Reduction in the desaturation capacity of the liver in mice subjected to high fat diet: Relation to LCPUFA depletion in liver and extrahepatic tissues

Modulation of Δ5- and Δ6-desaturases in the brain-liver axis

OBJECTIVE

Obesity is associated with liver depletion of ω-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω-3 PUFAS) promoting steatosis and inflammation, whose levels are maintained by diet or biosynthesis involving Δ-5D, Δ-6D desaturases and elongases.

METHOD

We aimed to assess Δ-5D and Δ-6D activities in liver and brain from mice fed a control diet (CD) or high-fat diet (HFD) for four to sixteen weeks.

RESULTS

HFD led to (1) an early (4 weeks) enhancement in liver Δ-5D, Δ-6D, and PPAR-α activities, without changes in oxidative stress, liver damage or fat accumulation; (2) a latter progressive loss in hepatic desaturation with insufficient compensatory increases in mRNA and protein expression, leading to ω-3 PUFA depletion, PPAR-α down-regulation reducing FA oxidation, and liver steatosis with enhancement in lipogenesis; and (3) brain ω-3 PUFA depletion after 12 to 16 weeks of HFD feeding.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, the brain-liver axis is drastically affected by obesity in a time dependent fashion.

Time-restricted feeding relieves high temperature-induced impairment on meat quality by activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway, modification of muscle fiber composition, and enriching the polyunsaturated fatty acids in pigs

To assess the effects of a time-restricted feeding (TRF) regimen on meat quality of pigs exposed to high ambient temperature, a two-month feeding and heat treatment (HT) trial was conducted using a 2 × 2 factorial design. A total of 24 growing pigs (11.0 ± 1.9 kg) were randomly divided into four groups: thermal neutral group (NT, 24 ± 3 °C), HT group (exposed to a high temperature at 35 ± 2 °C from 11:00 to 15:00), TRF group and HT + TRF group (HT and TRF co-treatment group, n = 6 for each group). Pigs in TRF groups got access to feed within 5 h from 9:00 to14:00, while the others were fed at 6:00, 11:30, and 16:00. All pigs received the same diet during the trail. The results showed that HT increased the drip loss, shear force, lightness, and malondialdehyde production in Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) muscle. TRF reversely reduced the shear force and drip loss, accompanied by decreased intramuscular fat and increased moisture content. Enhanced fiber transformation from type 1 to type 2b and down-regulated expression of muscle growth-related genes were observed by HT, while TRF suppressed the fiber transformation and expression of muscle atrophy-related genes. Furthermore, TRF restored the diminished protein expressions of Nrf2 and HO-1 in LTL muscle by chronic HT. Accumulation of HSP70 in muscle of HT group was reduced by treatment of TRF. HT declined the expression of vital genes involved in fatty acids poly-desaturation and the proportion of (polyunsaturated fatty acids) PUFAs, mainly omega-6 in LTL muscle, while TRF group promoted the expression of poly-desaturation pathway and displayed the highest proportion of PUFAs. These results demonstrated that TRF relieved the chronic high temperature affected meat quality by the restored expression of Nrf2/HO-1 anti-oxidative cascade, modified muscle fiber composition, and enriched PUFAs in LTL muscle.

A high-fat diet induces changes in mesenteric adipose tissue accelerating early-stage pancreatic carcinogenesis in mice

Increased adiposity is a significant risk factor for pancreatic cancer development. Multiple preclinical studies have documented that high-fat, high calorie diets, rich in omega-6 fatty acids (FA) accelerate pancreatic cancer development. However, the effect of a high-fat, low sucrose diet (HFD), on pancreatic carcinogenesis remains unclear. We evaluated the impact of a HFD on early-stage pancreatic carcinogenesis in the clinically relevant KrasLSL-G12D/+; Ptf1aCre/+ (KC) genetically engineered mouse model, and characterized the role of the mesenteric adipose tissue (MAT). Cohorts of male and female KC mice were randomly assigned to a control diet (CD) or a HFD, matched for FA composition (9:1 of omega-6 FA: omega-3 FA), and fed their diets for 8 weeks. After 8 weeks on a HFD, KC mice had significantly higher body weight, fat mass, and serum leptin compared to CD-fed KC mice. Furthermore, a HFD accelerated pancreatic acinar-to-ductal metaplasia (ADM) and proliferation, associated with increased activation of ERK and STAT3, and macrophage infiltration in the pancreas, compared to CD-fed KC mice. Metabolomics analysis of the MAT revealed sex differences between diet groups. In females, a HFD altered metabolites related to FA (α-linolenic acid and linoleic acid) and amino acid metabolism (alanine, aspartate, glutamate). In males, a HFD significantly affected pathways related to alanine, aspartate, glutamate, linoleic acid, and the citric acid cycle. A HFD accelerates early pancreatic ADM through multifaceted mechanisms, including effects at the tumor and surrounding MAT. The sex-dependent changes in MAT metabolites could explain some of the sex differences in HFD-induced pancreatic ADM.

Anti-steatotic effects of PPAR-alpha and gamma involve gut-liver axis modulation in high-fat diet-fed mice

AIM

To evaluate the effects of PPARα and PPARγ activation (alone or in combination) on the gut-liver axis, emphasizing the integrity of the intestinal barrier and hepatic steatosis in mice fed a high saturated fat diet.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J were fed a control diet (C) or a high-fat diet (HF) for ten weeks. Then, a four-week treatment started: HF-α (WY14643), HF-γ (low-dose pioglitazone), and HF-αγ (combination).

RESULTS

The HF caused overweight, insulin resistance, impaired gut-liver axis, and marked hepatic steatosis. Treatments reduced body mass, improved glucose homeostasis, and restored the gut microbiota diversity and intestinal barrier gene expression. Treatments also lowered the plasma lipopolysaccharide concentrations and favored beta-oxidation genes, reducing macrophage infiltration and steatosis in the liver.

CONCLUSION

Treatment with PPAR agonists modulated the gut microbiota and rescued the integrity of the intestinal barrier, alleviating hepatic steatosis. These results show that these agonists can contribute to metabolic-associated fatty liver disease treatment.

High linoleic acid levels in red blood cells predict a poor response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in human epidermal growth factor receptor type 2-positive breast cancer patients

OBJECTIVE

Polyunsaturated fatty acids are categorized as ω-3 or ⍵-6. Previous studies demonstrate that breast cancers display a high expression of fatty acid synthase and high fatty acid levels. Our study sought to determine if changes in plasma or red blood cell membrane fatty acid levels were associated with the response to preoperative (neoadjuvant) chemotherapy in non-metastatic breast cancer patients.

METHODS

Our prospective study assessed fatty acid levels in plasma and red blood cell membrane. Response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy was evaluated by the presence or absence of pathologic complete response and/or residual cancer burden.

RESULTS

A total of 28 patients were included. First, patients who achieved pathologic complete response had significantly higher neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio versus no pathologic complete response (P = 0.003). Second, total red blood cell membrane polyunsaturated fatty acids were higher in the absence of pathologic complete response (P = 0.0028). Third, total red blood cell membrane ⍵-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids were also higher in no pathologic complete response (P < 0.01). Among ⍵-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids, red blood cell membrane linoleic acid was higher in the absence of pathologic complete response (P < 0.01). Notably, plasma polyunsaturated fatty acid, ⍵-6, and linoleic acid levels did not have significant differences. A multivariate analysis confirmed red blood cell membrane linoleic acid was associated with no pathologic complete response; this was further confirmed by receiver operating characteristic analysis (specificity = 92.3%, sensitivity = 76.9%, and area under the curve = 0.855).

CONCLUSIONS

Pending further validation, red blood cell membrane linoleic acid might serve as a predictor biomarker of poorer response to neoadjuvant chemotherapy in non-metastatic human epidermal growth factor receptor type 2-positive breast cancer. Measuring fatty acids in red blood cell membrane could offer a convenient, minimally invasive strategy to identifying patients more likely to respond or those with chemoresistance.

Effect of a pescetarian and vegan diet on fatty acid composition in blood and spermatozoa in young healthy men

INTRODUCTION

There is a growing interest in vegetarian and vegan diets, but both can potentially affect tissue fatty acids (FA) composition. We aimed to evaluate the effect of vegetarian diets on plasma, erythrocytes, and sperm n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) status in healthy young men.

