Fetal mechanisms in neurodevelopmental disorders

Offspring neurodevelopmental outcomes born to parents with chronic inflammatory arthritis using antirheumatic therapies: A scoping review

INTRODUCTION

Most women with rheumatic diseases discontinue antirheumatic therapies in anticipation of, or during pregnancy due to concerns around medication safety and fetal wellbeing.

OBJECTIVE

We performed a scoping review of available evidence investigating the risks of adverse offspring neurodevelopmental outcomes amongst parents with chronic inflammatory arthritis, taking antirheumatic therapies during conception or pregnancy.

METHODS

We designed a scoping review protocol and search strategy a priori in accordance with Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. We performed an exhaustive search in Cochrane Library, Embase, Google Scholar, Medline, and Web of Science for relevant literature in January 2023. Articles needed to include offspring neurodevelopmental outcomes born to parents with CIA who took antirheumatic therapies during conception or pregnancy. Independent reviewers extracted data from eligible articles using a standard abstraction tool and performed critical appraisal of study quality.

RESULTS

Six studies were included for full data abstraction. Use of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs, Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha inhibitors, and exposure to methotrexate during early first trimester of pregnancy did not seem to increase risk for adverse offspring neurodevelopmental outcomes. Corticosteroid use during pregnancy seemed to pose an increased risk for attention deficit hyperactive disorders in offspring.

CONCLUSION

Use of some antirheumatic therapies during pregnancy may not be associated with adverse offspring neurodevelopmental outcomes. Further investigations are needed to elucidate if other confounding factors affect long term offspring health outcomes born to parents with chronic inflammatory arthritis.

Genes implicated by a methylome-wide schizophrenia study in neonatal blood show differential expression in adult brain samples

Schizophrenia is a disabling disorder involving genetic predisposition in combination with environmental influences that likely act via dynamic alterations of the epigenome and the transcriptome but its detailed pathophysiology is largely unknown. We performed cell-type specific methylome-wide association study of neonatal blood (N = 333) from individuals who later in life developed schizophrenia and controls. Suggestively significant associations (P < 1.0 × 10-6) were detected in all cell-types and in whole blood with methylome-wide significant associations in monocytes (P = 2.85 × 10-9-4.87 × 10-9), natural killer cells (P = 1.72 × 10-9-7.82 × 10-9) and B cells (P = 3.8 × 10-9). Validation of methylation findings in post-mortem brains (N = 596) from independent schizophrenia cases and controls showed significant enrichment of transcriptional differences (enrichment ratio = 1.98-3.23, P = 2.3 × 10-3-1.0 × 10-5), with specific highly significant differential expression for, for example, BDNF (t = -6.11, P = 1.90 × 10-9). In addition, expression difference in brain significantly predicted schizophrenia (multiple correlation = 0.15-0.22, P = 3.6 × 10-4-4.5 × 10-8). In summary, using a unique design combining pre-disease onset (neonatal) blood methylomic data and post-disease onset (post-mortem) brain transcriptional data, we have identified genes of likely functional relevance that are associated with schizophrenia susceptibility, rather than confounding disease associated artifacts. The identified loci may be of clinical value as a methylation-based biomarker for early detection of increased schizophrenia susceptibility.

Association of 3-Phenoxybenzoic Acid Exposure during Pregnancy with Maternal Outcomes and Newborn Anthropometric Measures: Results from the IoMum Cohort Study

The aims of this study were to characterize the exposure of pregnant women living in Portugal to 3-phenoxybenzoic acid (3-PBA) and to evaluate the association of this exposure with maternal outcomes and newborn anthropometric measures. We also aimed to compare exposure in summer with exposure in winter. Pregnant women attending ultrasound scans from April 2018 to April 2019 at a central hospital in Porto, Portugal, were invited to participate. Inclusion criteria were: gestational week between 10 and 13, confirmed fetal vitality, and a signature of informed consent. 3-PBA was measured in spot urine samples by gas chromatography with mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The median 3-PBA concentration was 0.263 (0.167; 0.458) µg/g creatinine (n = 145). 3-PBA excretion was negatively associated with maternal pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) (p = 0.049), and it was higher during the summer when compared to winter (p < 0.001). The frequency of fish or yogurt consumption was associated positively with 3-PBA excretion, particularly during the winter (p = 0.002 and p = 0.015, respectively), when environmental exposure is low. Moreover, 3-PBA was associated with levothyroxine use (p = 0.01), a proxy for hypothyroidism, which could be due to a putative 3-PBA-thyroid hormone antagonistic effect. 3-PBA levels were not associated with the anthropometric measures of the newborn. In conclusion, pregnant women living in Portugal are exposed to 3-PBA, particularly during summer, and this exposure may be associated with maternal clinical features.

Translating neuroimaging changes to neuro-endophenotypes of autistic spectrum disorder: a narrative review

Background

Autism-spectrum disorder is a neurodevelopmental disorder with heterogeneity in etiopathogenesis and clinical presentation. Neuroanatomical and neurophysiological abnormalities may represent neural endophenotypes for autism spectrum disorders which may help identify subgroups of patients seemingly similar in clinical presentation yet different in their pathophysiological underpinnings. Furthermore, a thorough understanding of the pathophysiology of disease can pave the way to effective treatments, prevention, and prognostic predictions. The aim of this review is to identify the predominant neural endophenotypes in autism-spectrum disorder. The evidence was researched at the following electronic databases: Pubmed, PsycINFO, Scopus, Web of Science, and EMBASE.

Results

Enlarged brain, especially frontotemporal cortices have been consistently reported by structural neuroimaging, whereas functional neuroimaging has revealed frontotemporal dysconnectivity.

Conclusions

Regrettably, many of these findings have not been consistent. Therefore, translating these findings into neural endophenotype is by far an attempt in its budding stage. The structural and functional neuroimaging changes may represent neural endophenotypes unique to autism-spectrum disorder. Despite inconsistent results, a clinically meaningful finding may require combined efforts of autism-spectrum-disorder researchers focused on different aspects of basic, genetic, neuroimaging, and clinical research.

