Repeated high-intensity interval exercise shortens the positive effect on executive function during post-exercise recovery in healthy young males

A study on the impact of acute exercise on cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease or mild cognitive impairment patients: A narrative review

This narrative review follows the JBI approach and comprehensively explores the effects and mechanisms of acute exercise on cognitive function in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Mild cognitive impairment (MCI) patients. The results showed that the combination of acute exercise and cognitive training improved the cognitive function of AD patients better than aerobic exercise or resistance training alone. For patients with MCI, moderate intensity acute aerobic exercise and resistance exercise were beneficial to enhance Inhibitory control (IC), but high-intensity acute exercise was adverse to improve IC; Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and Insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1) may assume the potential mediating mechanism of acute exercise on cognitive function in AD and MCI patients, but more research is needed to further confirm this mechanism.

Orienteering combines vigorous-intensity exercise with navigation to improve human cognition and increase brain-derived neurotrophic factor

Exercise enhances aspects of human cognition, but its intensity may matter. Recent animal research suggests that vigorous exercise, which releases greater amounts of lactate, activates more brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) in the hippocampus and, thus, may be optimal for supporting cognitive function. The cognitive benefits of exercise may be further augmented when combined with cognitive training. The sport of orienteering simultaneously combines exercise with spatial navigation and, therefore, may result in greater cognitive benefits than exercising only, especially at vigorous intensities. The present study aimed to examine the effects of an acute bout of orienteering at different intensities on cognition and BDNF compared to exercising only. We hypothesized that vigorous-intensity orienteering would increase lactate and BDNF and improve cognition more than moderate-intensity orienteering or vigorous exercise alone. Sixty-three recreationally active, healthy young adults (Mage = 21.10±2.75 years) with no orienteering experience completed a 1.3 km intervention course by navigating and exercising at a vigorous (80-85% of heart rate reserve) or moderate (40-50% of heart rate reserve) intensity or exercising vigorously without navigation. Exercise intensity was monitored using peak lactate, heart rate and rating of perceived exertion. Serum BDNF was extracted immediately before and after the intervention. Memory was assessed using the Mnemonic Similarity Task (high-interference memory) and the Groton Maze Learning Test (spatial memory). Both exercising and orienteering at a vigorous intensity elicited greater peak lactate and increases in BDNF than moderate-intensity orienteering, and individuals with higher peak lactate also had greater increases in BDNF. High-interference memory improved after both vigorous-intensity interventions but did not improve after the moderate-intensity intervention. Spatial memory only increased after vigorous-intensity orienteering, suggesting that orienteering at a vigorous intensity may particularly benefit spatial cognition. Overall, the results demonstrate the benefits of vigorous exercise on human cognition and BDNF.

Combined effects of electrical muscle stimulation and cycling exercise on cognitive performance

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a combination of electrical muscle stimulation (EMS) and cycling exercise is beneficial for improving cognitive performance. Eighteen participants (7 females and 11 males) performed a Go/No-Go task before and 2 min after i) cycling exercise (EX), ii) a combination of EMS and cycling (EMS + EX) and iii) a control (rest) intervention in a randomized controlled crossover design. In the EX intervention, the participants cycled an ergometer for 20 min with their heart rate maintained at ∼120 beats·min-1. In the EMS + EX intervention, the participants cycled an ergometer simultaneously with EMS for 20 min, with heart rate maintained at ∼120 beats·min-1. In the Control intervention, the participants remained at rest while seated on the ergometer. Cognitive performance was assessed by reaction time (RT) and accuracy. There was a significant interaction between intervention and time (p = 0.007). RT was reduced in the EX intervention (p = 0.054, matched rank biserial correlation coefficient = 0.520). In the EMS + EX intervention, RT was not altered (p = 0.243, Cohen's d = 0.285) despite no differences in heart rate between the EX and EMS + EX interventions (p = 0.551). RT was increased in the Control intervention (p = 0.038, Cohen's d = -0.529). These results indicate that combining EMS and cycling does not alter cognitive performance despite elevated heart rate, equivalent to a moderate intensity. The present findings suggest that brain activity during EMS with cycling exercise may be insufficient to improve cognitive performance when compared to exercise alone.

Circulating Plasma Oxytocin Level Is Elevated by High-Intensity Interval Exercise in Men

PURPOSE

We evaluated whether repeated high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) influences plasma oxytocin (OT) concentration in healthy men, and, given that OT is mainly synthesized in the hypothalamus, we assessed the concentration difference between the arterial (OT ART ) versus the internal jugular venous OT concentration (OT IJV ). Additionally, we hypothesized that an increase in cerebral OT release and the circulating concentration would be augmented by repeated HIIE.

METHODS

Fourteen healthy men (age = 24 ± 2 yr; mean ± SD) performed two identical bouts of HIIE. These HIIE bouts included a warm-up at 50%-60% maximal workload ( Wmax ) for 5 min followed by four bouts of exercise at 80%-90% Wmax for 4 min interspersed by exercise at 50%-60% Wmax for 3 min. The HIIE bouts were separated by 60 min of rest. OT was evaluated in blood through radial artery and internal jugular vein catheterization.

RESULTS

Both HIIE bouts increased both OT ART (median [IQR], from 3.9 [3.4-5.4] to 5.3 [4.4-6.3] ng·mL -1 in the first HIIE, P < 0.01) and OT IJV (from 4.6 [3.4-4.8] to 5.9 [4.3-8.2] ng·mL -1 , P < 0.01), but OT ART-IJV was unaffected (from -0.24 [-1.16 to 1.08] to 0.04 [-0.88 to 0.78] ng·mL -1 , P = 1.00). The increased OT levels were similar in the first and second HIIE bouts (OT ARTP = 0.25, OT IJVP = 0.36).

CONCLUSIONS

Despite no change in the cerebral OT release via the internal jugular vein, circulating OT increases during HIIE regardless of the accumulated exercise volume, indicating that OT may play role as one of the exerkines.

The lactate response to a second bout of exercise is not reduced in a concurrent lower-limb exercise program

We aimed to evaluate the blood lactate level in response to two bouts of exercise. First, we hypothesized that blood lactate elevation in response to moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (MIAE) would be lower at the end of the second bout of MIAE than the first bout of MIAE. In this context, we also hypothesized that lactate accumulation at the end of resistance exercise (RE) would be reduced if MIAE is performed before RE (i.e., concurrent exercise; CE). If so, we hypothesized that the order of the CE (i.e., RE + MIAE vs. MIAE + RE) influences blood lactate kinetics. To test the hypotheses, forty-three healthy men participated in three studies. In study 1, 20 men (age 21 ± 2 years) performed two bouts of a 20-min MIAE separated by a 20-min rest interval. In study 2, 11 men (age 22 ± 1 years) performed RE only and CE (MIAE + RE; ARCE) with a 20-min rest interval in a crossover design. In study 3, 12 men (age 21 ± 2 years) performed both CEs, which were ARCE and RE + MIAE (RACE), with a 20-min rest interval in a crossover design. We measured blood lactate before and at the end of each exercise session. In study 1, the blood lactate response to the second bout of MIAE was lower than that of the first bout (P < 0.001, r = 0.68). However, the blood lactate response to the ARCE trial was not lower than the response to the RE trial in study 2 (P = 0.475, r = 0.22). The results of study 3 showed that the RACE and ARCE trials induced a similar lactate response (MIAE P = 0.423, r = 0.28; RE P = 0.766, d = 0.03). These observations indicate that whereas lactate accumulation might be diminished by a second bout of MIAE, a different type of exercise (i.e., aerobic/resistance) did not result in a diminished lactate accumulation in response to a second bout of exercise.

Improved interference control after exercise with blood flow restriction and cooling is associated with but not mediated by increased lactate

BACKGROUND

To evaluate the effects of recumbent sprint interval exercise with and without blood flow restriction and body cooling on interference control and whether the changes in interference control can be explained by the changes in blood lactate.

METHODS

85 participants (22 SD 3 years old) completed 1 familiarization visit and then 5 experimental visits in a randomized order: exercise only (Ex), exercise with blood flow restriction (ExB), exercise with cooling (ExC), and exercise with blood flow restriction and cooling (ExBC), and non-exercise control (Con). Measurements of blood lactate and the Stroop Color Word Test were performed before and after exercise. Each bout began with a 15-minute low-moderate intensity warm-up, followed by five 20-second "all out" sprints separated by 40 s of active recovery. Bayes Factors (BF10) quantified evidence for or against the null hypothesis. Within-subject mediation analysis quantified the indirect effect of changes in blood lactate (mediator) on the change in interference control (each exercise condition vs. Con).