METHODS

Four groups were studied: i) men consuming a regular omnivore diet (OMV-1, n = 35); ii) men consuming an omnivore diet but excluding fish and seafood (OMV-2, n = 34); iii) men consuming a pescetarian diet (including dairy, eggs, fish, and seafood) (PESC, n = 36); and iv) men following a strict vegan diet (VEG, n = 35). Participants in each group should follow their diet for at least the previous 12 months. Diet evaluation used a structured validated food frequency questionnaire. FA composition was measured in plasma, erythrocyte phospho-lipids, and spermatozoa by gas-liquid chromatography, expressed as a mole percentage of the total FA content.

RESULTS

Main findings showed higher alpha-linolenic fatty acid (ALA) and total n-3 PUFA dietary intake in the VEG group. In plasma, arachidonic and eicosapentaenoic acids were higher in OMV and PESC groups, whereas docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) level was lower in VEG. Higher ALA, but reduced DHA and total n-3 PUFA levels were found in erythrocytes and spermatozoa in the VEG group.

CONCLUSION

Higher dietary ALA intake was found in pescetarians and vegan men. However, the higher ALA intake was not reflected in higher DHA content in the evaluated tissues. PUFA assessment, with particular emphasis in DHA, are necessary to improve PUFA status in vegan men.

Associations of fatty acids composition and estimated desaturase activities in erythrocyte phospholipids with biochemical and clinical indicators of cardiometabolic risk in non-diabetic Serbian women: the role of level of adiposity

Introduction

Fatty acids (FAs) composition and desaturase activities can be altered in different metabolic conditions, but the adiposity-independent associations with clinical and biochemical indicators of cardiometabolic risk are still unclear. This study aimed to analyze the associations of FAs composition and estimated desaturase activities with anthropometric, clinical, and biochemical cardiometabolic risk indicators in non-diabetic Serbian women, and to investigate if these associations were independent of the level of adiposity and other confounders.

Methods

In 76 non-diabetic, otherwise healthy Serbian women, aged 24-68 years, with or without metabolic syndrome or obesity (BMI=23.6±5.6 kg/m2), FA composition in erythrocyte phospholipids was measured by gas-liquid chromatography. Desaturase activities were estimated from product/precursor FAs ratios (D9D:16:1n-7/16:0; D6D:20:3n-6/18:2n-6; D5D:20:4n-6/20:3n-6). Correlations were made with anthropometric, biochemical (serum glucose, triacylglycerols, LDL-C, HDL-C, ALT, AST, and their ratios) and clinical (blood pressure) indicators of cardiometabolic risk. Linear regression models were performed to test the independence of these associations.

Results

Estimated desaturase activities and certain FAs were associated with anthropometric, clinical and biochemical indicators of cardiometabolic risk: D9D, D6D, 16:1n-7 and 20:3n-6 were directly associated, while D5D and 18:0 were inversely associated. However, the associations with clinical and biochemical indicators were not independent of the associations with the level of adiposity, since they were lost after controlling for anthropometric indices. After controlling for multiple confounders (age, postmenopausal status, education, smoking, physical activity, dietary macronutrient intakes, use of supplements, alcohol consumption), the level of adiposity was the most significant predictor of desaturase activities and aforementioned FAs levels, and mediated their association with biochemical/clinical indicators. Vice versa, desaturase activities predicted the level of adiposity, but not other components of cardiometabolic risk (if the level of adiposity was accounted). While the associations of anthropometric indices with 16:1n-7, 20:3n-6, 18:0 and D9D and D6D activities were linear, the associations with D5D activity were the inverse U-shaped. The only adiposity-independent association of FAs profiles with the indicators of cardiometabolic risk was a positive association of 20:5n-3 with ALT/AST ratio, which requires further exploration.

Discussion

Additional studies are needed to explore the mechanisms of the observed associations.

Docosahexaenoic acid-acylated astaxanthin monoester ameliorates chronic high-fat diet-induced autophagy dysfunction via ULK1 pathway in the hypothalamus of mice

BACKGROUND

Dietary astaxanthin (AST) exhibits the ability to resist lipid accumulation and stimulate hepatic autophagy. Natural AST predominantly exists in stable esterified forms. More importantly, in our previous study, docosahexaenoic acid-acylated AST monoester (AST-DHA) possessed better stability, bioavailability, and neuroprotective ability than AST in free and diester form. However, the AST-DHA mechanisms of action in regulating the obese phenotype and autophagy of the central nervous system remain unclear.

RESULTS

High-fat diet (HFD)-fed C57BL/6J mice were orally administered AST-DHA (50 mg/kg body weight/d) for 3 days or 8 weeks. AST-DHA supplementation alleviated HFD-induced abnormal body weight gain, significantly enhanced autophagy with an increased microtubule-associated protein light chain 3 II/I (LC3II/I) ratio, and reduced the accumulation of p62/sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1) in the hypothalamus rather than in the hippocampus. Mechanistically, AST-DHA effectively promoted autophagy and autophagosome formation, and most notably rescued the HFD-impaired autophagosome-lysosome fusion (indicated by the colocalization of LC3 and LAMP1) by regulating mTOR- and AMPK-induced phosphorylation of ULK1. Consequently, AST-DHA enhanced hypothalamic autophagy, leading to pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) cleavage to produce alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (α-MSH).

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified AST-DHA as an enhancer of autophagy that plays a beneficial role in restoring hypothalamic autophagy, and as a new potential therapeutic agent against HFD-induced obesity. © 2023 Society of Chemical Industry.

Sex-Specific Patterns of Diaphragm Phospholipid Content and Remodeling during Aging and in a Model of SELENON-Related Myopathy

Growing evidence shows that the lipid bilayer is a key site for membrane interactions and signal transduction. Surprisingly, phospholipids have not been widely studied in skeletal muscles, although mutations in genes involved in their biosynthesis have been associated with muscular diseases. Using mass spectrometry, we performed a phospholipidomic profiling in the diaphragm of male and female, young and aged, wild type and SelenoN knock-out mice, the murine model of an early-onset inherited myopathy with severe diaphragmatic dysfunction. We identified 191 phospholipid (PL) species and revealed an important sexual dimorphism in PLs in the diaphragm, with almost 60% of them being significantly different between male and female animals. In addition, 40% of phospholipids presented significant age-related differences. Interestingly, SELENON protein absence was responsible for remodeling of 10% PL content, completely different in males and in females. Expression of genes encoding enzymes involved in PL remodeling was higher in males compared to females. These results establish the diaphragm PL map and highlight an important PL remodeling pattern depending on sex, aging and partly on genotype. These differences in PL profile may contribute to the identification of biomarkers associated with muscular diseases and muscle aging.

Existing knowledge on Zn status biomarkers (1963-2021) with a particular focus on FADS1 and FADS2 diagnostic performance and recommendations for further research

The role of Zn in human health was discovered 60 years ago, and despite remarkable research efforts, a sufficiently sensitive and specific biomarker of Zn status is still lacking. Plasma/serum Zn, currently the best available and most accepted population Zn status indicator, responds well to severe Zn deficiency, yet, mild to moderate Zn deficiency states usually remain unrecognized. Identifying early-stage Zn deficiency requires additional robust markers of Zn status. This paper discusses the sensitivity, specificity, and responsiveness of plasma Zn concentrations to Zn interventions. It describes the biochemical and dietary basis for the causal association between Zn and fatty acid desaturases activity, FADS1 and FADS2, based on data collected through studies performed in animals and/or humans. The influence of potential confounders and covariates on the observed relationships is considered. Additional potential Zn biomarkers are discussed and suggestions for further research in this area are provided.