The intersection between toxicology and aging research: A toxic aging coin perspective

We are imminently faced with the challenges of an increasingly aging population and longer lifespans due to improved health care. Concomitantly, we are faced with ubiquitous environmental pollution linked with various health effects and age-related diseases which contribute to increased morbidity with age. Geriatric populations are rarely considered in the development of environmental regulations or in toxicology research. Today, life expectancy is often into one's 80s or beyond, which means multiple decades living as a geriatric individual. Hence, adverse health effects and late-onset diseases might be due to environmental exposures as a geriatric, and we currently have no way of knowing. Considering aging from a different perspective, the term "gerontogen" was coined in 1987 to describe chemicals that accelerate biological aging but has largely been left out of toxicology research. Thus, we are challenged with a two-faced problem that we can describe as a "toxic aging coin"; on one side we consider how age affects the toxic outcome of chemicals, whereas on the other side we consider how chemicals accelerate aging (i.e. how chemicals act as gerontogens). Conveniently, both sides of this coin can be tackled with a single animal study that considers multiple age groups and assesses basic toxicology of the chemical(s) tested and aging-focused endpoints. Here, I introduce the concept of this toxic aging coin and some key considerations for how it applies to toxicology research. My discussion of this concept will focus on the brain, my area of expertise, but could be translated to any organ system.

A Growing Dilemma: Antenatal Corticosteroids and Long-Term Consequences

OBJECTIVE

A single course of synthetic antenatal corticosteroids is standard care for women considered to be at risk for preterm birth before 34 weeks of gestation. While the intended target is the fetal lung, the fetal brain contains remarkably high levels of glucocorticoid receptors in structures critical in the regulation of behavior and endocrine function. Negative programming signals may occur which can lead to permanent maladaptive changes and predispose the infant/child to an increased risk in physical, mental, and developmental disorders.

METHODS

Framed around these areas of concerns for physical, mental, and developmental disorders, this narrative review drew on studies (animal and clinical), evaluating the long-term effects of antenatal corticosteroids to present the case that a more targeted approach to the use of antenatal corticosteroids for the betterment of the fetus urgently needed.

RESULTS

Studies raised concerns about the potential negative long-term consequences, especially for the exposed fetus who was born beyond the period of the greatest benefit from antenatal corticosteroids. The long-term consequences are more subtle in nature and usually manifest later in life, often beyond the scope of most clinical trials.

CONCLUSION

Continued research is needed to identify sufficient safety data, both short term and long term. Caution in the use of antenatal corticosteroids should be exercised while additional work is undertaken to optimize dosing strategies and better identify women at risk of preterm birth prior to administration of antenatal corticosteroids.

KEY POINTS

· A single-course ACS is a remarkable therapy with substantial benefits.. · There is a potential of long-term neurodevelopmental consequences in the ACS-exposed fetus.. · There is a need to improve dosing strategies and identification of appropriate at risk women..

A review of image processing methods for fetal head and brain analysis in ultrasound images

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Examination of head shape and brain during the fetal period is paramount to evaluate head growth, predict neurodevelopment, and to diagnose fetal abnormalities. Prenatal ultrasound is the most used imaging modality to perform this evaluation. However, manual interpretation of these images is challenging and thus, image processing methods to aid this task have been proposed in the literature. This article aims to present a review of these state-of-the-art methods.

METHODS

In this work, it is intended to analyze and categorize the different image processing methods to evaluate fetal head and brain in ultrasound imaging. For that, a total of 109 articles published since 2010 were analyzed. Different applications are covered in this review, namely analysis of head shape and inner structures of the brain, standard clinical planes identification, fetal development analysis, and methods for image processing enhancement.

RESULTS

For each application, the reviewed techniques are categorized according to their theoretical approach, and the more suitable image processing methods to accurately analyze the head and brain are identified. Furthermore, future research needs are discussed. Finally, topics whose research is lacking in the literature are outlined, along with new fields of applications.

CONCLUSIONS

A multitude of image processing methods has been proposed for fetal head and brain analysis. Summarily, techniques from different categories showed their potential to improve clinical practice. Nevertheless, further research must be conducted to potentiate the current methods, especially for 3D imaging analysis and acquisition and for abnormality detection.

OUP accepted manuscript

Fetal growth restriction (FGR) occurs when a fetus is unable to grow normally due to inadequate nutrient and oxygen supply from the placenta. Children born with FGR are at high risk of lifelong adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes, such as cerebral palsy, behavioral issues, and learning and attention difficulties. Unfortunately, there is no treatment to protect the FGR newborn from these adverse neurological outcomes. Chronic inflammation and vascular disruption are prevalent in the brains of FGR neonates and therefore targeted treatments may be key to neuroprotection. Tissue repair and regeneration via stem cell therapies have emerged as a potential clinical intervention for FGR babies at risk for neurological impairment and long-term disability. This review discusses the advancement of research into stem cell therapy for treating neurological diseases and how this may be extended for use in the FGR newborn. Leading preclinical studies using stem cell therapies in FGR animal models will be highlighted and the near-term steps that need to be taken for the development of future clinical trials.

Neurodevelopment of HIV-Exposed Uninfected Infants Born to Women With Perinatally Acquired HIV in the United States

BACKGROUND

Lifelong HIV and antiretroviral therapy may confer neurodevelopmental risk on the children of women with perinatally acquired HIV infection (PHIV).

SETTING

We analyzed data from HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) infants born to women with PHIV vs. non-perinatally acquired HIV (NPHIV) enrolled in the Surveillance Monitoring for Antiretroviral Therapy Toxicities (SMARTT) study.

METHODS

Using the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development, third Ed. (Bayley-III), we compared neurodevelopmental outcomes at the age of 1 year in HEU infants born to women with PHIV vs. NPHIV. Those with valid Bayley-III data at the age of 1 year and a mother born after 1982 were included. Cognitive, language, and motor domains were assessed as continuous composite scores. Linear mixed effects models were fit to estimate the mean difference in Bayley-III scores between groups, adjusting for confounders.

RESULTS

Five hundred fifty women with HIV gave birth to 678 HEU children (125 and 553 born to women with PHIV and NPHIV, respectively). Mean scores for each of the Bayley-III domains were not significantly different between infants born to women with PHIV vs. NPHIV in unadjusted models. After adjustment, infants of women with PHIV had lower language (91.9 vs. 94.8, P = 0.05) and motor (93.7 vs. 96.8, P = 0.03) composite scores, but no differences in cognitive composite scores.

CONCLUSIONS

Cognitive domain outcomes of infants born to women with PHIV vs. NPHIV are reassuring. Differences in early language and motor functioning, while of modest clinical significance, highlight the importance of long-term monitoring of neurodevelopment in children of women with PHIV.