RESULTS

Bayesian pairwise comparisons found that only ExC [σ: -0.37 (-0.59, -0.15)] and ExBC [σ: -0.3 (-0.53, -0.09)] produced changes in incongruent reaction time different from that of Con. There was also evidence that all exercise conditions increased blood lactate (BF10 = 8.65e+29 - 1.9e+32) and improved congruent reaction time (BF10 = 4.01 - 15.371) compared to that of Con. There was no evidence to show that changes in lactate mediated the change in incongruent reaction time.

CONCLUSIONS

Both exercise with body cooling and when body cooling was combined with blood flow restriction presented favorable changes in incongruent reaction time (a marker of interference control), which might not be explained by the changes in systemic blood lactate concentration.

Effects of High-Intensity Interval Training Protocols on Blood Lactate Levels and Cognition in Healthy Adults: Systematic Review and Meta-Regression

BACKGROUND

Some health benefits from high-intensity interval training (HIIT) are facilitated by peripheral blood lactate levels. However, the lactate response from HIIT is variable and dependent on protocol parameters.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to determine the HIIT protocol parameters that elicited peak lactate levels, and how these levels are associated with post-HIIT cognitive performance.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted a systematic review with meta-regression.

METHODS

MEDLINE, Embase, CENTRAL, SPORTDiscus, and CINAHL + were searched from database inception to 8 April, 2022. Peer-reviewed primary research in healthy adults that determined lactate (mmol/L) and cognitive performance after one HIIT session was included. Mixed-effects meta-regressions determined the protocol parameters that elicited peak lactate levels, and linear regressions modelled the relationship between lactate levels and cognitive performance.

RESULTS

Study entries (n = 226) involving 2560 participants (mean age 24.1 ± 4.7 years) were included in the meta-regression. A low total work-interval volume (~ 5 min), recovery intervals that are about five times longer than work intervals, and a medium session volume (~ 15 min), elicited peak lactate levels, even when controlling for intensity, fitness (peak oxygen consumption) and blood measurement methods. Lactate levels immediately post-HIIT explained 14-17% of variance in Stroop interference condition at 30 min post-HIIT.

CONCLUSIONS

A HIIT protocol that uses the above parameters (e.g., 8 × 30-s maximal intensity with 90-s recovery) can elicit peak lactate, a molecule that is known to benefit the central nervous system and be involved in exercise training adaptations. This review reports the state of the science in regard to the lactate response following HIIT, which is relevant to those in the sports medicine field designing HIIT training programs.

TRIAL REGISTRY

Clinical Trial Registration: PROSPERO (CRD42020204400).

Added Inspiratory Resistance Does Not Impair Cognitive Function and Mood State

This study evaluated cognitive function and mood state with inspiratory resistance before and after maximal exercise in hypoxia. Nine healthy men (age = 25 ± 2 years) performed the Automated Neuropsychological Assessment Metrics-4th Edition (ANAM4) of the Stroop color-word test (SCWT) and total mood disturbance (TMD) before and after an incremental cycling exercise until volitional fatigue with four different inspiratory resistances (0, 1.5, 4.5, 7.5 cm H₂O·L^-1·s^-1). There was no significant difference in the interference score of SCWT and TMD at normobaric, hypoxic conditions at four different inspiratory resistances. However, the interference score of SCWT was improved following maximal cycling exercise, whereas TMD was not improved. Inspiratory resistance did not have a deleterious effect on cognitive function and mood state in normobaric hypoxia after maximal cycling exercise. However, following maximal cycling exercise, cognitive function was improved.

Overview on brain function enhancement of Internet addicts through exercise intervention: Based on reward-execution-decision cycle

Internet addiction (IA) has become an impulse control disorder included in the category of psychiatric disorders. The IA trend significantly increased after the outbreak of the new crown epidemic. IA damages some brain functions in humans. Emerging evidence suggests that exercise exerts beneficial effects on the brain function and cognitive level damaged by IA. This work reviews the neurobiological mechanisms of IA and describes the brain function impairment by IA from three systems: reward, execution, and decision-making. Furthermore, we sort out the research related to exercise intervention on IA and its effect on improving brain function. The internal and external factors that produce IA must be considered when summarizing movement interventions from a behavioral perspective. We can design exercise prescriptions based on exercise interests and achieve the goal of quitting IA. This work explores the possible mechanisms of exercise to improve IA through systematic analysis. Furthermore, this work provides research directions for the future targeted design of exercise prescriptions.

Executive function during exercise is diminished by prolonged cognitive effort in men

The speed and accuracy of decision-making (i.e., executive function (EF) domains) is an integral factor in many sports. At rest, prolonged cognitive load (pCL) impairs reaction time (RT). In contrast, exercise improves RT and EF. We hypothesized that RT and EF during exercise would be diminished by prolonged 'dual tasking' as a consequence of pCL. To test the hypothesis, twenty healthy male participants performed four conditions [resting control (Rest), pCL only (pCL_Rest), exercise only (EX), and pCL + exercise (pCL_EX)] in a randomized-crossover design. Both exercise conditions utilized a 50-min cycling exercise protocol (60% VO₂ peak) and the pCL was achieved via a 50-min colour-word Stroop task (CWST). Compared with Rest, pCL_Rest caused a slowed CWST RT (P < 0.05) and a large SD (i.e., intraindividual variability) of CWST RT (P < 0.01). Similarly, compared with EX, the slowed CWST RT (P < 0.05) and large SD of CWST RT (P < 0.01) were also observed in pCL_EX. Whereas the reverse-Stroop interference was not affected in pCL_Rest (P = 0.46), it was larger (i.e., declined EF) in pCL_EX than EX condition (P < 0.05). These observations provide evidence that the effort of pCL impairs RT and EF even during exercise.

The effects of acute high-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive performance: A structured narrative review

It is well established that acute moderate-intensity exercise improves cognitive performance. However, the effects of acute high-intensity aerobic exercise on cognitive performance have not been well characterized. In this review, we summarize the literature investigating the exercise-cognition interaction, especially focusing on high-intensity aerobic exercise. We discuss methodological and physiological factors that potentially mediate cognitive performance in response to high-intensity exercise. We propose that the effects of high-intensity exercise on cognitive performance are primarily affected by the timing of cognitive task (during vs. after exercise, and the time delay after exercise). In particular, cognitive performance is more likely to be impaired during high-intensity exercise when both cognitive and physiological demands are high and completed simultaneously (i.e., the dual-task paradigm). The effects may also be affected by the type of cognitive task, physical fitness, exercise mode/duration, and age. Second, we suggest that interactions between changes in regional cerebral blood flow (CBF), cerebral oxygenation, cerebral metabolism, neuromodulation by neurotransmitters/neurotrophic factors, and a variety of psychological factors are promising candidates that determine cognitive performance in response to acute high-intensity exercise. The present review has implications for recreational, sporting, and occupational activities where high cognitive and physiological demands are required to be completed concurrently.

A Shorter-Bout of HIIT Is More Effective to Promote Serum BDNF and VEGF-A Levels and Improve Cognitive Function in Healthy Young Men

Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of single bouts of high-intensity interval training (HIIT) with different duration on serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and vascular endothelial growth factor-A (VEGF-A) levels and cognitive function in healthy young men.

Methods: Twelve healthy young men were participated in two HIIT treatments (20 min HIIT and 30 min HIIT) in a random order. BDNF, VEGF-A, cortisol, testosterone, blood lactic acid were measured and cognitive function was assessed by Stroop test (CWST) and Digital Span test (DST) before, immediately after, and 30 min after HIIT.

Results: 20 and 30 min HIIT increased BLa (both p < 0.01), cortisol (20 min HIIT: p < 0.05; 30 min HIIT: p < 0.01), and testosterone (both p < 0.05) levels immediately when compared with their baselines. While BLa and cortisol were significantly higher in 30 min HIIT group than in 20 min HIIT group. Moreover, BDNF concentration (p < 0.01), DST-F (p < 0.01) and DST-B (p < 0.05) were increased and response time of Stroop was decreased immediately after HIIT only in 20 min HIIT group. VEGF-A concentration was increased immediately after HIIT in both groups (p < 0.01), but after 30 min recovery, it was returned to the baseline in the 20 min HIIT group and was lower than the baseline in 30 min HIIT group (p < 0.05).