FADS1 and FADS2 as biomarkers of Zn status - a systematic review and meta-analysis

Despite enormous research efforts, a sufficiently sensitive and reliable biomarker for the assessment of zinc (Zn) status has not been identified to date. Zn affects fatty acid metabolism and alters the activity of certain desaturases; thus, desaturase activity has been proposed as a potential new biomarker of Zn status. This systematic review complied and assessed studies that examined changes in fatty acid desaturase 1 (FADS1) and fatty acid desaturase 2 (FADS2) activities in relation to modifications in dietary Zn intake. A systematic search was performed in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Web of Knowledge, and Central with strictly defined search, inclusion, and exclusion criteria. Twenty-one studies were included, 8 animal and 13 human trials (5 randomized controlled trials, two non-randomized controlled trials, and 6 cross-sectional studies). This systematic review was performed using PRISMA guidelines and where feasible a random-effects meta-analysis was conducted. No significant correlation was seen between the delta 6 desaturase and Zn status (-0.0958, 95% CIs (-0.2912; 0.1074), p = 0.2928). Delta 6 desaturase seems to respond in a greater magnitude than Zn status to Zn-containing interventions (the standardized mean difference for delta 6 desaturase was -0.6052, 95% CIs (-2.7162; 1.5058), p = 0.4289, while for plasma/serum Zn it was 0.0319, 95% CIs (-0.9133; 0.9770), p = 0.9213). Finally, two separate meta-analyses on same studies that assessed the correlations between LA:DGLA and Zn intake and Zn status and Zn intake revealed that the magnitude of correlations was only slightly different (the pooled correlation coefficient between the LA:DGLA ratio and Zn intake had a value of -0.1050, 95% CIs (-0.5356; 0.3690), p = 0.454, while between plasma Zn and Zn intake had a value of -0.0647, 95% CIs (-0.4224; 0.3106), p = 0.5453). According to the descriptive analysis, the magnitude of variation in desaturase activities in response to Zn intake was not consistent among studies, FADS1 and FADS2 activity corresponded to dietary Zn manipulations, both in animals and humans. A plausible explanation for this observation might be the difference between the studies in study populations, types of dietary interventions, study durations, etc. In addition, several potential confounders and covariates are identified from the qualitative synthesis, such as gender, age, the type of fat provided within the dietary intervention, the size of Zn particles, among others. Further high-quality studies are needed to additionally clarify the suggested associations and applicability of utilizing fatty acid desaturase activities as Zn status biomarkers.

Influence of the nutritional status and oxidative stress in the desaturation and elongation of n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids: Impact on non-alcoholic fatty liver disease

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) play essential roles in cell membrane structure and physiological processes including signal transduction, cellular metabolism and tissue homeostasis to combat diseases. PUFA are either consumed from food or synthesized by enzymatic desaturation, elongation and peroxisomal β-oxidation. The nutritionally essential precursors α-linolenic acid (C18:3n-3; ALA) and linoleic acid (C18:2n-6; LA) are subjected to desaturation by Δ6D/Δ5D desaturases and elongation by elongases 2/5, enzymes that are induced by insulin and repressed by PUFA. Maintaining an optimally low n-6/n-3 PUFA ratio is linked to prevention of the development of several diseases, including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) that is characterized by depletion of PUFA promoting hepatic steatosis and inflammation. In this context, supplementation with n-3 PUFA revealed significant lowering of hepatic steatosis in obese patients, whereas prevention of fatty liver by high-fat diet in mice is observed in n-3 PUFA and hydroxytyrosol co-administration. The aim of this work is to review the role of nutritional status and nutrient availability on markers of PUFA biosynthesis. In addition, the impact of oxidative stress developed as a result of NAFLD, a redox imbalance that may alter the expression and activity of the enzymes involved, and diminished n-3 PUFA levels by free-radical dependent peroxidation processes will be discussed.

Perspectives in liver redox imbalance: Toxicological and pharmacological aspects underlying iron overloading, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and thyroid hormone action

Oxidative stress is an imbalance between oxidants and antioxidants in favor of the oxidants, leading to a disruption of redox signaling and control, and/or molecular damage altering cellular functions. This redox imbalance may trigger different responses depending on the antioxidant potential of a given cell, the level of reactive oxygen/nitrogen species (ROS/RNS) attained and the time of exposure, with protective effects being induced at low ROS/RNS levels in acute or short-term conditions, and harmful effects after high ROS/RNS exposure in prolonged situations. Relevant conditions underlying liver redox imbalance include iron overload associated with ROS production via Fenton chemistry and the magnitude of the iron labile pool achieved, with low iron exposure inducing protective effects related to nuclear factor-κB, signal transducer and activation of transcription 3, and nuclear factor erythroid-related factor 2 (Nrf2) activation and upregulation of ferritin, hepcidin, acute-phase response and antioxidant components, whereas high iron exposure causes drastic oxidation of biomolecules, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cell death due to necrosis, apoptosis and/or ferroptosis. Redox imbalance in nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is related to polyunsaturated fatty acid depletion, lipogenic factor sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c upregulation, fatty acid oxidation-dependent peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α downregulation, low antioxidant factor Nrf2 and insulin resistance, a phenomenon that is exacerbated in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis triggering an inflammatory response. Thyroid hormone (T₃ ) administration determines liver preconditioning against ischemia-reperfusion injury due to the redox activation of several transcription factors, AMP-activated protein kinase, unfolded protein response and autophagy. High grade liver redox imbalance occurring in severe iron overload is adequately handled by iron chelation, however, that underlying NAFLD/NASH is currently under study in several Phase II and Phase III trials.

Resolvin E1-ChemR23 Axis Regulates the Hepatic Metabolic and Inflammatory Transcriptional Landscape in Obesity at the Whole Genome and Exon Level

Resolvin E1 (RvE1) is an immunoresolvent that is synthesized from eicosapentaenoic acid and can bind the receptor ERV1/ChemR23. We previously showed activation of the RvE1-ChemR23 axis improves hyperglycemia and hyperinsulinemia of obese mice; however, it remains unclear how RvE1 controls glucose homeostasis. Here we investigated hepatic metabolic and inflammatory transcriptional targets of the RvE1-ChemR23 axis using lean and obese wild type (WT) and ChemR23 knockout (KO) mice. We conducted an in-depth transcriptional study by preforming whole gene-level and exon-level analyses, which provide insight into alternative splicing variants and miRNA regulation. Compared to controls, WT and KO obese mice in the absence of RvE1 displayed similar gene-level profiles, which entailed dysregulated pathways related to glucose homeostasis. Notably, obese WT mice relative to lean controls showed a robust decrease in pathways related to the biosynthesis of unsaturated fatty acids. At the exon-level, obese ChemR23 KOs compared to obese WT mice displayed changes in pathways related to hepatic lipid transport, cholesterol metabolism, and immunological functions such as complement cascades and platelet activation. Importantly, upon RvE1 administration to WT obese mice, we discovered upregulated genes in pathways relating to insulin sensitivity and downregulated genes related to regulators of TGF-β signaling. This transcriptional profile was generally not recapitulated with obese ChemR23 KO mice administered RvE1. Collectively, gene and exon-level analyses suggest RvE1 controls the hepatic transcriptional profile related to glucose homeostasis, insulin sensitivity, and inflammation in a manner that is largely dependent on ChemR23. These studies will drive future mechanistic experiments on the RvE1-ChemR23 axis.

High-dose ferric citrate supplementation attenuates omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthesis via downregulating delta 5 and 6 desaturases in rats with high-fat diet-induced obesity

Obesity is associated with an increased risk of an iron deficiency; however, a synergistic relationship between iron and lipid homeostasis was also observed. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of pharmacological doses of iron supplementation on omega 3 (n-3) and omega 6 (n-6) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats were fed a normal diet or a 50% high-fat diet (HFD) without or with pharmacological doses of ferric citrate (0.25, 1, or 2 g ferric iron per kg diet) for 12 weeks, and erythrocyte profiles of n-3 and n-6 PUFAs were quantitated. Ferric citrate supplementation showed dose-related effects on liver inflammation, liver iron accumulation, and increasing circulating levels of iron, erythrocyte degradation biomarkers LVV-hemorphin-7, malondialdehyde (MDA), and insulin. Obese rats supplemented with 2 g ferric iron per kg diet also had decreased levels of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), and total n-3 PUFAs compared to rats fed a normal diet or HFD alone. A western blotting analysis revealed that iron-mediated downregulation of n-3 PUFA-converting enzymes (Δ5 and Δ6 desaturases) only occurred at high dosages (≥1 g ferric iron per kg diet). A Spearman correlation analysis showed that total liver iron and serum LVV-hemorphin-7 and MDA were negatively correlated with n-3 PUFAs and their converting enzymes (Δ5 and Δ6 desaturases) (all p < 0.05). In conclusion, obese rats that received high-dose ferric citrate supplementation (>1 g of ferric iron per kg diet) exhibited decreased n-3 PUFA levels via downregulation of expressions of Δ5 and Δ6 desaturase enzymes.

The metabolic dysfunction of white adipose tissue induced in mice by a high-fat diet is abrogated by co-administration of docosahexaenoic acid and hydroxytyrosol

BACKGROUND

Nutritional interventions are promising tools for the prevention of obesity. The n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 LCPUFA) docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) modulates immune and metabolic responses while the antioxidant hydroxytyrosol (HT) prevents oxidative stress (OS) in white adipose tissue (WAT).