Effects of endocrine disrupting chemicals on myelin development and diseases

In the central and peripheral nervous systems, myelin is essential for efficient conduction of action potentials. During development, oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells differentiate and ensure axon myelination, and disruption of these processes can contribute to neurodevelopmental disorders. In adults, demyelination can lead to important disabilities, and recovery capacities by remyelination often decrease with disease progression. Among environmental chemical pollutants, endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are of major concern for human health and are notably suspected to participate in neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we have combined the current knowledge on EDCs impacts on myelin including several persistent organic pollutants, bisphenol A, triclosan, heavy metals, pesticides, and nicotine. Besides, we presented several other endocrine modulators, including pharmaceuticals and the phytoestrogen genistein, some of which are candidates for treating demyelinating conditions but could also be deleterious as contaminants. The direct impacts of EDCs on myelinating cells were considered as well as their indirect consequences on myelin, particularly on immune mechanisms associated with demyelinating conditions. More studies are needed to describe the effects of these compounds and to further understand the underlying mechanisms in relation to the potential for endocrine disruption.

Zebrafish (Danio rerio) as an excellent vertebrate model for the development, reproductive, cardiovascular, and neural and ocular development toxicity study of hazardous chemicals

In the past decades, the type of chemicals has gradually increased all over the world, and many of these chemicals may have a potentially toxic effect on human health. The zebrafish, as an excellent vertebrate model, is increasingly used for assessing chemical toxicity and safety. This review summarizes the efficacy of zebrafish as a model for the study of developmental toxicity, reproductive toxicity, cardiovascular toxicity, neurodevelopmental toxicity, and ocular developmental toxicity of hazardous chemicals, and the transgenic zebrafish as biosensors are used to detect the environmental pollutants.

Influence of Maternal Stress during Pregnancy on Child’s Neurodevelopment

(1) Background: High stress levels during pregnancy can affect the organogenesis and the foetus’ central nervous system maturation. The objective of this study was to determine whether a relationship between maternal stress during pregnancy and alterations in child neurodevelopment exists; (2) Methods: A bibliographical review was carried out following PRISMA Methodology and using Scopus, Web of Science and Cinahl databases. The research questions were made using PEO methodology (Participants, Exposition, Outcomes). Moreover, article quality was measured using the Quality Assessment Tool for Observational Cohort and Cross-Sectional Studies; (3) Results: 22 articles that fit the inclusion criteria were selected. Different elements altered because of maternal stress during pregnancy could side with alterations in different areas of the neurodevelopment, such as cognitive development, motor development, behaviour, temperament, memory and learning abilities; (4) Conclusions: Although maternal stress can have an influence on children’s neurodevelopment, it is still unknown which are the specific elements related to this stress that can modify it negatively. Furthermore, future studies should evaluate whether a sex-specific association exists.

Intracytoplasmic sperm injection and fetal origins of autism spectrum disorder: an intriguing, though controversial association

Latest knowledge assigns the origins of autism spectrum disorder (ASD)-currently affecting 1% of children- to intrauterine life, when fetal brain develops. Besides genetics, environmental factors, responsible for epigenetic changes contributed to its rising incidence. In vitro fertilization (IVF) and the most widely used intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) are implicated in epigenetic changes. A series of studies examined the impact of ICSI on ASD in the offspring. Results are usually conflicting, due to inherent problems of study design and power, mixed IVF/ICSI cases and not exclusively ASD diagnoses included. Furthermore, preterm birth, low birthweight infants, advanced parental age, hormonal disturbances, all associated with ICSI, are known factors affecting ASD. While solid data supporting ICSI contribution to currently alarming ASD increase are lacking, exploration of underlying molecular mechanisms would strengthen possible associations. In the meanwhile, ICSI use should be restricted to male-factor infertility cases.

Deep Learning Techniques for Automatic Detection of Embryonic Neurodevelopmental Disorders

The increasing rates of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDs) are threatening pregnant women, parents, and clinicians caring for healthy infants and children. NDs can initially start through embryonic development due to several reasons. Up to three in 1000 pregnant women have embryos with brain defects; hence, the primitive detection of embryonic neurodevelopmental disorders (ENDs) is necessary. Related work done for embryonic ND classification is very limited and is based on conventional machine learning (ML) methods for feature extraction and classification processes. Feature extraction of these methods is handcrafted and has several drawbacks. Deep learning methods have the ability to deduce an optimum demonstration from the raw images without image enhancement, segmentation, and feature extraction processes, leading to an effective classification process. This article proposes a new framework based on deep learning methods for the detection of END. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study that uses deep learning techniques for detecting END. The framework consists of four stages which are transfer learning, deep feature extraction, feature reduction, and classification. The framework depends on feature fusion. The results showed that the proposed framework was capable of identifying END from embryonic MRI images of various gestational ages. To verify the efficiency of the proposed framework, the results were compared with related work that used embryonic images. The performance of the proposed framework was competitive. This means that the proposed framework can be successively used for detecting END.

Transtorno do espectro autista e a suplementação por ácido fólico antes e durante a gestação

RESUMO Objetivo Elucidar se a suplementação com ácido fólico pouco antes da concepção e/ou durante a gestação pode estar realmente atrelado ao desenvolvimento do transtorno do espectro autista (TEA). Metódos Foi realizada uma revisão de literatura em base de dados, nos idiomas português e inglês, durante o período de novembro de 2017 até abril de 2018, com ênfase nas publicações mais recentes. Resultados Do total de 174 artigos, 87 compuseram este trabalho. Pesquisas apontam que o aumento dos casos de TEA se deve ao fato de que mais fatores genéticos estejam implicados na etiopatogênese neural. No entanto, a grande maioria dos artigos ressalta com maior precisão que há mais efeitos benéficos do uso de ácido fólico antes da concepção e durante a gestação na prevenção do TEA, assim como de outras anormalidades relacionadas aos defeitos do tubo neural. Conclusão Quando se analisa o risco-benefício da suplementação com ácido fólico nas doses recomendadas, 0,4 a 0,8 mg/dia, conclui-se que os benefícios sobrepujam os possíveis riscos de desenvolver o TEA.

Brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging Findings in Children after Antenatal Maternal Depression Treatment, a Longitudinal Study Built on a Pilot Randomized Controlled Trial

Antenatal depression is associated with an increased risk of offspring neuro-developmental disorders, potentially as a consequence of an altered brain development in utero. We hypothesized that reducing maternal depression by Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) during pregnancy may ameliorate the offspring’s brain (micro)structural outcomes. 54 pregnant women with a diagnosed clinical depression were randomly allocated to CBT or Treatment as Usual (TAU), showing moderate to large depression symptom improvements after CBT. In 16 of their children (69% boys, N(TAU) = 8, N(CBT) = 8, mean age = 5.9 years, range = 3.9–7.1 years) brain Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) scans were conducted. Children from the CBT group had a thicker right lateral occipital cortex (difference: 0.13 mm, 95% CI = 0.005–0.26) and lingual gyrus (difference: 0.18 mm, 95% CI = 0.01–0.34). In the CBT group, Voxel-Based Morphometry analysis identified one cluster showing increased gray matter concentration in the right medial temporal lobe at p < 0.05 uncorrected, and fixel-based analysis revealed reduced fiber-bundle cross-section in the Fornix, the Optical Tract, and the Stria Terminalis at p < 0.01 uncorrected. However, none of the results survived correction for multiple testing. Our explorative analyses provided some indication that antenatal CBT for depression may ameliorate offspring’s brain (micro)structural outcomes, but the sample size was extremely small, and our results should be cautiously interpreted. Larger studies are warranted to confirm our preliminary conclusions that CBT for antenatal depression affects brain development in children.

The DYT6 Dystonia Protein THAP1 Regulates Myelination within the Oligodendrocyte Lineage

The childhood-onset motor disorder DYT6 dystonia is caused by loss-of-function mutations in the transcription factor THAP1, but the neurodevelopmental processes in which THAP1 participates are unknown. We find that THAP1 is essential for the timing of myelination initiation during CNS maturation. Conditional deletion of THAP1 in the CNS retards maturation of the oligodendrocyte (OL) lineage, delaying myelination and causing persistent motor deficits. The CNS myelination defect results from a cell-autonomous requirement for THAP1 in the OL lineage and is recapitulated in developmental assays performed on OL progenitor cells purified from Thap1 null mice. Loss of THAP1 function disrupts a core set of OL maturation genes and reduces the DNA occupancy of YY1, a transcription factor required for OL maturation. These studies establish a role for THAP1 transcriptional regulation at the inception of myelination and implicate abnormal timing of myelination in the pathogenesis of childhood-onset dystonia.

Emerging various environmental threats to brain and overview of surveillance system with zebrafish model

Pathologies related to neurotoxicity represent an important percentage of the diseases that determine the global burden of diseases. Neurotoxicity may be related to the increasing levels of potentially neurotoxic agents that pollute the environment, which generates concern, since agents that affect children may increase the incidence of neurodevelopmental disorders, affecting the quality of life of future citizens. Many environmental contaminants have been detected, and many of them derive from several human activities, including the mining, agriculture, manufacturing, pharmaceutical, beverage and food industries. These problems are more acute in third world countries, where environmental regulations are lax or non-existent. An additional major emerging problem is drug contamination. Periodic monitoring should be performed to identify potential neurotoxic substances using biological tests capable of identifying the risk. In this sense the fish embryo test (FET), which is performed on zebrafish embryos, is a useful, reliable and economical alternative that can be implemented in developing countries.

Maternal and Early-Life Circadian Disruption Have Long-Lasting Negative Consequences on Offspring Development and Adult Behavior in Mice

Modern life involves chronic circadian disruption through artificial light and these disruptions are associated with numerous mental and physical health maladies. Because the developing nervous system is particularly vulnerable to perturbation, we hypothesized that early-life circadian disruption would negatively impact offspring development and adult function. Pregnant mice were subjected to chronic circadian disruption from the time of uterine implantation through weaning. To dissociate in utero from postnatal effects, a subset of litters was cross-fostered at birth from disrupted dams to control dams and vice versa. Postnatal circadian disruption was associated with reduced adult body mass, social avoidance, and hyperactivity. In utero disruption resulted in more pronounced social avoidance and hyperactivity, phenotypes not abrogated by cross-fostering to control mothers. To examine whether circadian disruption affects development by acting as an early life stressor, we examined birthweight, litter size, maternal cannibalism, and epigenetic modifications. None of these variables differed between control and disrupted dams, or resembled patterns seen following early-life stress. Our findings indicate that developmental chronic circadian disruption permanently affects somatic and behavioral development in a stage-of-life-dependent manner, independent of early life stress mechanisms, underscoring the importance of temporal structure during development, both in utero and early postnatal life.

A comprehensive review of regulatory test methods for endocrine adverse health effects

Development of new endocrine disruption-relevant test methods has been the subject of intensive research efforts for the past several decades, prompted in part by mandates in the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA). While scientific understanding and test methods have advanced, questions remain on whether current scientific methods are capable of adequately addressing the complexities of the endocrine system for regulatory health and ecological risk assessments. The specific objective of this article is to perform a comprehensive, detailed evaluation of the adequacy of current test methods to inform regulatory risk assessments of whether a substance has the potential to perturb endocrine-related pathways resulting in human adverse effects. To that end,  approximately 42 existing test guidelines (TGs) were considered in the evaluation of coverage for endocrine-related adverse effects. In addition to evaluations of whether test methods are adequate to capture endocrine-related effects, considerations of further enhancements to current test methods, along with the need to develop novel test methods to address existing test method gaps are described. From this specific evaluation, up to 35 test methods are capable of informing whether a chemical substance perturbs known endocrine related biological pathways. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that current validated test methods are adequate to discern substances that may perturb the endocrine system, resulting in an adverse health effect. Together, these test methods predominantly form the core data requirements of a typical food-use pesticide registration submission. It is recognized, however, that the current state of science is rapidly advancing and there is a need to update current test methods to include added enhancements to ensure continued coverage and public health and environmental protection.

Developmental neurotoxicity of succeeding generations of insecticides

Insecticides are by design toxic. They must be toxic to effectively kill target species of insects. Unfortunately, they also have off-target toxic effects that can harm other species, including humans. Developmental neurotoxicity is one of the most prominent off-target toxic risks of insecticides. Over the past seven decades several classes of insecticides have been developed, each with their own mechanisms of effect and toxic side effects. This review covers the developmental neurotoxicity of the succeeding generations of insecticides including organochlorines, organophosphates, pyrethroids, carbamates and neonicotinoids. The goal of new insecticide development is to more effectively kill target species with fewer toxic side effects on non-target species. From the experience with the developmental neurotoxicity caused by the generations of insecticides developed in the past advice is offered how to proceed with future insecticide development to decrease neurotoxic risk.

