self-control as a theoretical construct and its appropriate measurement.

Can temporal self-regulation theory and 'sensitivity to reward' predict binge drinking amongst university students in Australia?

OBJECTIVES

Many university students consume more alcohol than their non-student peers, engaging in binge drinking episodes that increase the likelihood of experiencing both mental and physical harm. The aim of the current study was to test the predictive utility of temporal self-regulation theory (TST), and the additional construct of 'sensitivity to reward', in accounting for variance in binge drinking behavior amongst Australian university students.

DESIGN

A prospective correlational design with two time points one week apart.

METHODS

A convenience sample of 491 university students were recruited to an online survey. At time one, participants completed self-report measures assessing TST constructs (intention, behavior prepotency, self-regulation), as well as 'sensitivity to reward'. One week later at time two, 392 participants (18-62 years, 76.8% female) completed an online account of their alcohol use over the previous seven days.

RESULTS

Using hierarchical multiple regression analyses, TST significantly predicted binge drinking behaviors (binge drinking episodes: R² = 0.41, p < .001; peak consumption: R² = 0.41, p < .001), with equally large effect sizes for both, f² = 0.69. 'Sensitivity to reward' did not account for significant variance. Intention and behavioral prepotency independently predicted binge drinking behaviors with different components of behavioral prepotency predicting different behaviors. There were no moderation effects.

CONCLUSIONS

Results indicated TST, incorporating deliberate and automatic processes, provided a good understanding of behavior. Behavior prepotency (habit, cues to action, past behavior) also impacted the two binge drinking behaviors differently. Finally, this study offers direction into future research regarding interventions surrounding habitual drinking behaviors whilst studying at university.

Thinking in action: Need for Cognition predicts Self-Control together with Action Orientation

Need for Cognition describes relatively stable interindividual differences in cognitive motivation. Previous research has shown relations of Need for Cognition to Self-Control–a capacity that can be broadly defined as resistance to temptation–yet, the processes underlying this relation remain unclear. One explanation for the prediction of Self-Control by Need for Cognition can be an increased motivation to invest cognitive effort with higher levels of Need for Cognition. Another possible link could be that individual differences in the implementation of Self-Control intentions may play a moderating or mediating role for the predictive value of Need for Cognition. Such individual differences in the self-motivated initiation and maintenance of intentions are described by dispositional Action Orientation. Therefore, in the present study, Action Orientation was examined with regard to its possible role in explaining the relation of Need for Cognition to Self-Control. In a sample of 1209 young adults, Self-Control was assessed with two different self-report instruments and moderation and mediation models of the relationship between Need for Cognition, Action Orientation, and Self-Control were tested. While there was no evidence for a moderating role of Action Orientation in explaining the relation of Need for Cognition and Self-Control, Action Orientation was found to partly mediate this relation with a remaining direct effect of Need for Cognition on Self-Control. These results add to the conceptual understanding of Need for Cognition and demonstrate the relevance of trait variables to predict Self-Control.

A systematic review and meta-analysis of the executive function-health behaviour relationship

Objective

This study provides the first comprehensive meta-analysis of the relationship between executive function (EF) and performance of health behaviours in healthy populations.

Method

Electronic databases (MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, Web of Science) were searched, and forward and backward citation tracking was undertaken to identify articles investigating the relationship between EF and health behaviour. Studies were eligible if they examined the direct correlational relationship between EF and health behaviour in healthy populations, were available in English and published in peer-reviewed journals in any year.

Results

Sixty-one articles covering 65 tests were included in a random effects meta-analysis. Several moderators were assessed, including: the type, and addictiveness of the health behaviour; the type of EF measure; study design, and sample characteristics. Overall EF had a significant, but small correlation with health behaviour; EF was significantly positively associated with health-protective behaviours and significantly negatively associated with health-damaging behaviours. There was considerable heterogeneity in the observed effect sizes, but this was not explained by the examined moderators.

Conclusions

Although the meta-analysis indicates a significant effect for EF on health behaviour, effect size is small. Due to the complex nature of EF, more research is required to further elucidate the relationship between EF and health behaviour in its entire conceptualization.

Trait Self-Control, Social Cognition Constructs, and Intentions: Correlational Evidence for Mediation and Moderation Effects in Diverse Health Behaviours

BACKGROUND

We examined effects of trait self-control, constructs from social cognition theories, and intentions on health behaviours. Trait self-control was expected to predict health behaviour indirectly through theory constructs and intentions. Trait self-control was also predicted to moderate the intention-behaviour relationship.