OBJECTIVE

The DHA plus HT combined protocol prevents WAT alterations induced by a high-fat diet in mice. Main related mechanisms.

METHODS

Male C57BL/6J mice were fed a control diet (CD; 10% fat, 20% protein, and 70% carbohydrates) or a high fat diet (HFD) (60% fat, 20% protein, and 20% carbohydrates) for 12 weeks, without and with supplementation of DHA (50 mg kg-1 day-1), HT (5 mg kg-1 day-1) or both. Measurements of WAT metabolism include morphological parameters, DHA content in phospholipids (gas chromatography), lipogenesis, OS and inflammation markers, mitochondrial activity and gene expression of transcription factors SREBP-1c, PPAR-γ, NF-κB (p65) and Nrf2 (quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay).

RESULTS

The combined DHA and HT intervention attenuated obesity development, suppressing the HFD-induced inflammatory and lipogenic signals, increasing antioxidant defenses, and maintaining the phospholipid LCPUFA n-3 content and mitochondrial function in WAT. At the systemic level, the combined intervention also improved the regulation of glucose and adipokine homeostasis.

CONCLUSION

The combined DHA and HT protocol appears to be an important nutritional strategy for the treatment of metabolic diseases, with abrogation of obesity-driven metabolic inflammation and recovery of a small-healthy adipocyte phenotype.

Target Therapies for NASH/NAFLD: From the Molecular Aspect to the Pharmacological and Surgical Alternatives

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease represents an increasing cause of chronic hepatic disease in recent years. This condition usually arises in patients with multiple comorbidities, the so-called metabolic syndrome. The therapeutic options are multiple, ranging from lifestyle modifications, pharmacological options, to liver transplantation in selected cases. The choice of the most beneficial one and their interactions can be challenging. It is mandatory to stratify the patients according to the severity of their disease to tailor the available treatments. In our contribution, we review the most recent pharmacological target therapies, the role of bariatric surgery, and the impact of liver transplantation on the NAFLD outcome.

Diet Regulation of Long-Chain PUFA Synthesis: Role of Macronutrients, Micronutrients, and Polyphenols on Δ-5/Δ-6 Desaturases and Elongases 2/5

Deficiencies in the n-3 (ω-3) long-chain PUFAs (LC-PUFAs) EPA and DHA are associated with increased risk for the development of numerous diseases. Although n-3 LC-PUFAs can be obtained by consuming marine products, they are also synthesized endogenously through a biochemical pathway regulated by the Δ-5/Δ-6 desaturase and elongase 2/5 enzymes. This narrative review collates evidence from the past 40 y demonstrating that mRNA expression and activity of desaturase and elongase enzymes are influenced by numerous dietary components, including macronutrients, micronutrients, and polyphenols. Specifically, we highlight that both the quantity and the composition of dietary fats, carbohydrates, and proteins can differentially regulate desaturase pathway activity. Furthermore, desaturase and elongase mRNA levels and enzyme activities are also influenced by micronutrients (folate, vitamin B-12, vitamin A), trace minerals (iron, zinc), and polyphenols (resveratrol, isoflavones). Understanding how these various dietary components influence LC-PUFA synthesis will help further advance our understanding of how dietary patterns, ranging from caloric excesses to micronutrient deficiencies, influence disease risks.

The new coumarin compound Bis 3 ameliorates cognitive disorder and suppresses brain-intestine-liver systematic oxidative stress in high-fat diet mice

High-fat diet (HFD)-induced systemic oxidative damage is critical to the pathological process of obesity and is associated with energy metabolism and cognitive disorders. In our previous research, the coumarin derivative Bis 3 was shown to improve neurological disorders as a potent free radical scavenger. In this study, a 12-week high-fat diet model was established, and mice were randomly divided into 3 groups: standard diet, high-fat diet, and high-fat diet with Bis 3 treatment. Our results demonstrated that Bis 3 attenuated body weight gain and inhibited the development of insulin resistance in high-fat diet-fed mice. Bis 3 protected against high fat-induced intestinal barrier integrity damage and lipid content disorder. HFD-induced hepatocyte lipid metabolism disorder and hepatocyte damage were also alleviated by Bis 3. Moreover, the results of cognitive tests indicated that Bis 3 attenuated high fat-induced cerebral dysfunction, such as cognitive disorders. Importantly, Bis 3 simultaneously ameliorated oxidative stress in the digestive and central nervous systems. These findings suggest that Bis 3 protects against systematic oxidative stress in HFD-induced obese mice, balancing insulin resistance, lipid metabolic disorders, and cognitive disorders through its antioxidative effects, indicating that Bis 3, a novel free radical scavenger, might represent a new therapeutic strategy for high fat-induced chronic systemic redox imbalance.

High-fat diet accelerate hepatic fatty acids synthesis in offspring male rats induced by perinatal exposure to nonylphenol

BACKGROUND

Low dose of NP exposure can alter adipose tissue formation, and the intake of high-fat diet (HFD) can also lead to the fatty liver disease. We investigated the combined effect of NP and HFD on the first offspring of rats, and whether this effect can be passed to the next generation and the possible mechanisms involved.

METHODS

Pregnant rats had access to be treated with 5 μg/kg/day NP and normal diet. The first generation rats were given normal diet and HFD on postnatal day 21, respectively. Then the second generation rats started to only receive normal diet without NP or HFD. Body weight, organ coefficient of liver tissues, lipid profile, biochemical indexes and the expression of genes involved in lipid metabolism, as well as liver histopathology were investigated in male offspring of rats.

RESULTS

NP and HFD interaction had significant effect on the birth weight, body weight and liver tissue organ coefficient of first generation male rats. And HFD aggravated abnormal lipid metabolism, even abnormal liver function and liver histopathological damage of first generation male rats produced by the NP. And this effect can be passed on to the second generation rats. HFD also accelerated the mRNA level of fatty acid synthesis genes such as Lpl, Fas, Srebp-1 and Ppar-γ of first generation rats induced by perinatal exposure to NP, even passed on to the second generation of male rats. NP and HFD resulted in synergistical decrease of the protein expression level of ERα in liver tissue in F2 male rats.

CONCLUSION

HFD and NP synergistically accelerated synthesis of fatty acids in liver of male offspring rats through reducing the expression of ERα, which induced abnormal lipid metabolism, abnormal liver function and hepatic steatosis. Moreover, all of these damage passed on to the next generation rats.

Soluble Fiber Inulin Consumption Limits Alterations of the Gut Microbiota and Hepatic Fatty Acid Metabolism Caused by High-Fat Diet

Diet shapes the gut microbiota which impacts hepatic lipid metabolism. Modifications in liver fat content are associated with metabolic disorders. We investigated the extent of dietary fat and fiber-induced alterations in the composition of gut microbiota and hepatic fatty acids (FAs). Mice were fed a purified low-fat diet (LFD) or high-fat diet (HFD) containing non-soluble fiber cellulose or soluble fiber inulin. HFD induced hepatic decreases in the amounts of C14:0, C16:1n-7, C18:1n-7 and increases in the amounts of C17:0, C20:0, C16:1n-9, C22:5n-3, C20:2n-6, C20:3n-6, and C22:4n-6. When incorporated in a LFD, inulin poorly affected the profile of FAs. However, when incorporated in a HFD, it (i) specifically led to an increase in the amounts of hepatic C18:0, C22:0, total polyunsaturated FAs (PUFAs), total n-6 PUFAs, C18:3n-3, and C18:2n-6, (ii) exacerbated the HFD-induced increase in the amount of C17:0, and (iii) prevented the HFD-induced increases in C16:1n-9 and C20:3n-6. Importantly, the expression/activity of some elongases and desaturases, as well as the gut microbiota composition, were impacted by the dietary fat and fiber content. To conclude, inulin modulated gut microbiota and hepatic fatty acid composition, and further investigations will determine whether a causal relationship exists between these two parameters.