Chlorpyrifos induces anxiety-like behavior in offspring rats exposed during pregnancy

Chlorpyrifos is a pesticide, member of the organophosphate class, widely used in several countries to manage insect pests on many agricultural crops. Currently, chlorpyrifos health risks are being reevaluated due to possible adverse effects, especially on the central nervous system. The aim of this study was to investigate the possible action of this pesticide on the behaviors related to anxiety and depression of offspring rats exposed during pregnancy. Wistar rats were treated orally with chlorpyrifos (0.01, 0.1, 1 and 10mg/kg/day) on gestational days 14-20. Male offspring behavior was evaluated on post-natal days 21 and 70 by the elevated plus-maze test, open field test and forced swimming test. The results demonstrated that exposure to 0.1, 1 or 10mg/kg/day of chlorpyrifos could induce anxiogenic-like, but not depressive-like behavior at post-natal day 21, without causing fetal toxicity. This effect was reversed on post-natal day 70.

Fetal origins of autism spectrum disorders: the non-associated maternal factors

Aim:

Several population-based studies have been conducted to determine whether maternal exposures are involved in the pathophysiology of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). We review these studies and describe the factors not associated with increased risk for ASD development.

Methods:

We identified studies describing associations between maternal exposures and ASD development. These studies include the Childhood Autism Risks from Genetics and the Environment, Nurses’ Health Study II, and the Swedish population registry.

Results:

Factors not associated with ASD development include Type 2 and gestational diabetes, chronic hypertension, fever treated with antipyretic medication, autoimmune disease and short interpregnancy intervals.

Conclusion:

There is increasing evidence that maternal exposures are involved in the pathophysiology of ASD in the developing fetus.

Lay Abstract: Autism spectrum disorder currently affects one in 68 children in the USA, with up to one in 42 boys. Its underlying etiology is largely unknown. Although autism was once considered a childhood disease, efforts for early detection led to the realization that it might originate at a much earlier stage, namely fetal life. Several maternal risk factors have recently been studied to establish associations with autism in the offspring. In this review, we present the maternal risk factors that were not found to have such associations.

Influence of Polygenic Risk Scores on the Association Between Infections and Schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Several studies have suggested an important role of infections in the etiology of schizophrenia; however, shared genetic liability toward infections and schizophrenia could influence the association. We therefore investigated the possible effect of polygenic risk scores (PRSs) for schizophrenia on the association between infections and the risk of schizophrenia.

METHODS

We conducted a nested case-control study on a Danish population-based sample born after 1981 comprising of 1692 cases diagnosed with schizophrenia between 1994 and 2008 and 1724 matched controls. All individuals were linked utilizing nationwide population-based registers with virtually complete registration of all hospital contacts for infections. PRSs were calculated using discovery effect size estimates weights from an independent meta-analysis (34,600 cases and 45,968 control individuals).

RESULTS

A prior hospital contact with infection had occurred in 41% of the individuals with schizophrenia and increased the incidence rate ratio (IRR) of schizophrenia by 1.43 (95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.22-1.67). Adding PRS, which was robustly associated with schizophrenia (by an IRR of 1.46 [95% CI = 1.34-1.60] per standard deviation of the score), did not alter the association with infections and the increased risk of schizophrenia remained (IRR = 1.41; 95% CI = 1.20-1.66). Furthermore, there were no interactions between PRS and infections on the risk of developing schizophrenia (p = .554). Neither did PRS affect the risk of acquiring infections among patients with schizophrenia (odds ratio = 1.00; 95% CI = 0.89-1.12) nor among controls (odds ratio = 1.09; 95% CI: 0.96-1.24).

CONCLUSIONS

PRS and a history of infections have independent effects on the risk for schizophrenia, and the common genetic risk measured by PRS did not account for the association with infection in this sample.

Neuronal Nuclear Membrane Budding Occurs during a Developmental Window Modulated by Torsin Paralogs

DYT1 dystonia is a neurodevelopmental disease that manifests during a discrete period of childhood. The disease is caused by impaired function of torsinA, a protein linked to nuclear membrane budding. The relationship of NE budding to neural development and CNS function is unclear, however, obscuring its potential role in dystonia pathogenesis. We find NE budding begins and resolves during a discrete neurodevelopmental window in torsinA null neurons in vivo. The developmental resolution of NE budding corresponds to increased torsinB protein, while ablating torsinB from torsinA null neurons prevents budding resolution and causes lethal neural dysfunction. Developmental changes in torsinB also correlate with NE bud formation in differentiating DYT1 embryonic stem cells, and overexpression of torsinA or torsinB rescues NE bud formation in this system. These findings identify a torsinA neurodevelopmental window that is essential for normal CNS function and have important implications for dystonia pathogenesis and therapeutics.

Molecular cloning, expression and characterization of acylpeptide hydrolase in the silkworm, Bombyx mori

Acylpeptide hydrolase (APH) can catalyze the release of the N-terminal amino acid from acetylated peptides. There were many documented examples of this enzyme in various prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. However, knowledge about APH in insects still remains unknown. In this study, we cloned and sequenced a putative silkworm Bombyx mori APH (BmAPH) gene. The BmAPH gene encodes a protein of 710 amino acids with a predicted molecular mass of 78.5kDa. The putative BmAPH and mammal APHs share about 36% amino acid sequence identity, yet key catalytic residues are conserved (Ser566, Asp654, and His686). Expression and purification of the recombinant BmAPH in Escherichia coli showed that it has acylpeptide hydrolase activity toward the traditional substrate, Ac-Ala-pNA. Furthermore, organophosphorus (OP) insecticides, chlorpyrifos, phoxim, and malathion, significantly inhibited the activity of the APH both in vitro and in vivo. In addition, BmAPH was expressed in all tested tissues and developmental stages of the silkworm. Finally, immunohistochemistry analysis showed that BmAPH protein was localized in the basement membranes. These results suggested that BmAPH may be involved in enhancing silkworm tolerance to the OP insecticides. In a word, our results provide evidence for understanding of the biological function of APH in insects.

Early environmental enrichment affects neurobehavioral development and prevents brain damage in rats submitted to neonatal hypoxia-ischemia

Our previous results demonstrated improved cognition in adolescent rats housed in environmental enrichment (EE) that underwent neonatal hypoxia-ischemia (HI). The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of early EE on neurobehavioral development and brain damage in rats submitted to neonatal HI. Wistar rats were submitted to the HI procedure on the 7th postnatal day (PND) and housed in an enriched environment (8th-20th PND). The maturation of physical characteristics and the neurological reflexes were evaluated and the volume of striatum, corpus callosum and neocortex was measured. Data analysis demonstrated a clear effect of EE on neurobehavioral development; also, daily performance was improved in enriched rats on righting, negative geotaxis and cliff aversion reflex. HI caused a transient motor deficit on gait latency. Brain atrophy was found in HI animals and this damage was partially prevented by the EE. In conclusion, early EE stimulated neurobehavioral development in neonate rats and also protects the neocortex and the corpus callosum from atrophy following HI. These findings reinforce the potential of EE as a strategy for rehabilitation following neonatal HI and provide scientific support to the use of this therapeutic strategy in the treatment of neonatal brain injuries in humans.