METHODS

Proposed effects were tested in six datasets for ten health-related behaviours from studies adopting prospective designs. Participants (N = 3,249) completed measures of constructs from social cognition theories and self-control at an initial time point and self-reported their behaviour at follow-up.

RESULTS

Results revealed indirect effects of self-control on behaviour through social cognition constructs and intentions for eight behaviours: eating fruit and vegetables, avoiding fast food, dietary restrictions, binge drinking, physical activity, walking, out-of-school physical activity, and pre-drinking. Self-control moderated the intention-behaviour relationship in four behaviours: dietary restriction, and alcohol-related behaviours.

CONCLUSIONS

Mediation effects suggest that individuals with high self-control are more likely to hold beliefs and intentions to participate in future health behaviour, and more likely to act. Moderation effects indicate that individuals with high self-control are more likely to enact healthy intentions and inhibit unhealthy intentions, but findings were restricted to few behaviours. Training self-control and managing contingencies that derail goal-directed action may be effective intervention strategies.

Reliability of triggering inhibitory process is a better predictor of impulsivity than SSRT

The ability to control behaviour is thought to rely at least partly on adequately suppressing impulsive responses to external stimuli. However, the evidence for a relationship between response inhibition ability and impulse control is weak and inconsistent. This study investigates the relationship between response inhibition and both self-report and behavioural measures of impulsivity as well as engagement in risky behaviours in a large community sample (N = 174) of healthy adolescents and young adults (15-35 years). Using a stop-signal paradigm with a number parity go task, we implemented a novel hierarchical Bayesian model of response inhibition that estimates stop-signal reaction time (SSRT) as a distribution and also accounts for failures to react to the stop-signal (i.e., "trigger failure"), and failure to react to the choice stimulus (i.e., "go failure" or omission errors). In line with previous studies, the model reduced estimates of SSRT by approximately 100 ms compared with traditional non-parametric SSRT estimation techniques. We found significant relationships between behavioural and self-report measures of impulsivity and traditionally estimated SSRT, that did not hold for the model-based SSRT estimates. Instead, behavioural impulsivity measures were correlated with rate of trigger failure. The relationship between trigger failure and impulsivity suggests that the former may index a higher order inhibition process, whereas SSRT may index a more automatic inhibition process. We suggest that the existence of distinct response inhibition processes that may be associated with different levels of cognitive control.

The Role of Self-Control and Motivation on Exhaustion in Youth Athletes: A Longitudinal Perspective

The depletion of self-control competencies has been explained by an external shift in motivation, and recent research has emphasized that controlled types of motivation and self-control competencies are positively associated with exhaustion in youth athletes. Using the self-determination theory (SDT) and self-control theories, this study examined associations between athletes' motivation, self-control competencies, and exhaustion experiences throughout a competitive season. A total of 321 winter sport youth athletes (173 males, 98 females, and 50 unknown gender; aged 16 to 20 years, M = 17.98, SD = 0.89) participated in this 10-week longitudinal study, including three time points. Using Bayesian structural equation modeling, associations between athletes' reported level of motivation regulations, self-control, and exhaustion throughout their competitive season were examined in two mediation models. Constructs were associated in a conceptual and consistent manner. Simple mediation models showed credible indirect and direct effects of motivation on exhaustion via self-control within amotivation, and intrinsic, integrated, identified, and external regulation analyses. These credible effects were not replicated in the focused mediation model, when controlling for self-control and exhaustion autoregressive effects. However, direction of effects in both models was consistent and congruent. Findings consistently supported the interplay between motivation and exhaustion via self-control in youth athletes over an important competition period of the year. Autonomous and controlled motivation interacted with self-control and, respectively, predicted perceived exhaustion negatively and positively. Thus, autonomous self-control motives are important in preventing negative sport participation development over time. However, simple and focused mediation models showed different results, suggesting a necessity for accurate considerations of analytical methods chosen to investigate longitudinal mediation. Specifically, future studies need to carefully consider the time interval between measurement time points when investigating changes in dynamic psychological constructs, and include autoregressive longitudinal effects in order to predict change in levels of the outcome over time.