Conclusion: Twenty minutes HIIT is more effective than 30 minutes HIIT for promoting serum levels of BDNF and VEGF-A as well as cognitive function in healthy young men.

Can exercise shape your brain? A review of aerobic exercise effects on cognitive function and neuro-physiological underpinning mechanisms

It is widely accepted that physical exercise can be used as a tool for the prevention and treatment of various diseases or disorders. In addition, in the recent years, exercise has also been successfully used to enhance people's cognition. There is a large amount of research that has supported the benefits of physical exercise on human cognition, both in children and adults. Among these studies, some have focused on the acute or transitory effects of exercise on cognition, while others have focused on the effects of regular physical exercise. However, the relation between exercise and cognition is complex and we still have limited knowledge about the moderators and mechanisms underlying this relation. Most of human studies have focused on the behavioral aspects of exercise-effects on cognition, while animal studies have deepened in its possible neuro-physiological mechanisms. Even so, thanks to advances in neuroimaging techniques, there is a growing body of evidence that provides valuable information regarding these mechanisms in the human population. This review aims to analyze the effects of regular and acute aerobic exercise on cognition. The exercise-cognition relationship will be reviewed both from the behavioral perspective and from the neurophysiological mechanisms. The effects of exercise on animals, adult humans, and infant humans will be analyzed separately. Finally, physical exercise intervention programs aiming to increase cognitive performance in scholar and workplace environments will be reviewed.

Cognitive Improvement After Aerobic and Resistance Exercise Is Not Associated With Peripheral Biomarkers

The role of peripheral biomarkers following acute physical exercise on cognitive improvement has not been systematically evaluated. This study aimed to explore the role of peripheral circulating biomarkers in executive performance following acute aerobic and resistance exercise. Nineteen healthy males completed a central executive (Go/No-Go) task before and after 30-min of perceived intensity matched aerobic and resistance exercise. In the aerobic condition, the participants cycled an ergometer at 40% peak oxygen uptake. In the resistance condition, they performed resistance exercise using elastic bands. Before and after an acute bout of physical exercise, venous samples were collected for the assessment of following biomarkers: adrenaline, noradrenaline, glucose, lactate, cortisol, insulin-like growth hormone factor 1, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Reaction time decreased following both aerobic exercise and resistance exercise (p = 0.04). Repeated measures correlation analysis indicated that changes in reaction time were not associated with the peripheral biomarkers (all p &gt; 0.05). Accuracy tended to decrease in the resistance exercise condition (p = 0.054). Accuracy was associated with changes in adrenaline [rrm(18) = −0.51, p = 0.023], noradrenaline [rrm(18) = −0.66, p = 0.002], lactate [rrm(18) = −0.47, p = 0.035], and brain-derived neurotrophic factor [rrm(17) = −0.47, p = 0.044] in the resistance condition. These findings suggest that these peripheral biomarkers do not directly contribute to reduction in reaction time following aerobic or resistance exercise. However, greater sympathoexcitation, reflected by greater increase in noradrenaline, may be associated with a tendency for a reduction in accuracy after acute resistance exercise.

Effects of high-intensity interval training on blood lactate levels and cognition in healthy adults: protocol for systematic review and network meta-analyses

BACKGROUND

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) has shown to confer cognitive benefits in healthy adults, via a mechanism purportedly driven by the exercise metabolite lactate. However, our understanding of the exercise parameters (e.g., work interval duration, session volume, work-to-rest ratio) that evoke a peak blood lactate response in healthy adults is limited. Moreover, evidence relating HIIT-induced blood lactate and cognitive performance has yet to be reviewed and analyzed. The primary objective of this systematic review is to use network meta-analyses to compare the relative impact of different HIIT work-interval durations, session volumes, and work-to-rest ratios on post-exercise blood lactate response in healthy adults. The secondary objective is to determine the relationship between HIIT-induced blood lactate and acute post-HIIT cognitive performance.

METHODS

A systematic review is being conducted to identify studies measuring blood lactate response following one session of HIIT in healthy adults. The search was carried out in (1) MEDLINE, (2) EMBASE, (3) Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, (4) Sport Discus, and (5) Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature Plus with Full Text (CINAHL+). After abstract and full-text screening, two reviewers will independently extract data on key outcomes variables and complete risk of bias assessment using the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool and the Risk of Bias in Non-Randomized Studies of Interventions tool. Network meta-analyses will be used to generate estimates of the comparative effectiveness of blood lactate on cognitive outcomes using corresponding rankings for each work-interval duration, session volume, and work-to-rest ratio category. Where applicable, meta-regressions analyses will be performed to test the relationship between changes in the blood lactate and changes in cognitive performance. Analyses will be conducted using MetaInsight Software.

DISCUSSION

This study will provide evidence on how to structure a HIIT protocol to elicit peak blood lactate response in healthy adults and will increase our understanding of the relationship between HIIT-induced blood lactate response and associated cognitive benefits.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO CRD42020204400.

The Influence of Acute Sprint Interval Training on Cognitive Performance of Healthy Younger Adults

There is considerable evidence showing that an acute bout of physical exercises can improve cognitive performance, but the optimal exercise characteristics (e.g., exercise type and exercise intensity) remain elusive. In this regard, there is a gap in the literature to which extent sprint interval training (SIT) can enhance cognitive performance. Thus, this study aimed to investigate the effect of a time-efficient SIT, termed as "shortened-sprint reduced-exertion high-intensity interval training" (SSREHIT), on cognitive performance. Nineteen healthy adults aged 20-28 years were enrolled and assessed for attentional performance (via the d2 test), working memory performance (via Digit Span Forward/Backward), and peripheral blood lactate concentration immediately before and 10 min after an SSREHIT and a cognitive engagement control condition (i.e., reading). We observed that SSREHIT can enhance specific aspects of attentional performance, as it improved the percent error rate (F%) in the d-2 test (t (18) = -2.249, p = 0.037, d = -0.516), which constitutes a qualitative measure of precision and thoroughness. However, SSREHIT did not change other measures of attentional or working memory performance. In addition, we observed that the exercise-induced increase in the peripheral blood lactate levels correlated with changes in attentional performance, i.e., the total number of responses (GZ) (rm = 0.70, p < 0.001), objective measures of concentration (SKL) (rm = 0.73, p < 0.001), and F% (rm = -0.54, p = 0.015). The present study provides initial evidence that a single bout of SSREHIT can improve specific aspects of attentional performance and conforming evidence for a positive link between cognitive improvements and changes in peripheral blood lactate levels.

Detrimental effects on executive function and mood following consecutive days of repeated high-intensity sprint interval exercise in trained male sports players

Intensified periods of competition are common in many team sports, potentially leading to increased fatigue and reduced performance. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of repeated high-intensity sprint interval exercise on cognitive function, mood and perceptions of energy and fatigue. Twenty-four trained rugby players completed multiple bouts of repeated sprints across two consecutive days. Prior to and following each set of maximal effort sprints or equivalent control duration, a battery of cognitive tasks assessing simple and choice reaction time, visuo-spatial working memory and inhibition were completed as well as visual analogue scales that assessed mood, energy, and fatigue. Accuracy of incongruent Stroop responses was significantly lower across day 2 compared to day 1 and the control condition. Four-choice reaction time was slower across day 2 whilst feelings of alertness, contentedness, and physical and mental energy were reduced while ratings of physical and mental fatigue increased. These findings suggest that intensified periods of high-intensity sprint interval exercise have detrimental effects on executive function, mood and perceptions of physical and mental energy, and fatigue. These deleterious effects have the potential to impact performance and may increase the propensity for injury/accidents in certain sporting and non-sporting contexts.