Incorporation of Dietary Arachidonic and Docosatetraenoic Acid into Mouse Brain

It is essential to analyze the metabolism of dietary polyunsaturated fatty acids in the brain for the research and development of functional foods. In this study, a single dose of 2,2-dideuterium-labeled docosatetraenoic acid ((+2)DTA) or 2,2-dideuterium-labeled arachidonic acid ((+2)AA) was orally administered to Institute of Cancer Research (ICR) mice and its metabolism in the brain was investigated. In the (+2)DTA group, the (+2)DTA content in the brain was significantly increased at 4, 8, 24, and 96 h compared to 0 h after administration, while in the (+2)AA group, the (+2)AA content was significantly increased at 4, 8, 24, and 96 h compared to 0 h. However, there was no significant difference in the content of (+2)DTA, a metabolite of (+2)AA, among all the groups. These results suggest that dietary (+2)DTA and (+2)AA pass through the blood-brain barrier and dietary (+2)AA is rather stored in the brain than converted to (+2)DTA.

Effect of dietary EPA and DHA on murine blood and liver fatty acid profile and liver oxylipin pattern depending on high and low dietary n6-PUFA

The intake of long-chain n3-polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), which are associated with beneficial health effects, is low in the Western diet, while the portion of dietary n6-PUFA and hence the n6/n3-PUFA ratio is high. Strategies to improve the n3-PUFA status are n3-PUFA supplementation and/or lowering n6-PUFA intake. In the present study, mice were fed with two different sunflower oil-based control diets rich in linoleic (n6-high) or oleic acid (n6-low), either with low n3-PUFA content (∼0.02%) as control or with ∼0.6% eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or docosahexaenoic acid (DHA). The n6-low diet had only little or no effect on levels of arachidonic acid (ARA) and its free oxylipins in liver tissue. Supplementation with EPA or DHA lowered ARA levels with an effect size of n6-high < n6-low. Blood cell %EPA + DHA reached >8% and >11% in n6-high and n6-low groups, respectively. Elevation of EPA levels and EPA derived oxylipins was most pronounced in n6-low groups in liver tissue, while levels of DHA and DHA derived oxylipins were generally unaffected by the background diet. While the n6-low diet alone had no effect on blood and liver tissue ARA levels or n3-PUFA status, a supplementation of EPA or DHA was more effective in combination with an n6-low diet. Thus, supplementation of long-chain n3-PUFA combined with a reduction of dietary n6-PUFA is the most effective way to improve the endogenous n3-PUFA status.

Protective Effects of Eicosapentaenoic Acid Plus Hydroxytyrosol Supplementation Against White Adipose Tissue Abnormalities in Mice Fed a High-Fat Diet

Objective: Obesity induced by high-fat diet (HFD) elicits white adipose tissue dysfunction. In this study, we have hypothesized that the metabolic modulator eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) combined with the antioxidant hydroxytyrosol (HT) attenuates HFD-induced white adipose tissue (WAT) alterations. Methods: C57BL/6J mice were administered with a HFD (60% fat, 20% protein, 20% carbohydrates) or control diet (CD; 10% fat, 20% protein, 70% carbohydrates), with or without EPA (50 mg/kg/day), HT (5 mg/kg/day), or both for 12 weeks. Determinations in WAT include morphological parameters, EPA and docosahexaenoic acid content in phospholipids (gas chromatography), lipogenesis, oxidative stress (OS) and inflammation markers, and gene expression and activities of transcription factors, such as sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPAR-γ), nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) (p65 subunit) and nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) (quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzyme linked immunosorbent assay). Results: HFD led to WAT hypertrophy in relation to PPAR-γ downregulation. WAT metabolic dysfunction was characterized by upregulation of lipogenic SREBP-1c system, mitochondrial energy metabolism depression, loss of the antioxidant Nrf2 signaling with OS enhancement, n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids depletion and activation of the pro-inflammatory NF-κB system. EPA and HT co-supplementation diminished HFD-dependent effects additively, reaching values close or similar to controls. Conclusion: Data presented strengthen the importance of combined protocols such as EPA plus HT to attenuate metabolic-inflammatory states triggered by obesity.

Targeting n-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

BACKGROUND

Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) is characterized by abnormal hepatic accumulation of triacylglycerides in the absence of alcohol consumption, in association with Oxidative Stress (OS), a pro-inflammatory state and Insulin Resistance (IR), which are attenuated by n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (FAs) C20-C22 (LCPUFAs) supplementation. Main causes of NAFLD comprise high caloric intake and a sedentary lifestyle, with high intakes of saturated FAs.

METHODS

The review includes several searches considering the effects of n-3 LCPUFAs in NAFLD in vivo and in vitro models, using the PubMed database from the National Library of Medicine- National Institutes of Health.

RESULT

The LCPUFAs eicosapentaenoic acid (C20:5 n-3, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6 n- 3, DHA) have a positive effect in diminishing liver steatosis, OS, and the levels of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase and pro-inflammatory cytokines, with improvement of insulin sensitivity and adiponectin levels. The molecular pathways described for n-3 LCPUFAs in cellular and animal models and humans include peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α activation favouring FA oxidation, diminution of lipogenesis due to sterol responsive element binding protein-1c downregulation and inflammation resolution. Besides, nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor-2 activation is elicited by n-3 LCPUFA-derived oxidation products producing direct and indirect antioxidant responses, with concomitant anti-fibrogenic action.

CONCLUSION

The discussed effects of n-3 LCPUFA supplementation support its use in NAFLD, although having a limited value in NASH, a contention that may involve n-3 LCPUFA oxygenated derivatives. Clinical trials establishing optimal dosages, intervention times, type of patients and possible synergies with other natural products are needed in future studies.

Genetic variants in FADS1 and ELOVL2 increase level of arachidonic acid and the risk of Alzheimer's disease in the Tunisian population

Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) are closely related to various physiological conditions. In several age-related diseases including Alzheimer's disease (AD) altered PUFAs metabolism has been reported. However, the mechanism behind PUFAs impairment and AD developpement remains unclear. In humans, PUFAs biosynthesis requires delta-5 desaturase (D5D), delta-6 desaturase (D6D) and elongase 2 activities; which are encoded by fatty acid desaturase 1 (FADS1), fatty acid desaturase 2 (FADS2), and elongation of very-long-chain fatty acids-like 2 (ELOVL2) genes, respectively. In the present work, we aim to assess whether genetic variants in FADS1, FADS2 and ELOVL2 genes influence plasma and erythrocyte PUFA composition and AD risk. A case-control study was carried out in 113 AD patients and 161 healthy controls.Rs174556, rs174617, and rs3756963 of FADS1, FADS2, and ELOVL2 genes, respectively were genotyped using PCR-RFLP. PUFA levels were quantified using Gas Chromatography. Genotype distributions of rs174556 (FADS1) and rs3756963 (ELOVL2) were different between case and control groups. The genotype TT of rs174556 and rs3756963 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) increases significantly the risk of AD in our population. PUFA analysis showed higher plasma and erythrocyte arachidonic acid (AA) level in patients with AD, whereas only plasma docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) was significantly decreased in AD patients. The indexes AA/Dihomo-gamma-linolenic acid (DGLA) and C24:4n-6/Adrenic acid (AdA) were both higher in the AD group. Interestingly, patients with TT genotype of rs174556 presented higher AA level and AA/DGLA index in both plasma and erythrocyte. In addition, higher AA and AA/DGLA index were observed in erythrocyte of TT genotype ofrs3756963 carrier's patients. Along with, positive correlation between AA/DGLA index, age or Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA)/ Linoleic acid (LA) index was seen in erythrocyte and /or plasma of AD patients. After adjustment for confounding factors, the genotype TT of rs174556, erythrocyte AA and AA/DGLA index were found to be predictive risk factors for AD while plasma DHA was found associated with lower AD risk. Both rs174556 and rs3756963 influence AD risk in the Tunisian population and they are likely associated with high AA level. The combination of the two variants increases further the susceptibility to AD. We suggest that FADS1 and ELOVL2 variants could likely regulate the efficiency of AA biosynthesis which could be at the origin of inflammatory derivate.

The supplementations with 2-hydroxyoleic acid and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids revert oxidative stress in various organs of diet-induced obese mice

Obesity and its related diseases have been associated with oxidative stress. Thus, the search for nutritional strategies to ameliorate oxidative stress in obese individuals seems important. We hypothesized that the supplementation with monounsaturated (2-hydroxyoleic acid (2-OHOA)) and with combined n-3 polyunsaturated (eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA)) fatty acids would ameliorate oxidative stress in different organs, including brain, liver, lungs, and kidneys of adult diet-induced obese (DIO) mice. Adult female ICR-CD1 mice were fed a high-fat diet (HFD) for 14 weeks. During the last 6 weeks of HFD feeding, one group of DIO mice received the same HFD, supplemented with 1500 mg of 2-OHOA per kg of HFD and another group with 1500 mg of EPA and 1500 mg of DHA per kg of HFD. At the end of the experiment, several parameters of oxidative stress were assessed. The supplementation with 2-OHOA or with EPA and DHA in DIO mice was able to revert oxidative stress, enhancing the activities of catalase and glutathione reductase, as well as diminishing the activity of xanthine oxidase, the concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and the ratio between oxidized glutathione and reduced glutathione in several organs. These reached similar values to those of control mice, which were fed a standard diet. These data suggest that supplementation with 2-OHOA and with EPA and DHA could be an effective nutritional intervention to restore an appropriate redox state in DIO mice.