Reported Self-control is not Meaningfully Associated with Inhibition-related Executive Function: A Bayesian Analysis

Self-control is assessed using a remarkable array of measures. In a series of five data-sets (overall N = 2,641) and a mini meta-analysis, we explored the association between canonical operationalisations of self-control: The Self-Control Scale and two measures of inhibition-related executive functioning (the Stroop and Flanker paradigms). Overall, Bayesian correlational analyses suggested little-to-no relationship between self-reported self-control and performance on the Stroop and Flanker tasks. The Bayesian meta-analytical summary of all five data-sets further favoured a null relationship between both types of measurement. These results suggest that the field’s most widely used measure of self-reported self-control is uncorrelated with two of the most widely adopted executive functioning measures of self-control. Consequently, theoretical and practical conclusions drawn using one measure (e.g., the Self-Control Scale) cannot be generalised to findings using the other (e.g., the Stroop task). The lack of empirical correlation between measures of self-control do not invalidate either measure, but instead suggest that treatments of the construct of self-control need to pay greater attention to convergent validity among the many measures used to operationalize self-control.

Inhibitory mechanisms involved in Stroop-matching and stop-signal tasks and the role of impulsivity

Stroop-like and stop-signal tasks are commonly used to evaluate "inhibition", a multifaceted concept fundamental to better understanding of executive functions. Both tasks demand inhibitory processes for their execution; the first requires inhibition of an irrelevant attribute, while the second involves the inhibition of a prepotent motor response. Impulsivity and decision-making represent two other factors that could be associated to executive control and to inhibitory dyscontrol. In this study we developed a behavioral protocol combining the Stroop-matching (a variation of the classic Stroop task) and the stop-signal tasks to investigate possible interactions between the inhibitory mechanisms involved in both tasks. Moreover, we searched for associations between behavioral performance of healthy participants, and self-reported impulsivity and decision-making processes assessed by the BIS-11 scale and IGT, respectively. Our results showed that the primary-task reaction time in the Stroop-matching task influenced the ability to inhibit motor responses in the stop-signal task. Moreover, impulsiveness scores (but not decision-making) were associated to behavioral performance. Importantly, motor and attentional impulsiveness correlated differently to performance depending on the existence of stop-signal trials in the task. Our protocol revealed promising findings concerning the interaction between different inhibitory processes and their association with impulsivity levels.

Methodological factors as a potential source of discordance between self-report and behavioral measures of impulsivity and related constructs

There is a consistent but poorly understood finding that self-report and behavioral measures of impulsivity are weakly correlated or uncorrelated. There are many possible explanations for this observation, including differences in how these instruments are administered and scored. The present study examined the utility of alternative scoring algorithms for self-report measures that aim to identify participants' peak impulsivity (or self-control), informed by estimates of item difficulty from Item Response Theory (IRT) analyses. College students were administered self-report questionnaires (Zuckerman Sensation Seeking Scale [ZSS], Barratt Impulsiveness Scale [BIS-11], behavioral measures related to risk-taking and impulsivity (Balloon Analog Risk Task [BART], Experiential Discounting Task [EDT]), and the substance use module of a clinical interview (past-six-month alcohol and marijuana use). IRT analyses were conducted on self-report measures to estimate item difficulty. Scoring algorithms ranked items by difficulty and scored items based on consecutive items endorsed or denied. A maximal scoring algorithm increased the concordance between the BIS-11 and BART (r = 0.08 vs. -0.07), but there was no evidence of increased incremental validity for substance-use. Findings suggest that methodological factors may help explain the poor concordance of self-report and behavioral measures of impulsivity, but the magnitude of these correlations remained quite small. Further, alternative scoring algorithms were correlated with substance use but did not explain any variance that was distinct from typical algorithms. Future directions are discussed for elucidating the discrepancy between self-report and behavioral measures of impulsivity-related constructs, such as using large self-report item pools to develop computer adaptive tests.

Grit and self-discipline as predictors of effort and academic attainment

BACKGROUND

Beyond ability, traits related to perseverance, such as grit and self-discipline, are associated with adaptive educational outcomes. Few studies have examined the independent effects of these traits on outcomes and the mechanisms involved.

AIMS

This study estimated parameters of a process model in which grit-perseverance of effort (grit-effort) and consistency of interest (grit-interest) dimensions and self-discipline were independent predictors of students' science grades. The effect of the grit-effort on grades was expected to be mediated by students' self-reported effort on optional out-of-school science learning activities.

SAMPLE

Secondary school students (N = 110) aged between 12 and 14 years.

METHODS

The study adopted a correlational design with measures taken on three occasions. Students completed self-report measures of grit and self-discipline early in the semester and effort on optional out-of-school learning activities 5 weeks later. Students' science grades were collected at the end of the semester. Data were analysed using Bayesian path analyses using non-informative and informative priors derived from previous research.