Impact of Inter-Set Short Rest Interval Length on Inhibitory Control Improvements Following Low-Intensity Resistance Exercise in Healthy Young Males

The length of rest interval between sets (i.e., inter-set rest interval) is an important variable for resistance exercise program. However, the impact of the inter-set rest interval on improvements in cognitive function following resistance exercise remains unknown. In this study, we compared the effect of short rest interval (SRI) vs. long rest interval (LRI) protocols on post-exercise cognitive inhibitory control (IC) improvements induced by low-intensity resistance exercise. Twenty healthy, young males completed both SRI and LRI sessions in a crossover design. The bilateral knee extensor low-intensity resistance exercise was programed for six sets with 10 repetitions per set using 40% of one-repetition maximum. The inter-set rest interval lengths for SRI and LRI protocols were set for 1 and 3min, respectively. The color-word Stroop task (CWST) was administrated at six time points: baseline, pre-exercise, immediate post-exercise, and every 10min during the 30-min post-exercise recovery period. The levels of blood lactate, which may be an important determinant for improving IC, throughout the 30-min post-exercise recovery period were significantly higher following SRI protocol than following LRI protocol (p=0.002 for interaction effect). In line with this result, large-sized decreases in the reverse-Stroop interference score, which represent improved IC, were observed immediately after SRI protocol (d=0.94 and 0.82, respectively, vs. baseline and pre-exercise) as opposed to the moderate-sized decreases immediately after LRI protocol (d=0.62 and 0.66, respectively, vs. baseline and pre-exercise). Moreover, significant decreases in the reverse-Stroop interference score were observed from 10 to 30min after SRI protocol (all ps<0.05 vs. baseline and/or pre-exercise), whereas no such decrease was observed after LRI protocol. Furthermore, the degree of decreases in the reverse-Stroop interference score throughout the 30-min post-exercise recovery period was significantly greater in SRI protocol than in LRI protocol (p=0.046 for interaction effect). We suggest that the SRI protocol is more useful in improving post-exercise IC, potentially via greater circulating lactate levels, compared to the LRI protocol. Therefore, the inter-set rest interval length may be an important variable for determining the degree of cognitive function improvements following resistance exercise in healthy young males.

Effect of Exercise on Brain Health: The Potential Role of Lactate as a Myokine

It has been well established in epidemiological studies and randomized controlled trials that habitual exercise is beneficial for brain health, such as cognition and mental health. Generally, it may be reasonable to say that the physiological benefits of acute exercise can prevent brain disorders in late life if such exercise is habitually/chronically conducted. However, the mechanisms of improvement in brain function via chronic exercise remain incompletely understood because such mechanisms are assumed to be multifactorial, such as the adaptation of repeated acute exercise. This review postulates that cerebral metabolism may be an important physiological factor that determines brain function. Among metabolites, the provision of lactate to meet elevated neural activity and regulate the cerebrovascular system and redox states in response to exercise may be responsible for exercise-enhanced brain health. Here, we summarize the current knowledge regarding the influence of exercise on brain health, particularly cognitive performance, with the underlying mechanisms by means of lactate. Regarding the influence of chronic exercise on brain function, the relevance of exercise intensity and modality, particularly high-intensity interval exercise, is acknowledged to induce “metabolic myokine” (i.e., lactate) for brain health.

Acute Effects of Moderate versus High-Intensity Strength Exercise on Attention and Mood States in Female Physical Education Students

The presumed benefits of exercise/physical activity on the brain are an important public health issue. However, the experimental approach to understanding the effects of physical activity on the brain, and more particularly on cognitive functions, has only been studied recently. In particular, females remain underrepresented in the research, despite having a specific training/exercise adaptation/response. The aim of the present study was to examine the acute effects of high- and moderate-intensity strength exercise (3 sets of 8–10 repetitions and 3 sets of 6 repetitions, respectively, with each session lasting approximately 30 min) on attention and mood states in female physical education students. Forty-six female physical education students (M_age = 20.02 ± 1.05 years, M_{Body Mass Index} = 21.07) volunteered to participate in this study. They were divided into three groups: a moderate-intensity strength exercise group (MISEG: n = 15), a high-intensity strength exercise group (HISEG: n = 16), and a control group (CG: n = 15). Attention and psychological states were assessed using the d2 test, Rating of Perceived Exertion (RPE) and the Brunel Mood Scale (BRUMS) questionnaire, respectively, before and after each session. The data showed that in the MISEG attention increased, in terms of concentration (p = 0.05). RPE values, fatigue and confusion were higher for the HISEG than the CG (p < 0.05) and the MISEG (p < 0.05). Vigour was higher for the MISEG than other groups (p < 0.05). In conclusion, moderate-intensity resistance exercise is an appropriate method to improve attention in female participants. The elevated cognitive performance may be due to the changes in RPE and mood states (fatigue, vigour and confusion subscales).

Similar improvements in cognitive inhibitory control following low-intensity resistance exercise with slow movement and tonic force generation and high-intensity resistance exercise in healthy young adults: a preliminary study

This study compared the effects of low-intensity resistance exercise with slow movement and tonic force generation (ST-LRE) and high-intensity resistance exercise (HRE) on post-exercise improvements in cognitive inhibitory control (IC). Sixteen young males completed ST-LRE and HRE sessions in a crossover design. Bilateral knee extensor ST-LRE and HRE (8 repetitions/set, 6 sets) were performed with 50% of one-repetition maximum with slow contractile speed and 80% of one-repetition maximum with normal contractile speed, respectively. The IC was assessed using the color-word Stroop task at six time points: baseline, pre-exercise, immediate post-exercise, and every 10 min during the 30-min post-exercise recovery period. The blood lactate response throughout the experimental session did not differ between ST-LRE and HRE (condition × time interaction P = 0.396: e.g., mean ± standard error of the mean; 8.1 ± 0.5 vs. 8.1 ± 0.5 mM, respectively, immediately after exercise, P = 0.983, d = 0.00). Large-sized decreases in the reverse-Stroop interference scores, which represent improved IC, compared to those before exercise (i.e., baseline and pre-exercise) were observed throughout the 30 min post-exercise recovery period for both ST-LRE and HRE (decreasing rate ≥ 38.8 and 41.4%, respectively, all ds ≥ 0.95). The degree of post-exercise IC improvements was similar between the two protocols (condition × time interaction P = 0.998). These findings suggest that despite the application of a lower exercise load, ST-LRE improves post-exercise IC similarly to HRE, which may be due to the equivalent blood lactate response between the two protocols, in healthy young adults.

Rationale and methods to characterize the acute exercise response in aging and Alzheimer's Disease: the AEROBIC pilot study

There is evidence that exercise benefits the brain, but the mechanisms for this benefit are unclear. The chronic benefits of exercise are likely a product of discreet, acute responses in exercise-related blood biomarkers and brain metabolism. This acute exercise response has not been compared in aging and Alzheimer's Disease (AD). It is known that acute exercise elicits a powerful peripheral response in young individuals, and exercise-related biomarkers such as glucose and lactate readily penetrate the brain. How this changes with aging and neurodegenerative disease is less clear. It is critical to characterize and understand the acute effects of exercise, including different exercise intensities, in terms of the peripheral metabolic response and relationship with brain metabolism. This will help determine potential mechanisms for brain benefits of exercise and better inform the design of future clinical trials. The primary goal of the AEROBIC study is to characterize the acute exercise response of brain glucose metabolism and exercise-related blood biomarkers. We will measure how cerebral metabolism is affected by an acute bout of moderate and higher intensity exercise and characterize the extent to which this differs between cognitively healthy older adults and individuals with AD. Related to this primary goal, we will quantify the peripheral biomarker response to moderate and higher intensity exercise and how this relates to brain metabolic change in both groups.

High-intensity Intermittent Training Enhances Spatial Memory and Hippocampal Neurogenesis Associated with BDNF Signaling in Rats

High-intensity intermittent (or interval) training (HIIT) has started to gain popularity as a time-effective approach to providing beneficial effects to the brain and to peripheral organs. However, it still remains uncertain whether HIIT enhances hippocampal functions in terms of neurogenesis and spatial memory due to unconsidered HIIT protocol for rodents. Here, we established the HIIT regimen for rats with reference to human study. Adult male Wistar rats were assigned randomly to Control, moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT; 20 m/min, 30 min/day, 5 times/week), and HIIT (60 m/min, 10 30-s bouts of exercise, interspaced with 2.5 min of recovery, 5 times/week) groups. The ratios of exercise time and volume between MICT and HIIT were set as 6:1 and 2:1-4:1, respectively. After 4 weeks of training, all-out time in the incremental exercise test was prolonged for exercise training. In skeletal muscle, the plantaris citrate synthase activity significantly increased only in the HIIT group. Simultaneously, both HIIT and MICT led to enhanced spatial memory and adult hippocampal neurogenesis (AHN) as well as enhanced protein levels of hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) signaling. Collectively, we suggest that HIIT could be a time-efficient exercise protocol that enhances hippocampal memory and neurogenesis in rats and is associated with hippocampal BDNF signaling.