Delayed effects of developmental exposure to low levels of the aryl hydrocarbon receptor agonist 3,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB126) on adult zebrafish behavior

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are ubiquitous environmental contaminants. The most toxic PCBs are the non-ortho-substituted ("dioxin-like") congeners that act through the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR) pathway. In humans, perinatal exposure to dioxin-like PCBs is associated with neurodevelopmental toxicity in children. Yet, the full potential for later-life neurobehavioral effects that result from early-life low level exposure to dioxin-like PCBs is not well understood. The objective of this study was to determine the effects of developmental exposure to low levels of dioxin-like PCBs on early- and later-life behavioral phenotypes using zebrafish as a model system. We exposed zebrafish embryos to either vehicle (DMSO) or low concentrations of PCB126 (0.3, 0.6, 1.2nM) for 20h (4-24h post fertilization), and then reared them to adulthood in clean water. Locomotor activity was tested at two larval stages (7 and 14 days post fertilization). Adult fish were tested for anxiety-related behavior using the novel tank and shoaling assays. Adult behavioral assays were repeated several times on the same group of fish and effects on intra- and inter-trial habituation were determined. While there was no effect of PCB126 on larval locomotor activity in response to changes in light conditions, developmental exposure to PCB126 resulted in impaired short- and long-term habituation to a novel environment in adult zebrafish. Cyp1a induction was measured as an indicator for AHR activation. Despite high induction at early stages, cyp1a expression was not induced in the brains of developmentally exposed adult fish that showed altered behavior, suggesting that AHR was not activated at this stage. Our results demonstrate the effectiveness of the zebrafish model in detecting subtle and delayed behavioral effects resulting from developmental exposure to an environmental contaminant.

A 10-month prospective study of organophosphorus pesticide exposure and neurobehavioral performance among adolescents in Egypt

Chlorpyrifos is an organophosphorus (OP) pesticide widely used around the world for agricultural operations. Although studies have examined exposure in children, there is limited information on adolescents who are occupationally exposed. Furthermore, there is limited research addressing the change in exposure patterns and outcomes across the application season. The goal of the current study was to examine the impact of chlorpyrifos exposure on neurobehavioral performance in adolescents before, during and after the application season. The longitudinal study was conducted in Egypt from April 2010 to January 2011, quantifying exposure and neurobehavioral performance with repeated measures prior to, during, and following the application period. At each test session, participants completed a neurobehavioral test battery and urine was collected for analysis of the chlorpyrifos metabolite 3,5,6-trichloro-2 pyridinol (TCPy) (biomarker of exposure). Cumulative urinary TCPy over the study period was used to classify participants into low (<median) and high (≥ median) exposure groups. The urinary TCPy concentrations increased for both groups during the application season and decreased following the end of application. TCPy levels were significantly elevated in the high exposure group compared to the low exposure groups at all time intervals except baseline. Deficits in cumulative neurobehavioral performance were found among the high exposure group compared with the low exposure group. Additionally, changes in neurobehavioral performance across the application season indicate a pattern of impaired performance in the high exposure group compared to the low exposure group. Deficits increased during the application season and remained even months after application ceased. This study is the first to examine the impact of changes in pesticide exposure and neurobehavioral performance not only before and after the application season, but also within the application season. Furthermore, this study examines the impact of pesticide exposure on an adolescent population who may be at greater risk than adult populations.

Neuroimaging endophenotypes in autism spectrum disorder

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental disorder that has a strong genetic basis, and is heterogeneous in its etiopathogenesis and clinical presentation. Neuroimaging studies, in concert with neuropathological and clinical research, have been instrumental in delineating trajectories of development in children with ASD. Structural neuroimaging has revealed ASD to be a disorder with general and regional brain enlargement, especially in the frontotemporal cortices, while functional neuroimaging studies have highlighted diminished connectivity, especially between frontal-posterior regions. The diverse and specific neuroimaging findings may represent potential neuroendophenotypes, and may offer opportunities to further understand the etiopathogenesis of ASD, predict treatment response, and lead to the development of new therapies.

Exploration of the chlorpyrifos escape pathway from acylpeptide hydrolases using steered molecular dynamics simulations

Acylpeptide hydrolases (APH) catalyze the removal of an N-acylated amino acid from blocked peptides. APH is significantly more sensitive than acetylcholinesterase, a target of Alzheimer's disease, to inhibition by organophosphorus (OP) compounds. Thus, OP compounds can be used as a tool to probe the physiological functions of APH. Here, we report the results of a computational study of molecular dynamics simulations of APH bound to the OP compounds and an exploration of the chlorpyrifos escape pathway using steered molecular dynamics (SMD) simulations. In addition, we apply SMD simulations to identify potential escape routes of chlorpyrifos from hydrolase hydrophobic cavities in the APH-inhibitor complex. Two previously proposed APH pathways were reliably identified by CAVER 3.0, with the estimated relative importance of P1 > P2 for its size. We identify the major pathway, P2, using SMD simulations, and Arg526, Glu88, Gly86, and Asn65 are identified as important residues for the ligand leaving via P2. These results may help in the design of APH-targeting drugs with improved efficacy, as well as in understanding APH selectivity of the inhibitor binding in the prolyl oligopeptidase family.

Multifactorial Origin of Neurodevelopmental Disorders: Approaches to Understanding Complex Etiologies

A significant body of evidence supports the multifactorial etiology of neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) affecting children. The present review focuses on early exposure to environmental chemicals as a risk factor for neurodevelopment, and presents the major lines of evidence derived from epidemiological studies, underlying key uncertainties and research needs in this field. We introduce the exposome concept that, encompassing the totality of human environmental exposures to multiple risk factors, aims at explaining individual vulnerability and resilience to early chemical exposure. In this framework, we synthetically review the role of variable gene backgrounds, the involvement of epigenetic mechanisms as well as the function played by potential effect modifiers such as socioeconomic status. We describe laboratory rodent studies where the neurodevelopmental effects of environmental chemicals are assessed in the presence of either a “vulnerable” gene background or adverse pregnancy conditions (i.e., maternal stress). Finally, we discuss the need for more descriptive and “lifelike” experimental models of NDDs, to identify candidate biomarkers and pinpoint susceptible groups or life stages to be translated to large prospective studies within the exposome framework.