Suppression of high-fat diet-induced obesity-associated liver mitochondrial dysfunction by docosahexaenoic acid and hydroxytyrosol co-administration

OBJECTIVE

Obesity-induced by high-fat diet (HFD) is associated with liver steatosis, oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction, which can be eluded by the co-administration of the lipid metabolism modulator docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and the antioxidant hydroxytyrosol (HT).

METHODS

C57BL/6J mice fed a HFD were orally administered either with vehicle, DHA, HT or DHA+HT for 12 weeks. We measured parameters related to insulin resistance, serum lipid levels, liver fatty acid (FA) content and steatosis score, concomitantly with those associated with mitochondrial energy functions modulated by the transcriptional coactivator PGC-1a.

RESULTS

HFD induced insulin resistance, liver steatosis with n-3 FA depletion, and loss of mitochondrial respiratory functions with diminished NAD⁺/NADH ratio and ATP levels compared with CD, with the parallel decrease in the expression of the components of the PGC-1α cascade, namely, PPAR-α, FGF21 and AMPK, effects that were not observed in mice subjected to DHA and HT co-administration.

CONCLUSIONS

Data presented indicate that the combination of DHA and HT prevents the development of liver steatosis and the associated mitochondrial dysfunction induced by HFD, thus strengthening the significance of this protocol as a therapeutic strategy avoiding disease evolution into more irreversible forms characterised by the absence of adequate pharmacological therapy in human obesity.

Molecular, histological and behavioral evidences for neuroprotective effects of minocycline against nicotine-induced neurodegeneration and cognition impairment: Possible role of CREB-BDNF signaling pathway

AIM

Neurodegeneration is one of the serious adverse effects of stimulant agents such as nicotine. Minocycline possess established neuroprotective properties. The role of CREB-BDNF signaling pathway in mediating the neuroprotective effects of minocycline against nicotine-induced neurodegeneration in rats was evaluated in current study.

METHODS

Seventy adult male rats were divided randomly into seven groups. Group 1 and 2, received 0.7 ml/rat of normal saline (i.p) and nicotine (10 mg/kg, s.c) respectively. Groups 3, 4, 5 and 6, treated concurrently with nicotine (10 mg/kg) and minocycline (10, 20, 30 and 40 mg/kg, i.p, respectively) for 21 days. Group 7 received minocycline alone (40 mg/kg, i.p) for 21 days. From 17th to 21 st days of experiment, Morris water maze (MWM) was used to evaluate learning and spatial memory in rats treated in different groups. According to the critical role of hippocampus in cognitive behavior, hippocampal neurodegenerative parameters (oxidative stress and inflammatory biomarkers) and also cyclic AMP response element binding protein (CREB) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels were evaluated in isolated hippocampus in day 22 of experiment and after drug treatment. Also hippocampal cell density and tissue changes were evaluated by hematoxylin and eosin staining.

RESULT

Nicotine administration impaired the learning and spatial memory in rats and simultaneous treatment with various doses of minocycline attenuated the nicotine-induced cognition disturbances. In addition, nicotine treatment increased lipid peroxidation and the levels of oxidized form of glutathione (GSSG), interleukin 1 beta (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), and Bax protein, while decreasing reduced form of glutathione (GSH), Bcl-2 protein, P-CREB and BDNF levels in the hippocampus of experimental animals. Nicotine also reduced the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GR) in the hippocampus. Minocycline attenuated nicotine-induced neurodegeneration and elevating CREB (both forms) and BDNF levels. Also minocycline treatment alone increases the cognitive activity and increased CREB (both forms) and BDNF levels and decreased oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptotic biomarkers. Minocycline at high doses cause inhibition of nicotine induced cell density and changes in both area of dentate gyrus (DG) and CA1 in hippocampus.

CONCLUSION

It can be concluded that minocycline, probably through activation of P-CREB/BDNF signaling pathway, confers neuroprotection against nicotine-induced neurodegeneration in rat hippocampus.

Acute emotional stress and high fat/high fructose diet modulate brain oxidative damage through NrF2 and uric acid in rats

Studies focusing on the interaction of dietary and acute emotional stress on oxidative stress in cortex frontal and in brain mitochondria are scarce. Dietary-induced insulin resistance, as observed in Western diets, has been associated with increased oxidative stress causing mitochondrial dysfunction. We hypothesized that acute emotional stress could be an aggravating factor by impacting redox status in cortex and brain mitochondria. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate the combination of an insulin resistance inducing high-fat/high-fructose (HF/HFr) diet and acute emotional stress on brain oxidative stress in rats. We measured several oxidative stress parameters (carbonyls, FRAP, TBARS assays, GSH, GSSG, oxidized DNA, mRNA expression of redox proteins (Nrf2), and uric acid). The HF/HFr diet resulted in increased oxidative stress both in the brain mitochondria and in the frontal cortex and decreased expression of the Nrf2 gene. The emotional stress induced an oxidative response in plasma and in brain mitochondria of the control group. In the HF/HFr group it triggered an increase expression of the redox transcription factor Nrf2 and its downstream antioxidant genes. This suggests an improvement of the redox stress tolerance in response to an enhanced production of reactive oxygen species. Accordingly, a blunted oxidative effect on several markers was observed in plasma and brain of HF/HFr-stressed group. This was confirmed in a parallel study using lipopolysaccharide as a stress model. Beside the Nrf2 increase, the stress induced a stronger UA release in HF/HFr which could take a part in the redox stress.

Concentrates of buttermilk and krill oil improve cognition in aged rats

Cognitive decline is one of the hallmarks of aging and can vary from mild cognitive impairment to dementia to Alzheimer's disease. In addition to some lifestyle interventions, there is room for the use of nutraceuticals/functional foods as pharma-nutritional tools to lessen the burden of cognitive decline before it worsens. We previously reported the promising molecular actions of milk fat globule membranes and krill oil concentrates in a rat model of aging. In this study, we concentrated on the activities on cognition, using an array of validated tests. We also performed lipidomic analyses of plasma, erythrocytes, and different brain areas. We report lower emotional memory (contextual fear conditioning) in aged rats supplemented with concentrates of polar lipids from buttermilk or krill oil at doses that approximate human consumption. No other behavioral parameter was significantly influenced by the supplements, calling for further research to confirm or not the purported salubrious activities of polar lipids, namely those rich in ω3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids, on cognitive decline.

Dietary Fish Oil Concentrates Associated Health Benefits: A Recent Development of Cardiovascular Risk Reduction

Fish oil is an abundant source of omega-3 (n-3 or ω-3) polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and contains Eicosapentaenoic Acid (EPA) and Docosahexaenoic Acid (DHA). PUFAs are very effective in preventing/ inhibiting cardiovascular incidents, particularly in individuals with high cardiovascular risk/accidents. In this review, composition, extraction of fish oil and its favorable/beneficial effects in Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) and molecular mechanism for its treatment/reduction have been discussed. Moreover, the application of fish oil for preventive/protective and remedial/curative properties in nutritive and health benefits has been summarized. All these aspects further search the opportunities/hope and scope with its expected opening and anticipations/ possibilities to provide additional therapeutic substitutes for the reduction of CVDs and registration of new drugs.

Docosahexaenoic acid and hydroxytyrosol co-administration fully prevents liver steatosis and related parameters in mice subjected to high-fat diet: A molecular approach

Attenuation of high-fat diet (HFD)-induced liver steatosis is accomplished by different nutritional interventions. Considering that the n-3 PUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) modulates lipid metabolism and the antioxidant hydroxytyrosol (HT) diminishes oxidative stress underlying fatty liver, it is hypothesized that HFD-induced steatosis is suppressed by DHA and HT co-administration. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed a control diet (CD; 10% fat, 20% protein, 70% carbohydrates) or a HFD (60% fat, 20% protein, 20% carbohydrates) for 12 weeks, without and with supplementation of DHA (50 mg/kg/day), HT (5 mg/kg/day) or both. The combined DHA + HT protocol fully prevented liver steatosis and the concomitant pro-inflammatory state induced by HFD, with suppression of lipogenic and oxidative stress signaling, recovery of fatty acid oxidation capacity and enhancement in resolvin availability affording higher inflammation resolution capability. Abrogation of HFD-induced hepatic steatosis by DHA and HT co-administration represents a crucial therapeutic strategy eluding disease progression into stages lacking efficacious handling at present time.