Effect of intermittent isometric handgrip exercise protocol with short exercise duration on cognitive performance

The handgrip exercise, a small muscle exercise, is useful for exercise therapy, particularly in the elderly and bedridden patients. The isometric handgrip (IHG) exercise has been utilized in training programs to reduce resting blood pressure; however, the acute effects of the IHG exercise on cognitive performance are not fully understood. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of an intermittent IHG exercise protocol with short exercise duration, which minimizes the arterial blood pressure response to exercise, on cognitive performance. Twenty-two young healthy subjects performed the intermittent IHG exercise protocol, which consisted of 30-s IHG and 45-s recovery × 16 trials; the exercise intensity of the IHG exercise was 30% of the maximal voluntary contraction. Cognitive performance was evaluated before and after the exercise with the Go/No-Go and memory recognition tasks. Specifically, the reaction time (RT) and performance accuracy were measured. The intermittent IHG exercise protocol did not change the RT or performance accuracy of either the Go/No-Go task (P = 0.222 and P = 0.260, respectively) or the memory recognition task (P = 0.427 and P = 0.245, respectively). These findings suggest that the intermittent IHG exercise protocol with short exercise duration may not provide enough stimulation to improve cognitive performance despite being useful as a safe exercise therapy in the elderly and in patients with cardiovascular disease.

Effect of very low-intensity resistance exercise with slow movement and tonic force generation on post-exercise inhibitory control

Background

The extremely low loads (e.g., <30% of one-repetition maximum) involved in performing resistance exercise are effective in preventing musculoskeletal injury and enhancing exercise adherence in various populations, especially older individuals and patients with chronic diseases. Nevertheless, long-term intervention using this type of protocol is known to have little effects on muscle size and strength adaptations. Despite this knowledge, very low-intensity resistance exercise (VLRE) with slow movement and tonic force generation (ST) significantly increases muscle size and strength. To further explore efficacy of ST-VLRE in the clinical setting, this study examined the effect of ST-VLRE on post-exercise inhibitory control (IC).

Methods

Twenty healthy, young males (age: 21 ± 0 years, body height: 173.4 ± 1.2 cm, body weight: 67.4 ± 2.2 kg) performed both ST-VLRE and normal VLRE in a crossover design. The load for both protocols was set at 30% of one-repetition maximum. Both protocols were programmed with bilateral knee extension for six sets with ten repetitions per set. The ST-VLRE and VLRE were performed with slow (3-sec concentric, 3-sec eccentric, and 1-sec isometric actions with no rest between each repetition) and normal contractile speeds (1-sec concentric and 1-sec eccentric actions and 1-sec rests between each repetition), respectively. IC was assessed using the color-word Stroop task at six time points: baseline, pre-exercise, immediate post-exercise, and every 10 min during the 30-min post-exercise recovery period.

Results

The reverse-Stroop interference score, a parameter of IC, significantly decreased immediately after both ST-VLRE and VLRE compared to that before each exercise (decreasing rate >32 and 25%, respectively, vs. baseline and/or pre-exercise for both protocols; all Ps < 0.05). The improved IC following ST-VLRE, but not following VLRE, remained significant until the 20-min post-exercise recovery period (decreasing rate >48% vs. baseline and pre-exercise; both Ps < 0.001). The degree of post-exercise IC improvements was significantly higher for ST-VLRE than for VLRE (P = 0.010 for condition × time interaction effect).

Conclusions

These findings suggest that ST-VLRE can improve post-exercise IC effectively. Therefore, ST-VLRE may be an effective resistance exercise protocol for improving cognitive function.

Elevated Lactate by High-Intensity Interval Training Regulates the Hippocampal BDNF Expression and the Mitochondrial Quality Control System

High-intensity interval training (HIIT) is reported to be beneficial to brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) biosynthesis. A key element in this may be the existence of lactate, the most obvious metabolic product of exercise. In vivo, this study investigated the effects of a 6-week HIIT on the peripheral and central lactate changes, mitochondrial quality control system, mitochondrial function and BDNF expression in mouse hippocampus. In vitro, primary cultured mice hippocampal cells were used to investigate the role and the underlying mechanisms of lactate in promoting mitochondrial function during HIIT. In vivo studies, we firstly reported that HIIT can potentiate mitochondrial function [boost some of the mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) genes expression and ATP production], stimulate BDNF expression in mouse hippocampus along with regulating the mitochondrial quality control system in terms of promoting mitochondrial fusion and biogenesis, and suppressing mitochondrial fission. In parallel to this, the peripheral and central lactate levels elevated immediately after the training. In vitro study, our results revealed that lactate was in charge of regulating mitochondrial quality control system for mitochondrial function and thus may contribute to BDNF expression. In conclusion, our study provided the mitochondrial mechanisms of HIIT enhancing brain function, and that lactate itself can mediate the HIIT effect on mitochondrial quality control system in the hippocampus.

Lactate consumption mediates repeated high-intensity interval exercise-enhanced executive function in adult males

[Purpose]

Lactate is a principal energy substrate for the brain during exercise. A single bout of high-intensity interval exercise (HIIE) can increase the blood lactate level, brain lactate uptake, and executive function (EF). However, repeated HIIE can attenuate exercise-induced increases in lactate level and EF. The lactate levels in the brain and blood are reported to be correlated with exercise-enhanced EF. However, research is yet to explain the cause-and-effect relationship between lactate and EF. This study examined whether lactate consumption improves the attenuated exerciseenhanced EF caused by repeated HIIE.

[Methods]

Eleven healthy men performed two sets of HIIE, and after each set, 30 min were given for rest and examination. In the 2^nd set, the subjects consumed experimental beverages containing (n = 6) and not containing (n = 5) lactate. Blood, cardiovascular, and psychological variables were measured, and EF was evaluated by the computerized color–word Stroop test.

[Results]

The lactate group had a higher EF (P < 0.05) and tended to have a higher blood lactate level (P = 0.082) than the control group in the 2^nd set of HIIE. Moreover, blood lactate concentration was correlated with the interference score (i.e., reverse score of EF) (r = -0.394; P < 0.05).

[Conclusion]

Our results suggest that the attenuated exercise-enhanced EF after repeated HIIE can be improved through lactate consumption. However, the role of lactate needs to be elucidated in future studies, as it can be used for improving athletes’ performance and also in cognitive decline-related clinical studies.

Use of Stroop Test for Sports Psychology Study: Cross-Over Design Research

Background: In sports psychology research, the Stroop test and its derivations are commonly used to investigate the benefits of exercise on cognitive function. The measures of the Stroop test and the computed interference often have different interclass correlation coefficients (ICC). However, the ICC is never reported in cross-over designs involving multiple variances associated with individual differences.

Objective: We investigated the ICC of the Stroop neutral and incongruent tests and interference (neutral test—incongruent test), and reverse Stroop task using the linear mixed model.

Methods: Forty-eight young adults participated in a cross-over design experiment composed of 2 factors: exercise mode (walking, resistance exercise, badminton, and seated rest as control) and time (pre- and post-tests). Before and after each intervention, participants completed the Stroop neutral and incongruent, and the reverse-Stroop neutral and incongruent tests. We analyzed for each test performance and interference and calculated ICC using the linear mixed model.

Results: The linear mixed model found a significant interaction of exercise mode and time for both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop tasks, suggesting that exercise mode influences the effect of acute exercise on inhibitory function. On the other hand, there was no significant effect of exercise mode for both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop interference. The results also revealed that calculating both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop interference resulted in smaller ICCs than the ICCs of the neutral and incongruent tests for both the Stroop and reverse-Stroop tasks.

Conclusion: The Stroop and reverse-Stroop interferences are known as valid measures of the inhibitory function for cross-sectional research design. However, to understand the benefits of acute exercise on inhibitory function comprehensively by cross-over design, comparing the incongruent test with the neutral test also seems superior because these tests have high reliability and statistical power.

Effect of repeated bouts versus a single bout of moderate-intensity exercise on postexercise inhibitory control

We previously demonstrated that duration of aerobic exercise plays an important role in improving cognitive inhibitory control (IC). Repeated bouts of aerobic exercise (R-EX), which are performed with a rest interval, is a useful strategy in improving physical health parameters in similar manners to a single bout of aerobic exercise (S-EX). However, whether R-EX would be effective in improving IC remains unknown. This study compared the effect of R-EX versus S-EX of moderate-intensity exercise on postexercise IC. Twenty healthy, young males performed both R-EX and S-EX in a crossover design. R-EX consisted of two 20-min moderate-intensity bouts (60% of peak oxygen consumption) for 20 min, which were separated by a 20-min rest interval. S-EX consisted of a once-off 40-min moderate-intensity bout without rest interval. To evaluate IC, the color-word Stroop task was administered before exercise, immediately after exercise, and every 10 min during the 30-min postexercise recovery period. The reverse-Stroop interference score, which is a parameter of IC, significantly decreased immediately after both R-EX and S-EX compared with that before each exercise (both Ps < 0.05). The degree of changes in IC following exercise did not differ between the two protocols. By contrast, the results of the present study showed that R-EX may have more beneficial effects on cardiac and perceptual responses than S-EX. Therefore, the present study determined that R-EX changes postexercise IC similar to S-EX. We suggest that R-EX can be used as safe and effective exercise protocol to improve cognitive function in various populations.