Implications of prenatal steroid perturbations for neurodevelopment, behavior, and autism

The prenatal brain develops under the influence of an ever-changing hormonal milieu that includes endogenous fetal gonadal and adrenal hormones, placental and maternal hormones, and exogenous substances with hormonal activity that can cross the placental barrier. This review discusses the influences of endogenous fetal and maternal hormones on normal brain development and potential consequences of pathophysiological hormonal perturbations to the developing brain, with particular reference to autism. We also consider the effects of hormonal pharmaceuticals used for assisted reproduction, the maintenance of pregnancy, the prevention of congenital adrenal hypertrophy, and hormonal contraceptives continued into an unanticipated pregnancy, among others. These treatments, although in some instances life-saving, may have unintended consequences on the developing fetuses. Additional concern is raised by fetal exposures to endocrine-disrupting chemicals encountered universally by pregnant women from food/water containers, contaminated food, household chemicals, and other sources. What are the potential outcomes of prenatal steroid perturbations on neurodevelopmental and behavioral disorders, including autism-spectrum disorders? Our purposes here are 1) to summarize some consequences of steroid exposures during pregnancy for the development of brain and behavior in the offspring; 2) to summarize what is known about the relationships between exposures and behavior, including autism spectrum disorders; 3) to discuss the molecular underpinnings of such effects, especially molecular epigenetic mechanisms of prenatal steroid manipulations, a field that may explain effects of direct exposures, and even transgenerational effects; and 4) for all of these, to add cautionary notes about their interpretation in the name of scientific rigor.

Characterizing exposures and neurobehavioral performance in Egyptian adolescent pesticide applicators

Children and adolescents may have occupational exposure to pesticides. Although previous studies examining prenatal pesticide exposure have identified neurobehavioral deficits in children, there are limited studies examining the impact of occupational exposure in children. The objectives of this study are to estimate exposures to the organophosphorus pesticide, chlorpyrifos (CPF), by measuring urinary levels of 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy), a specific CPF metabolite, and blood cholinesterase (ChE) activities and to characterize neurobehavioral performance in adolescents working as seasonal pesticide applicators and non-applicator controls. A neurobehavioral test battery, consisting of 14 tests, was used to assess a broad range of functions. Applicators performed worse than controls on the majority of tests. Principal component analysis was used to reduce the number of outcome variables and two components, focused on reasoning-short-term memory and attention-executive functioning, showed significant deficits in applicators compared to non-applicators. Elevated metabolite levels were found in the applicators compared to the non-applicators, confirming CPF exposure in the applicators. Although this study is limited by a small sample size, it provides preliminary evidence of moderate CPF exposures, decreased blood ChE in some applicators and decreased neurobehavioral performance in an adolescent working population.

Revisiting pesticide exposure and children's health: focus on China

China is now becoming the largest consumer of pesticides worldwide. In recent years, there has been a heightened public awareness of pesticides and children's health in North America and around the world. Human epidemiological studies have examined the relationship of pesticide exposures with children's health such as neurodevelopment and cancer, and they reported less consistent results. With regard to this topic, however, China is still in the early stages of cross-sectional or case-control design, and few data have been available. Furthermore, we have discussed several important limitations such as study design, exposure measurement, and developmental assessment from current literature, which should be interpreted with caution. We also presented the vulnerability and source of children's exposure to pesticides.

Diurnal cortisol patterns and psychiatric symptoms in pregnancy: short-term longitudinal study

Alteration in the HPA axis is a robust biomarker of anxiety and depression in adults, but questions remain about this association in pregnancy. We examined the longitudinal links between diurnal cortisol and mood symptoms from self-report questionnaire and diagnostic interview in an ethnically diverse, psychosocially at-risk sample of 101 women at mid-pregnancy and early third trimester. There were modest but significant associations between depression and elevated cortisol, indexed by a decreased morning level and diminished diurnal decline; the effects were strongest for diagnostic data from clinical interview. These effects were independent of socio-demographic factors and sleep disturbance. Associations with anxiety and trauma were generally non-significant. These findings extend prior work by showing that significant mood symptoms in pregnancy are associated with altered diurnal cortisol in pregnancy, which may have implications for maternal and child health.

The risk of schizophrenia and child psychiatric disorders in offspring of mothers with lung cancer and other types of cancer: a Danish nationwide register study

BACKGROUND

Maternal immune responses and brain-reactive antibodies have been proposed as possible causal mechanisms for schizophrenia and some child psychiatric disorders. According to this hypothesis maternal antibodies may cross the placenta and interact with the developing CNS of the fetus causing future neurodevelopmental disorders. Therefore, we investigated if children of mothers with cancer might be at higher risk of developing psychiatric disorders, with particular focus on small-cell lung cancer, which is known to induce production of antibodies binding to CNS elements.

METHODS

Nationwide population-based registers were linked, including the Danish Psychiatric Central Register and The Danish Cancer Registry. Data were analyzed as a cohort study using survival analysis techniques. Incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and accompanying 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were used as measures of relative risk.

RESULTS

In general, parental cancer was not associated with schizophrenia in the offspring (IRR, 0.98; 95% CI, 0.95-1.01). Furthermore, we found no temporal associations with maternal cancer in general; neither around the pregnancy period. However, maternal small-cell lung cancer increased the risk of early-onset schizophrenia and maternal small-cell lung cancer diagnosed within 20 years after childbirth increased the risk of schizophrenia. Parental cancer was not associated with child psychiatric disorders (IRR, 1.01; 95% CI, 0.98-1.05) except for the smoking related cancers. There was a significantly increased risk of child psychiatric disorders in offspring of both mothers (IRR, 1.35; 95% CI, 1.16-1.58) and fathers (IRR, 1.47; 95% CI, 1.30-1.66) with lung cancer of all types.

CONCLUSIONS

In general, parental cancer did not increase the risk of schizophrenia nor of child psychiatric disorders. However, maternal small-cell lung cancer increased the risk of schizophrenia in subgroups; and lung cancer in general increased the risk of child psychiatric disorders, which could be due to risk factors associated with parental smoking.