High-fat diet induces mouse liver steatosis with a concomitant decline in energy metabolism: attenuation by eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) or hydroxytyrosol (HT) supplementation and the additive effects upon EPA and HT co-administration

High-fat-diet (HFD) feeding is associated with liver oxidative stress (OS), n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (n-3 LCPUFA) depletion, hepatic steatosis and mitochondrial dysfunction. Our hypothesis is that the HFD-induced liver injury can be attenuated by the combined supplementation of n-3 LCPUFA eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and the antioxidant hydroxytyrosol (HT). The C57BL/6J mice were administered an HFD (60% fat, 20% protein, 20% carbohydrates) or control diet (CD; 10% fat, 20% protein, 70% carbohydrates), with or without EPA (50 mg kg-1 day-1), HT (5 mg kg-1 day-1), or EPA + HT (50 and 5 mg kg-1 day-1, respectively) for 12 weeks. We measured the body and liver weights and dietary and energy intakes along with liver histology, FA composition, steatosis score and associated transcription factors, mitochondrial functions and metabolic factors related to energy sensing through the AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) and PPAR-γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) cascade. It was found that the HFD significantly induced liver steatosis, with a 66% depletion of n-3 LCPUFAs and a 100% increase in n-6/n-3 LCPUFA ratio as compared to the case of CD (p < 0.05). These changes were concomitant with (i) a 95% higher lipogenic and 70% lower FA oxidation signaling, (ii) a 40% diminution in mitochondrial respiratory capacity and (iii) a 56% lower ATP content. HFD-induced liver steatosis was also associated with (iv) a depressed mRNA expression of AMPK-PGC-1α signaling components, nuclear respiratory factor-2 (NRF-2) and β-ATP synthase. These HFD effects were significantly attenuated by the combined EPA + HT supplementation in an additive manner. These results suggested that EPA and HT co-administration partly prevented HFD-induced liver steatosis, thus strengthening the importance of combined interventions in hepatoprotection in non-alcoholic fatty liver disease.

Combined docosahexaenoic acid and thyroid hormone supplementation as a protocol supporting energy supply to precondition and afford protection against metabolic stress situations

Liver preconditioning (PC) refers to the development of an enhanced tolerance to injuring stimuli. For example, the protection from ischemia-reperfusion (IR) in the liver that is obtained by previous maneuvers triggering beneficial molecular and functional changes. Recently, we have assessed the PC effects of thyroid hormone (T_3; single dose of 0.1 mg/kg) and n-3 long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 LCPUFAs; daily doses of 450 mg/kg for 7 days) that abrogate IR injury to the liver. This feature is also achieved by a combined T₃ and the n-3 LCPUFA docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) using a reduced period of supplementation of the FA (daily doses of 300 mg/kg for 3 days) and half of the T₃ dosage (0.05 mg/kg). T₃ -dependent protective mechanisms include (i) the reactive oxygen species (ROS)-dependent activation of transcription factors nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB), AP-1, signal transducer and activator of transcription 3, and nuclear factor erythroid-2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) upregulating the expression of protective proteins. (ii) ROS-induced endoplasmic reticulum stress affording proper protein folding. (iii) The autophagy response to produce FAs for oxidation and ATP supply and amino acids for protein synthesis. (iv) Downregulation of inflammasome nucleotide-bonding oligomerization domain leucine-rich repeat containing family pyrin containing 3 and interleukin-1β expression to prevent inflammation. N-3 LCPUFAs induce antioxidant responses due to Nrf2 upregulation, with inflammation resolution being related to production of oxidation products and NF-κB downregulation. Energy supply to achieve liver PC is met by the combined DHA plus T₃ protocol through upregulation of AMPK coupled to peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator 1α signaling. In conclusion, DHA plus T₃ coadministration favors hepatic bioenergetics and lipid homeostasis that is of crucial importance in acute and clinical conditions such as IR, which may be extended to long-term or chronic situations including steatosis in obesity and diabetes. © 2019 IUBMB Life, 71(9):1211-1220, 2019.

Fatty Acid Desaturase Involvement in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease Rat Models: Oxidative Stress Versus Metalloproteinases

We investigated changes in fatty acid desaturases, D5D, D6D, D9-16D and D9-18D, and their relationship with oxidative stress, matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and serum TNF-alpha in two rat models of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease NAFLD. Eight-week-old male Wistar rats fed for 3 weeks with methionine-choline–deficient (MCD) diet and eleven-week-old Obese male Zucker rats were used. Serum levels of hepatic enzymes and TNF-alpha were quantified. Hepatic oxidative stress (ROS, TBARS and GSH content) and MMP-2 and MMP-9 (protein expression and activity) were evaluated. Liver fatty acid profiling, performed by GC-MS, was used for the quantification of desaturase activities. Higher D5D and D9-16D were found in Obese Zucker rats as well as an increase in D9-18D in MCD rats. D6D was found only in MCD rats. A negative correlation between D5D and D9-16D versus TBARS, ROS and TNF-alpha and a positive correlation with GSH were shown in fatty livers besides a positive correlation between D9-18D versus TBARS, ROS and TNF-alpha and a negative correlation with GSH. A positive correlation between D5D or D9-16D or D9-18D versus protein expression and the activity of MMP-2 were found. NAFLD animal models showed comparable serum enzymes. These results reinforce and extend findings on the identification of therapeutic targets able to counteract NAFLD disorder.

Combined administration of docosahexaenoic acid and thyroid hormone synergistically enhances rat liver levels of resolvins RvD1 and RvD2

Supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids or thyroid hormone (T₃) exhibit negative effects on inflammatory reactions in experimental animals. The aim of this work was to assess the hypothesis that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) plus T₃ co-administration enhances liver resolvin (Rv) levels as inflammation resolution mediators. Combined DHA (daily doses of 300 mg/kg for 3 consecutive days)-T₃ (0.05 mg/kg at the fourth day) administration significantly increased the content of hepatic RvD1 and RvD2, without changes in that of RvE1 and RvE2, an effect that exhibits synergy when compared to the separate DHA and T₃ treatments. Under these conditions, liver DHA levels increased by DHA administration were diminished when combined with T₃ (p < 0.05), suggesting enhancement in resolvin D biosynthesis in extrahepatic tissues. It is concluded that co-administration of DHA and T₃ rises the capacity of the liver for inflammation resolution by augmenting RvD1(2) availability, which represents an important protocol in hepatoprotection in the clinical setting.

Low-linoleic acid diet and oestrogen enhance the conversion of α-linolenic acid into DHA through modification of conversion enzymes and transcription factors

Conversion of α-linolenic acid (ALA) into the longer chain n-3 PUFA has been suggested to be affected by the dietary intake of linoleic acid (LA), but the mechanism is not well known. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the effect of a low-LA diet with and without oestrogen on the fatty acid conversion enzymes and transcription factors. Rats were fed a modified American Institute of Nutrition-93G diet with 0% n-3 PUFA or ALA, containing low or high amounts of LA for 12 weeks. At 8 weeks, the rats were injected with maize oil with or without 17β-oestradiol-3-benzoate (E) at constant intervals for the remaining 3 weeks. Both the low-LA diet and E significantly increased the hepatic expressions of PPAR-α, fatty acid desaturase (FADS) 2, elongase of very long chain fatty acids 2 (ELOVL2) and ELOVL5 but decreased sterol regulatory element binding protein 1. The low-LA diet, but not E, increased the hepatic expression of FADS1, and E increased the hepatic expression of oestrogen receptor-α and β. The low-LA diet and E had synergic effects on serum and liver levels of DHA and on the hepatic expression of PPAR-α. In conclusion, the low-LA diet and oestrogen increased the conversion of ALA into DHA by upregulating the elongases and desaturases of fatty acids through regulating the expression of transcription factors. The low-LA diet and E had a synergic effect on serum and liver levels of DHA through increasing the expression of PPAR-α.