Work volume is an important variable in determining the degree of inhibitory control improvements following resistance exercise

We previously determined that improvement in cognitive inhibitory control (IC) immediately after localized resistance exercise was greater for high-intensity resistance exercise (HRE) than for low-intensity resistance exercise (LRE). However, our previous study used the same total repetitions (i.e., same repetitions per set) between HRE and LRE; therefore, the difference in postexercise IC improvement might be due to a difference in work volume (i.e., intensity × total repetitions). In this study, we compared the effect of high-volume (HV)-LRE to that of volume-matched HRE on postexercise IC improvements. Twenty-two healthy, young males performed both HV-LRE and HRE in a crossover design. Exercise loads for HV-LRE and HRE were set at 35% and 70% of one-repetition maximum, respectively. The bilateral knee extension exercises for HV-LRE and HRE were programmed for six sets with 20 and 10 repetitions, respectively, per set. IC was measured using the color-word Stroop task (CWST) at six time points; baseline, pre-exercise, immediate postexercise, and every 10 min during the 30-min postexercise recovery period. The reverse-Stroop interference score decreased significantly immediately after HV-LRE and HRE compared with that before each exercise (decreasing rate >34 and >38%, respectively, vs. baseline and pre-exercise; all ps < .05), and the decreased score remained significant until 20 min after both protocols (decreasing rate >40 and >38%, respectively, vs. baseline and pre-exercise; all ps < .05). The degree of the postexercise IC improvements did not differ significantly between the two protocols. These findings suggest that HV-LRE improves IC in a similar manner to volume-matched HRE.

The Contribution of Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging to the Understanding of the Effects of Acute Physical Exercise on Cognition

The fact that a single bout of acute physical exercise has a positive impact on cognition is well-established in the literature, but the neural correlates that underlie these cognitive improvements are not well understood. Here, the use of neuroimaging techniques, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), offers great potential, which is just starting to be recognized. This review aims at providing an overview of those studies that used fMRI to investigate the effects of acute physical exercises on cerebral hemodynamics and cognition. To this end, a systematic literature survey was conducted by two independent reviewers across five electronic databases. The search returned 668 studies, of which 14 studies met the inclusion criteria and were analyzed in this systematic review. Although the findings of the reviewed studies suggest that acute physical exercise (e.g., cycling) leads to profound changes in functional brain activation, the small number of available studies and the great variability in the study protocols limits the conclusions that can be drawn with certainty. In order to overcome these limitations, new, more well-designed trials are needed that (i) use a more rigorous study design, (ii) apply more sophisticated filter methods in fMRI data analysis, (iii) describe the applied processing steps of fMRI data analysis in more detail, and (iv) provide a more precise exercise prescription.

Global REACH 2018: The influence of acute and chronic hypoxia on cerebral haemodynamics and related functional outcomes during cold and heat stress

KEY POINTS

Thermal and hypoxic stress commonly coexist in environmental, occupational and clinical settings, yet how the brain tolerates these multi-stressor environments is unknown Core cooling by 1.0°C reduced cerebral blood flow (CBF) by 20-30% and cerebral oxygen delivery (CDO₂ ) by 12-19% at sea level and high altitude, whereas core heating by 1.5°C did not reliably reduce CBF or CDO₂ Oxygen content in arterial blood was fully restored with acclimatisation to 4330 m, but concurrent cold stress reduced CBF and CDO₂ Gross indices of cognition were not impaired by any combination of thermal and hypoxic stress despite large reductions in CDO₂ Chronic hypoxia renders the brain susceptible to large reductions in oxygen delivery with concurrent cold stress, which might make monitoring core temperature more important in this context ABSTRACT: Real-world settings are composed of multiple environmental stressors, yet the majority of research in environmental physiology investigates these stressors in isolation. The brain is central in both behavioural and physiological responses to threatening stimuli and, given its tight metabolic and haemodynamic requirements, is particularly susceptible to environmental stress. We measured cerebral blood flow (CBF, duplex ultrasound), cerebral oxygen delivery (CDO₂ ), oesophageal temperature, and arterial blood gases during exposure to three commonly experienced environmental stressors - heat, cold and hypoxia - in isolation, and in combination. Twelve healthy male subjects (27 ± 11 years) underwent core cooling by 1.0°C and core heating by 1.5°C in randomised order at sea level; acute hypoxia ( P ET , O 2  = 50 mm Hg) was imposed at baseline and at each thermal extreme. Core cooling and heating protocols were repeated after 16 ± 4 days residing at 4330 m to investigate any interactions with high altitude acclimatisation. Cold stress decreased CBF by 20-30% and CDO₂ by 12-19% (both P < 0.01) irrespective of altitude, whereas heating did not reliably change either CBF or CDO₂ (both P > 0.08). The increases in CBF with acute hypoxia during thermal stress were appropriate to maintain CDO₂ at normothermic, normoxic values. Reaction time was faster and slower by 6-9% with heating and cooling, respectively (both P < 0.01), but central (brain) processes were not impaired by any combination of environmental stressors. These findings highlight the powerful influence of core cooling in reducing CDO₂ . Despite these large reductions in CDO₂ with cold stress, gross indices of cognition remained stable.

Dose-Response Matters! - A Perspective on the Exercise Prescription in Exercise-Cognition Research

In general, it is well recognized that both acute physical exercises and regular physical training influence brain plasticity and cognitive functions positively. However, growing evidence shows that the same physical exercises induce very heterogeneous outcomes across individuals. In an attempt to better understand this interindividual heterogeneity in response to acute and regular physical exercising, most research, so far, has focused on non-modifiable factors such as sex and different genotypes, while relatively little attention has been paid to exercise prescription as a modifiable factor. With an adapted exercise prescription, dosage can be made comparable across individuals, a procedure that is necessary to better understand the dose-response relationship in exercise-cognition research. This improved understanding of dose-response relationships could help to design more efficient physical training approaches against, for instance, cognitive decline.

The interactive effects of acute exercise and hypoxia on cognitive performance: A narrative review

Acute moderate intensity exercise has been shown to improve cognitive performance. In contrast, hypoxia is believed to impair cognitive performance. The detrimental effects of hypoxia on cognitive performance are primarily dependent on the severity and duration of exposure. In this review, we describe how acute exercise under hypoxia alters cognitive performance, and propose that the combined effects of acute exercise and hypoxia on cognitive performance are mainly determined by interaction among exercise intensity and duration, the severity of hypoxia, and duration of exposure to hypoxia. We discuss the physiological mechanism(s) of the interaction and suggest that alterations in neurotransmitter function, cerebral blood flow, and possibly cerebral metabolism are the primary candidates that determine cognitive performance when acute exercise is combined with hypoxia. Furthermore, acclimatization appears to counteract impaired cognitive performance during prolonged exposure to hypoxia although the precise physiological mechanism(s) responsible for this amelioration remain to be elucidated. This review has implications for sporting, occupational, and recreational activities at terrestrial high altitude where cognitive performance is essential. Further studies are required to understand physiological mechanisms that determine cognitive performance when acute exercise is performed in hypoxia.

Comparison of the effects of running and badminton on executive function: A within-subjects design

Multiple cross-sectional studies have shown that regular complex exercises, which require cognitive demands (e.g., decision making) and various motions, are associated with greater positive effects on executive functions compared to simple exercises. However, the evidence of a single bout of complex exercises is mixed, and investigations on the acute effect of complex exercise using a well-controlled within-subjects research design are few. Therefore, we compared the acute effects of complex exercise on inhibitory functions with those of simple running. Twenty young adults performed three interventions, which were running, badminton, and seated rest as a control condition for 10 min each. During each intervention, oxygen consumption and heart rate were monitored. A Stroop test and a reverse-Stroop test were completed before and after each intervention. The intensities of the badminton and running were equivalent. Badminton significantly improved performance on the Stroop task compared to seated rest; however, running did not enhance performance on the Stroop task relative to seated rest. A single bout of complex exercise elicits a larger benefit to inhibitory function than a single bout of simple exercise. However, the benefit of complex exercise may vary depending on the type of executive functions.