Mechanisms of lead and manganese neurotoxicity

Human exposure to neurotoxic metals is a global public health problem. Metals which cause neurological toxicity, such as lead (Pb) and manganese (Mn), are of particular concern due to the long-lasting and possibly irreversible nature of their effects. Pb exposure in childhood can result in cognitive and behavioural deficits in children. These effects are long-lasting and persist into adulthood even after Pb exposure has been reduced or eliminated. While Mn is an essential element of the human diet and serves many cellular functions in the human body, elevated Mn levels can result in a Parkinson's disease (PD)-like syndrome and developmental Mn exposure can adversely affect childhood neurological development. Due to the ubiquitous presence of both metals, reducing human exposure to toxic levels of Mn and Pb remains a world-wide public health challenge. In this review we summarize the toxicokinetics of Pb and Mn, describe their neurotoxic mechanisms, and discuss common themes in their neurotoxicity.

Infant siblings and the investigation of autism risk factors

Infant sibling studies have been at the vanguard of autism spectrum disorders (ASD) research over the past decade, providing important new knowledge about the earliest emerging signs of ASD and expanding our understanding of the developmental course of this complex disorder. Studies focused on siblings of children with ASD also have unrealized potential for contributing to ASD etiologic research. Moving targeted time of enrollment back from infancy toward conception creates tremendous opportunities for optimally studying risk factors and risk biomarkers during the pre-, peri- and neonatal periods. By doing so, a traditional sibling study, which already incorporates close developmental follow-up of at-risk infants through the third year of life, is essentially reconfigured as an enriched-risk pregnancy cohort study. This review considers the enriched-risk pregnancy cohort approach of studying infant siblings in the context of current thinking on ASD etiologic mechanisms. It then discusses the key features of this approach and provides a description of the design and implementation strategy of one major ASD enriched-risk pregnancy cohort study: the Early Autism Risk Longitudinal Investigation (EARLI).

Diethylstilbestrol and risk of psychiatric disorders: a critical review and new insights

OBJECTIVES

We explored whether in utero DES exposure has produced consistent findings with regard to an increased risk of psychiatric disorders.

METHODS

We reviewed systematically the epidemiological studies investigating a possible association between prenatal DES exposure and risk of psychiatric disorders.

RESULTS

We identified 10 relevant studies reporting the psychiatric outcome of offspring with a history of in utero DES exposure compared to a control group. We classified them into four categories: (1) a mail survey in a sample from a randomized double-blind controlled trial of prophylactic DES for first pregnancy in the early 1950s reported that depression and anxiety were twice as frequent in the exposed group compared to the placebo group; (2) five small clinical samples with inconclusive results; (3) two large cohorts of DES-exposed participants: the first study reported a higher lifetime history of weight loss related to anorexia nervosa whereas the second did not found any significant difference; (4) two subsamples from general population cohorts: the first study did not found any significant difference whereas the second reported that exposed women showed a higher rate of incident depression than non-exposed women.

CONCLUSIONS

The role of prenatal exposure to DES as an environmental risk factor for psychiatric disorders requires more evidence before any conclusions can be drawn. If confirmed, several explanations could be proposed: gene × environment interaction and epigenetic mechanisms, although phenocopy and gene-environment aggregation are plausible.

Neurobehavioral and neurodevelopmental effects of pesticide exposures

The association between pesticide exposure and neurobehavioral and neurodevelopmental effects is an area of increasing concern. This symposium brought together participants to explore the neurotoxic effects of pesticides across the lifespan. Endpoints examined included neurobehavioral, affective and neurodevelopmental outcomes among occupational (both adolescent and adult workers) and non-occupational populations (children). The symposium discussion highlighted many challenges for researchers concerned with the prevention of neurotoxic illness due to pesticides and generated a number of directions for further research and policy interventions for the protection of human health, highlighting the importance of examining potential long-term effects across the lifespan arising from early adolescent, childhood or prenatal exposure.

Maternal pregnancy-specific anxiety is associated with child executive function at 6-9 years age

Because fetal brain development proceeds at an extremely rapid pace, early life experiences have the potential to alter the trajectory of neurodevelopment, which may increase susceptibility for developmental and neuropsychiatric disorders. There is evidence that prenatal maternal stress and anxiety, especially worries specifically related to being pregnant, influence neurodevelopmental outcomes. In the current prospective longitudinal study, we included 89 women for whom serial data were available for pregnancy-specific anxiety, state anxiety, and depression at 15, 19, 25, 31, and 37 weeks gestation. When the offspring from the target pregnancy were between 6 and 9 years of age, their executive function was assessed. High levels of mean maternal pregnancy-specific anxiety over the course of gestation were associated with lower inhibitory control in girls only and lower visuospatial working memory performance in boys and girls. Higher-state anxiety and depression also were associated with lower visuospatial working memory performance. However, neither state anxiety nor depression explained any additional variance after accounting for pregnancy-specific anxiety. The findings contribute to the literature supporting an association between pregnancy-specific anxiety and cognitive development and extend our knowledge about the persistence of this effect until middle childhood.

The fatty acid oxidation product 15-A3t-isoprostane is a potent inhibitor of NFκB transcription and macrophage transformation

Fatty acids such as eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) have been shown to be beneficial for neurological function and human health. It is widely thought that oxidation products of EPA are responsible for biological activity, although the specific EPA peroxidation product(s) which exert these responses have not yet been identified. In this work we provide the first evidence that the synthesized representative cyclopentenone IsoP, 15-A(3t)-IsoP, serves as a potent inhibitor of lipopolysaccharide-stimulated macrophage activation. The anti-inflammatory activities of 15-A(3t)-IsoP were observed in response not only to lipopolysaccharide, but also to tumor necrosis factor alpha and IL-1b stimulation. Subsequently, this response blocked the ability of these compounds to stimulate nuclear factor kappa b (NFκB) activation and production of proinflammatory cytokines. The bioactivity of 15-A(3t)-IsoP was shown to be dependent upon an unsaturated carbonyl residue which transiently adducts to free thiols. Site directed mutagenesis of the redox sensitive C179 site of the Ikappa kinase beta subunit, blocked the biological activity of 15-A(3t)-IsoP and NFκB activation. The vasoprotective potential of 15-A(3t)-IsoP was underscored by the ability of this compound to block oxidized lipid accumulation, a critical step in foam cell transformation and atherosclerotic plaque formation. Taken together, these are the first data identifying the biological activity of a specific product of EPA peroxidation, which is formed in abundance in vivo. The clear mechanism linking 15-A(3t)-IsoP to redox control of NFκB transcription, and the compound's ability to block foam cell transformation suggest that 15-A(3t)-IsoP provides a unique and potent tool to provide vaso- and cytoprotection under conditions of oxidative stress.