RESULTS

Consistent with predictions, we found effects of grit-effort on science grades mediated by effort, and self-discipline on grades. Contrary to predictions, we also found an effect of self-discipline on grades mediated by effort. Zero was a credible value for direct effects of grit-effort on grades, and grit-interest on effort and grades.

CONCLUSIONS

Results suggest grit-effort and self-discipline relate to effort on educational activities linked to better grades. The direct effect of self-discipline on grades suggests that it may be related to other activities that determine science attainment.

Self-regulation and obesity: the role of executive function and delay discounting in the prediction of weight loss

Obesity rates are rising worldwide. Executive function and delay discounting have been hypothesized to play important roles in the self-regulation of behavior, and may explain variance in weight loss treatment success. First, we compared individuals with obesity (n = 82) to healthy weight controls (n = 71) on behavioral and self-report measures of executive function (working memory, inhibition and shifting) and delay discounting. Secondly, the individuals with obesity took part in a multidisciplinary weight loss program and we examined whether executive function and delay discounting predicted weight change. Individuals with obesity displayed weaker general and food-specific inhibition, and weaker self-reported executive function. Better behavioral working memory and better self-reported inhibition skills in daily life were predictive of greater weight loss. As findings are correlational, future studies should investigate the causal relationship between executive function and weight loss, and test whether intervening on executive function will lead to better prevention and treatment of obesity.

To Take the Stairs or Not to Take the Stairs? Employing the Reflective⁻Impulsive Model to Predict Spontaneous Physical Activity

The reflective–impulsive model (RIM) has been employed to explain various health behaviors. The present study used RIM to predict a spontaneous physical activity behavior. Specifically, 107 participants (75 females; M_age = 20.6 years, SD = 1.92 years) completed measures of (1) reflections about spontaneous physical activity, as indexed by self-report questionnaire; (2) impulse toward physical activity, as indexed by the manikin task; and (3) (state) self-control, as indexed by the Stroop task. The dependent variable was whether participants took the stairs or the elevator to the study laboratory. Results revealed reflections toward spontaneous physical activity positively predicted stair-taking. Further, a significant impulse toward physical activity × self-control interaction was observed. This interaction revealed that participants with high self-control who had a high impulse toward PA were more likely to take the stairs than their counterparts with a low impulse toward PA, whereas the opposite was the case for participants with low self-control. However, the impulse × self-control interaction was not significant when employing a self-report measure of trait self-control. Thus, RIM may be a good framework with which to consider spontaneous physical activity, but careful consideration must be given when examining variables within RIM (e.g., the boundary condition of self-control).

Executive Functions, Trait Self-Control, and the Intention-Behavior Gap in Physical Activity Behavior

Many people fail to translate their physical activity intentions into behavior. This intention-behavior gap can be explained by (a) explicit trait self-control, (b) implicit executive functions, and (c) their interactions. In 118 participants, the intention-behavior gap was measured in a prospective design. Trait self-control was assessed via self-report questionnaires, whereas executive functioning was measured with test performance in inhibition, updating, and shifting at baseline. Regression analysis showed that (a) higher trait self-control predicts a smaller intention-behavior gap; (b) updating performance is related with this gap; and (c) behavior in tests on inhibition, updating, and shifting moderate the relation between the trait self-control and the intention-behavior gap. The present study showed that the complex pattern that modulates the relation between intended and realized physical activity behavior includes trait self-control, executive functions, as well as the combination of these cognitive components supporting dual-process approaches of self-control including implicit and explicit processing components.

Self-Regulation and Implicit Attitudes Toward Physical Activity Influence Exercise Behavior

Dual-process models of health behavior posit that implicit and explicit attitudes independently drive healthy behaviors. Prior evidence indicates that implicit attitudes may be related to weekly physical activity (PA) levels, but the extent to which self-regulation attenuates this link remains unknown. This study examined the associations between implicit attitudes and self-reported PA during leisure time among 150 highly active young adults and evaluated the extent to which effortful control (one aspect of self-regulation) moderated this relationship. Results indicated that implicit attitudes toward exercise were unrelated to average workout length among individuals with higher effortful control. However, those with lower effortful control and more negative implicit attitudes reported shorter average exercise sessions compared with those with more positive attitudes. Implicit and explicit attitudes were unrelated to total weekly PA. A combination of poorer self-regulation and negative implicit attitudes may leave individuals vulnerable to mental and physical health consequences of low PA.