Impact of Carbohydrate Ingestion on Cognitive Flexibility and Cerebral Oxygenation during High-Intensity Intermittent Exercise: A Comparison between Maple Products and Usual Carbohydrate Solutions

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to compare the effects of carbohydrate (CHO) drinks (6% per volume) sweetened with maple (syrup or sap) to a commercial sports drink, glucose, and a control solution (water) on cognitive flexibility during high-intensity intermittent exercise.

METHODS

Eighty-five active men completed six 3-min bouts at 95% of their maximal aerobic power on a stationary bike, with 3 min of passive rest between efforts. Subjects were randomly allocated to an ingestion condition. Following each exercise bout, subjects ingested 166 mL of the experimental solution, drinking a total of 1 L of the same solution throughout the experimentation. Cognitive flexibility was measured using reaction time and accuracy on the Stroop task. The cognitive task was performed a total of 10 times, including 15 and 30 min post-exercise. Glycemia and cerebral oxygenation were also measured at each time point. Statistical analyses were performed using a two-way ANOVA (Condition × Time) with repeated measures.

RESULTS

The ingestion of maple products and the commercial sports drink led to a lesser increase in glycemia than glucose ingestion. CHO ingestion, when compared to water, induced a slight reduction in reaction times on the cognitive task, especially in the switching trials. CHO ingestion had no impact on cerebral oxygenation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study shows that CHO ingestion, regardless of its type, tends to improve cognitive performance throughout exercise, especially during difficult cognitive tasks.

Inter-Individual Differences in Cognitive Response to a Single Bout of Physical Exercise-A Randomized Controlled Cross-Over Study

Recent reviews have shown that acute exercise can improve cognitive functions, especially executive functions. However, a closer look at the included studies revealed a wide inter-individual variability in the effects of exercise on cognition. Therefore, thirty-nine healthy adults (age: 19–30 years) were analyzed in a randomized, controlled cross-over study with two exercise groups (n = 13 each) and a sedentary control group (n = 13). The exercise conditions included moderate (30 min at 40–59% VO_2max) and high intensity interval (five × 2 min at 90% VO_2max with 3 min active recovery at 40% VO_2max) treadmill exercise. The main outcome assessed was cognitive performance (attention, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility) and underlying inter-individual variability in young adults. On the group level no significant group or group × time interaction effects were observed. Using a median split, we found significant differences between low and high cognitive performers regarding cognitive function following moderate and high intensity interval treadmill exercise. Furthermore, using a pre-determined threshold we could identify responders and non-responders to acute exercise. Therefore, future research should consider individual performance requirements.

Functional and/or structural brain changes in response to resistance exercises and resistance training lead to cognitive improvements - a systematic review

BACKGROUND

During the aging process, physical capabilities (e.g., muscular strength) and cognitive functions (e.g., memory) gradually decrease. Regarding cognitive functions, substantial functional (e.g., compensatory brain activity) and structural changes (e.g., shrinking of the hippocampus) in the brain cause this decline. Notably, growing evidence points towards a relationship between cognition and measures of muscular strength and muscle mass. Based on this emerging evidence, resistance exercises and/or resistance training, which contributes to the preservation and augmentation of muscular strength and muscle mass, may trigger beneficial neurobiological processes and could be crucial for healthy aging that includes preservation of the brain and cognition. Compared with the multitude of studies that have investigated the influence of endurance exercises and/or endurance training on cognitive performance and brain structure, considerably less work has focused on the effects of resistance exercises and/or resistance training. While the available evidence regarding resistance exercise-induced changes in cognitive functions is pooled, the underlying neurobiological processes, such as functional and structural brain changes, have yet to be summarized. Hence, the purpose of this systematic review is to provide an overview of resistance exercise-induced functional and/or structural brain changes that are related to cognitive functions.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A systematic literature search was conducted by two independent researchers across six electronic databases; 5957 records were returned, of which 18 were considered relevant and were analyzed.

SHORT CONCLUSION

Based on our analyses, resistance exercises and resistance training evoked substantial functional brain changes, especially in the frontal lobe, which were accompanied by improvements in executive functions. Furthermore, resistance training led to lower white matter atrophy and smaller white matter lesion volumes. However, based on the relatively small number of studies available, the findings should be interpreted cautiously. Hence, future studies are required to investigate the underlying neurobiological mechanisms and to verify whether the positive findings can be confirmed and transferred to other needy cohorts, such as older adults with dementia, sarcopenia and/or dynapenia.

Physical Exercise as Personalized Medicine for Dementia Prevention?

Accumulating evidence mainly from observational studies supports the notion that lifestyle factors such as regular physical activity can modulate potential risk factors of dementia. Regarding a potential mechanism for this interaction, results from intervention studies show that exercising can induce neuroplastic changes in the human brain. However, a detailed look at the study results reveals a wide interindividual variability in the observed effects. This heterogeneity may originate from the fact that there are “responders” and “non-responders” with respect to the impact of physical exercise on physiological outcome parameters (i.e., VO₂ peak) and the brain. From this, it follows that recommendations for physical exercise programs should not follow a “one size fits all” approach. Instead, we propose that the exercises should be tailored to an individual in order to maximize the potential neuroplastic and preventive effects of regular exercise. These adaptations should take the individual performance levels into account and impact both the quality (i.e., type) and the quantity of exercises (i.e., intensity, duration, and volume).

Cerebral blood flow regulation and cognitive function in women with posttraumatic stress disorder

Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is associated with structural and functional alterations in a number of interacting brain regions, but the physiological mechanism for the high risk of cerebrovascular disease or impairment in brain function remains unknown. Women are more likely to develop PTSD after a trauma than men. We hypothesized that cerebral blood flow (CBF) regulation is impaired in women with PTSD, and it is associated with impairment in cognitive function. To test our hypothesis, we examined dynamic cerebral autoregulation (CA) and cognitive function by using a transfer function analysis between arterial pressure and middle cerebral artery blood velocity and the Stroop Color and Word test (SCWT), respectively. We did not observe any different responses in these hemodynamic variables between women with PTSD ( n = 15) and healthy counterparts (all women; n = 8). Cognitive function was impaired in women with PTSD; specifically, reaction time for the neutral task of SCWT was longer in women with PTSD compared with healthy counterparts ( P = 0.011), but this cognitive dysfunction was not affected by orthostatic stress. On the other hand, transfer function phase, gain, and coherence were not different between groups in either the supine or head-up tilt (60°) position, or even during the cognitive challenge, indicating that dynamic CA was well maintained in women with PTSD. In addition, there was no relationship between cognitive function and dynamic CA. These findings suggest that PTSD-related cognitive dysfunction may not be due to compromised CBF regulation.

NEW & NOTEWORTHY Cognitive function was impaired; however, dynamic cerebral autoregulation (CA) as an index of cerebral blood flow regulation was not impaired during supine and 60° head-up tilt in women with PTSD compared with healthy females. In addition, there was no relationship between cognitive function and dynamic CA. These findings suggest that the mechanism of PTSD-related cognitive dysfunction may not be due to CBF regulation.

Strengthening the Brain-Is Resistance Training with Blood Flow Restriction an Effective Strategy for Cognitive Improvement?

Aging is accompanied by a decrease in physical capabilities (e.g., strength loss) and cognitive decline. The observed bidirectional relationship between physical activity and brain health suggests that physical activities could be beneficial to maintain and improve brain functioning (e.g., cognitive performance). However, the exercise type (e.g., resistance training, endurance training) and their exercise variables (e.g., load, duration, frequency) for an effective physical activity that optimally enhance cognitive performance are still unknown. There is growing evidence that resistance training induces substantial brain changes which contribute to improved cognitive functions. A relative new method in the field of resistance training is blood flow restriction training (BFR). While resistance training with BFR is widely studied in the context of muscular performance, this training strategy also induces an activation of signaling pathways associated with neuroplasticity and cognitive functions. Based on this, it seems reasonable to hypothesize that resistance training with BFR is a promising new strategy to boost the effectiveness of resistance training interventions regarding cognitive performance. To support our hypothesis, we provide rationales of possible adaptation processes induced by resistance training with BFR. Furthermore, we outline recommendations for future studies planning to investigate the effects of resistance training with BFR on cognition.

Effects of heat stress and dehydration on cognitive function in elite female field hockey players

Background

It has previously been suggested that heat exposure and hypohydration have negative effects on cognitive performance, which may impact upon sporting performance. The aim of the present study was to examine the independent effects of heat stress and hypohydration on cognitive performance in elite female field hockey players.

Methods

Eight unacclimatised elite field hockey players (age: 22 ± 3 y; height: 1.68 ± 0.05 m; body mass: 63.1 ± 6.0 kg) completed a cognitive test battery before and after 50 min of field hockey specific exercise on a treadmill in four experimental trials; two in hot conditions (33.3 ± 0.1 °C), and two in moderate (16.0 ± 3.0 °C), both with and without ad libitum water intake.

Results

On the visual search test, participants were faster overall in the heat (1941 vs. 2104 ms, p = 0.001). Response times were quicker in the heat on the Sternberg paradigm (463 vs. 473 ms, p = 0.024) and accuracy was improved (by 1.9%, p = 0.004). There was no effect of hydration status on any of the markers of cognitive function.

Conclusions

Overall, the findings suggest that in elite field hockey players exposure to heat enhances response times and/or accuracy on a battery of cognitive function tests. However, hypohydration does not appear to affect cognitive performance in elite field hockey players.

Self-selected music-induced reduction of perceived exertion during moderate-intensity exercise does not interfere with post-exercise improvements in inhibitory control

Acute aerobic exercise improves inhibitory control (IC). This improvement is often associated with increases in perceived exertion during exercise. However, listening to music during aerobic exercise mitigates an exercise-induced increase in perceived exertion. Thus, it is hypothesized that such effects of music may interfere with exercise-induced improvements in IC. To test this hypothesis, we examined the effect of music on post-exercise IC improvements that were induced by moderate-intensity exercise. Fifteen healthy young men performed cycle ergometer exercise with music or non-music. The exercise was performed using a moderate-intensity of 60% of VO_{2 peak} for 30 min. The music condition was performed while listening to self-selected music. The non-music condition involved no music. To evaluate IC, the Stroop task was administered before exercise, immediately after exercise, and during the 30-min post-exercise recovery period. The rate of perceived exertion immediately before moderate-intensity exercise completed was significantly lower in music condition than in non-music condition. The IC significantly improved immediately after exercise and during the post-exercise recovery period compared to before exercise in both music and non-music conditions. The post-exercise IC improvements did not significantly differ between the two conditions. These findings indicate that self-selected music-induced mitigation of the increase in perceived exertion during moderate-intensity exercise dose not interfere with exercise-induced improvements in IC. Therefore, we suggest that listening to music may be a beneficial strategy in mitigating the increase in perceived exertion during aerobic exercise without decreasing the positive effects on IC.

Impact of Exercise Intensity and Duration on Postexercise Executive Function

PURPOSE

The effect of exercise volume represented by exercise intensity and duration on postexercise executive function (EF) improvement remains unclear. In the present study, involving two volume-controlled evaluations, we aimed to compare acute exercise protocols with differing intensities and durations to establish an effective exercise protocol for improving EF.

METHODS

In study 1, 12 healthy male subjects performed cycle ergometer exercise, based on a low-intensity (LI) protocol for 20 min (LI20), moderate-intensity (MI) protocol for 20 min (MI20), and MI20 volume-matched LI protocol for 40 min (LI40). The exercise intensities for the LI and MI were set at 30% and 60% of peak oxygen consumption, respectively. In study 2, 15 healthy male subjects performed MI exercise for 10 min (MI10), MI20, and 40 min (MI40). To evaluate the EF, the color-word Stroop task was administrated before exercise, immediately after exercise, and during the 30-min postexercise recovery.

RESULTS

In study 1, postexercise EF improvement was sustained for a longer duration after MI20 than after LI40 and was sustained for a longer duration after LI40 than after LI20. In study 2, although there was no significant difference in post-MI exercise EF improvement, the magnitude of difference in the EF between preexercise and 30-min postexercise recovery period was moderately larger in MI40, but not in MI10 and MI20, indicating that the EF improvement during postexercise recovery could be sustained after MI40.

CONCLUSION

The present findings showed that postexercise EF improvement could be prolonged after MI exercise with a moderate duration compared with volume-matched LI exercise with a longer duration. In addition, MI exercise with a relatively long duration may slightly prolong the postexercise EF improvement.

Flavanol-rich cocoa consumption enhances exercise-induced executive function improvements in humans

OBJECTIVE

Aerobic exercise is known to acutely improve cognitive functions, such as executive function (EF) and memory function (MF). Additionally, consumption of flavanol-rich cocoa has been reported to acutely improve cognitive function. The aim of this study was to determine whether high cocoa flavanol (CF; HCF) consumption would enhance exercise-induced improvement in cognitive function. To test this hypothesis, we examined the combined effects of HCF consumption and moderate-intensity exercise on EF and MF during postexercise recovery.

METHODS

Ten healthy young men received either an HCF (563 mg of CF) or energy-matched low CF (LCF; 38 mg of CF) beverage 70 min before exercise in a single-blind counterbalanced manner. The men then performed moderate-intensity cycling exercise at 60% of peak oxygen uptake for 30 min. The participants performed a color-word Stroop task and face-name matching task to evaluate EF and MF, respectively, during six time periods throughout the experimental session.

RESULTS

EF significantly improved immediately after exercise compared with before exercise in both conditions. However, EF was higher after HCF consumption than after LCF consumption during all time periods because HCF consumption improved EF before exercise. In contrast, HCF consumption and moderate-intensity exercise did not improve MF throughout the experiment.

CONCLUSION

The present findings demonstrated that HCF consumption before moderate-intensity exercise could enhance exercise-induced improvement in EF, but not in MF. Therefore, we suggest that the combination of HCF consumption and aerobic exercise may be beneficial for improving EF.

An acute bout of localized resistance exercise can rapidly improve inhibitory control

The positive effect of acute resistance exercise on executive function, such as inhibitory control (IC), is poorly understood. Several previous studies have demonstrated this effect using whole-body resistance exercise. However, it remains unclear whether localized resistance exercise performed using only limited muscle groups could also acutely improve IC. Thus, the present study examined the effect of an acute bout of localized resistance exercise on IC. Twelve healthy men performed a color-word Stroop task (CWST) before and immediately after the experimental conditions, which consisted of 2 resistance exercises and a resting control (CON). Bilateral knee extension was used to create 2 resistance exercise conditions: light-intensity resistance exercise (LRE) and high-intensity resistance exercise (HRE) conditions, which were 40% and 80% of one-repetition maximum, respectively. The resistance exercise session was programmed for 6 sets with 10 repetitions per set. The CWST-measured IC was significantly improved immediately after both LRE and HRE, but it did not improve immediately after CON. However, the improved IC was significantly greater in HRE than in LRE. The present findings showed that IC could be rapidly improved by an acute bout of localized resistance exercise, especially with high-intensity. Therefore, we suggest that in addition to whole-body resistance exercise, localized resistance exercise performed using limited muscle groups may be sufficient for improving IC.

Executive function after exhaustive exercise

PURPOSE

Findings concerning the effects of exhaustive exercise on cognitive function are somewhat equivocal. The purpose of this study was to identify physiological factors that determine executive function after exhaustive exercise.

METHODS

Thirty-two participants completed the cognitive tasks before and after an incremental exercise until exhaustion (exercise group: N = 18) or resting period (control group N = 14). The cognitive task was a combination of a Spatial Delayed-Response (Spatial DR) task and a Go/No-Go task, which requires executive function. Cerebral oxygenation and skin blood flow were monitored during the cognitive task over the prefrontal cortex. Venous blood samples were collected before and after the exercise or resting period, and blood catecholamines, serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor, insulin-like growth hormone factor 1, and blood lactate concentrations were analyzed.

RESULTS

In the exercise group, exhaustive exercise did not alter reaction time (RT) in the Go/No-Go task (pre: 861 ± 299 ms vs. post: 775 ± 168 ms) and the number of error trials in the Go/No-Go task (pre: 0.9 ± 0.7 vs. post: 1.8 ± 1.8) and the Spatial DR task (pre: 0.3 ± 0.5 vs. post: 0.8 ± 1.2). However, ΔRT was negatively correlated with Δcerebral oxygenation (r = -0.64, P = 0.004). Other physiological parameters were not correlated with cognitive performance. Venous blood samples were not directly associated with cognitive function after exhaustive exercise.

CONCLUSION

The present results suggest that recovery of regional cerebral oxygenation affects executive function after exhaustive exercise.