Docosahexaenoic acid levels in erythrocytes and their association with the University Selection Test Outcomes in Chile

The aim of this study was to quantitate the relative impact of DHA and AA levels in erythrocytes, anthropometric parameters and socio-economic status of school-age children, of both genders, graduated from high school in Chile, on the scholastic achievement in the University Selection Test (Prueba de Selección Universitaria, PSU) both language scholastic achievement (LSA) and mathematics scholastic achievement (MSA). A representative sample of 671 school-age young graduated from high school in 2013, 550 and 548 of them took the PSU for LSA and MSA, respectively. Only school-age young with high (n = 91) and low (n = 69) SA in both tests were considered. A total of 122 school-age children agreed to participate in the study and were divided as follows: Group 1: high PSU outcome (n = 70; males n = 48) and Group 2: low PSU outcome (n = 52; males n = 23). Data were analyzed by means of SAS software. Independently of gender, DHA, socio-economic status and head circumference-for-age Z-score were the most relevant parameters explaining both LSA (R²= 0.650; p < 0.0001) and MSA outcomes (R²= 0.700; p < 0.0001). These results can be useful for nutrition, health and education planning, in order to protect children starting from an early age and thus increase their school outcomes.

GW0742 (PPAR-beta agonist) attenuates hepatic endoplasmic reticulum stress by improving hepatic energy metabolism in high-fat diet fed mice

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and hepatic steatosis are intertwined with insulin resistance. PPARs are at the crossroads of these pathways. This study aimed to investigate the effects of GW0742 (PPAR-beta agonist) on hepatic energy metabolism and ER stress in a murine diet-induced obesity model. HF diet caused overweight, hyperinsulinemia, hepatic inflammation (increased NF-kB, TNF-alpha, and IL-6 protein expression) and favored hepatic lipogenesis, leading to ER stress, with ultrastructural and molecular alterations, ending up in proapoptotic stimulus. GW0742 rescued the overweight and the glucose tolerance, tackled hepatic inflammation and favored hepatic beta-oxidation over lipogenesis. These results comply with ER ultrastructure improvement, reducing ER stress and apoptosis in treated animals. Our results indicate that the PPAR-beta/delta activation alleviated the ER stress by improving the insulin sensitivity and maximizing the hepatic energy metabolism with a shift towards beta-oxidation. PPAR-beta/delta activation could be an essential tool to avoid the NAFLD progression and other obesity constraints.

Molecular mechanisms related to the hepatoprotective effects of antioxidant-rich extra virgin olive oil supplementation in rats subjected to short-term iron administration

Enhanced iron levels in liver are associated with oxidative stress development and damage with increased fat accumulation. The aim of this work was to assess the hypothesis that antioxidant-rich extra virgin olive oil (AR-EVOO) counteracts iron-rich diet (IRD)-induced oxidative stress hindering hepatic steatosis. Male Wistar rats were fed and IRD (200 mg iron/kg diet) versus a control diet (CD; 50 mg iron/kg diet) with alternate AR-EVOO supplementation (100 mg/day) for 21 days. IRD induced liver steatosis and oxidative stress (higher levels of protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation with glutathione depletion), mitochondrial dysfunction (decreased citrate synthase and complex I and II activities) and loss of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), with a drastic enhancement in the sterol regulatory element-binding protein-1c (SREBP-1c)/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-α (PPAR-α) ratio upregulating the expression of lipogenic enzymes (acetyl-CoA carboxylase, fatty acid (FA) synthase and stearoyl desaturase 2) and downregulating those involved in FA oxidation (carnitine palmitoyl transferase and acyl-CoA oxidase) over values in the CD group. IRD also upregulated nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) and its target genes. AR-EVOO supplementation alone did not modify the studied parameters, however, IRD combined with AR-EVOO administration returned IRD-induced changes to baseline levels of the CD group. It is concluded that IRD-induced non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is prevented by AR-EVOO supplementation, which might be related to the protective effects of its components such as hydroxytyrosol, oleic acid, tocopherols and/or PUFAs, thus representing a suitable anti-steatotic strategy to avoid progression into more severe stages of the disease, underlying NAFLD associated with iron overloading pathologies or obesity.

Reduction of high-fat diet-induced liver proinflammatory state by eicosapentaenoic acid plus hydroxytyrosol supplementation: involvement of resolvins RvE1/2 and RvD1/2

High-fat diet (HFD)-fed mice show obesity with development of liver steatosis and a proinflammatory state without establishing an inflammatory reaction. The aim of this work was to assess the hypothesis that eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) plus hydroxytyrosol (HT) supplementation prevents the inflammatory reaction through enhancement in the hepatic resolvin content in HFD-fed mice. Male C57BL/6J mice were fed an HFD or a control diet and supplemented with EPA (50 mg/kg/day) and HT (5 mg/kg/day) or their respective vehicles for 12 weeks. Measurements include liver levels of EPA, DHA and palmitate (gas chromatography), liver resolvins and triglyceride (TG) and serum aspartate transaminase (AST) (specific kits) and hepatic and serum inflammatory markers (quantitative polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay). Compared to CD, HFD induced body weight gain, liver steatosis and TG accumulation, with up-regulation of proinflammatory markers in the absence of histological inflammation or serum AST changes; these results were accompanied by higher hepatic levels of resolvins RvE1, RvE2, RvD1 and RvD2, with decreases in EPA and DHA contents. EPA+HT supplementation in HFD feeding synergistically reduced the steatosis score over individual treatments and increased the hepatic levels of EPA, DHA and resolvins, with attenuation of proinflammatory markers. Lack of progression of HFD-induced proinflammatory state into overt inflammation is associated with resolvin up-regulation, which is further increased by EPA+HT supplementation eliciting steatosis attenuation. These findings point to the importance of combined protocols in hepatoprotection due to the involvement of cross-talk mechanisms, which increase effectiveness and diminish dosages, avoiding undesirable effects.

Reduced expression of Twist 1 is protective against insulin resistance of adipocytes and involves mitochondrial dysfunction

Insulin resistance (IR) has become a global epidemic that represents a serious hazard to public health. However, the precise mechanisms modulating IR have not been fully elucidated. The present study aimed to investigate the role of transcriptional factor Twist 1 in adipocyte IR and to further explore the molecular mechanism. An in vitro IR model based on cultured 3T3-L1 adipocytes was established under high glucose/insulin stimulation and an in vivo IR model in C57/BL6J mice induced by a high fat diet (HFD) was also developed. Lentivirus targeting Twist 1 silencing was introduced. The relationships between Twist 1 expression and IR state, mitochondrial dysfunction and the downstream insulin signaling pathway were assayed. Our results firstly showed the elevation of Twist 1 in IR adipocytes, and Twist 1 silencing attenuated IR. Then mitochondrial ultra-structural damage, elevated ROS, decreased MMP and ATP, and changes in mitochondrial biosynthesis-related genes in IR group indicated mitochondrial dysfunction. Further, the downstream IRS/PI3K/AKT/GluT4 pathway was showed involved in Twist 1-mediated IR. In total, we provide evidence of a protective role of Twist 1 silencing in relieving the IR state of adipocytes. Mitochondrial dysfunction and the downstream IRS/PI3K/AKT/GluT4 pathway were involved in this Twist 1-mediated IR.

The effect of electronic-cigarettes aerosol on rat brain lipid profile

The electronic cigarettes (e-cigarettes, e-cigs) have become the most sought-after alternative to the traditional cigarettes, partly due to the widespread perception of safety. However, the high temperature reached by e-cig solutions can generate toxic compounds, some of which are listed as known human carcinogens. To evaluate the impact of e-cig aerosol on rat brain lipid profile, twenty male Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to 11 cycles/day (E-cig group), to consume 1 mL/day of e-liquid, for 5 days/week up to 8 weeks. Ten rats were sacrificed after 4 weeks (4w) and ten at the end of treatment (8w). The composition of total fatty acids, sterols and oxysterols of the lipid fraction of rat brains, was analyzed. The results of the E-cig group were compared with those of the control group (not exposed). After 8 weeks, the saturated fatty acids significantly raised up to 7.35 mg/g tissue, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids decreased reaching 3.17 mg/g. The e-cig vaping increased both palmitic (3.43 mg/g) and stearic acids (3.82 mg/g), while a significant decrement of arachidonic (1.32 mg/g) and docosahexaenoic acids (1.00 mg/g) was found. Atherogenic (0.5) and thrombogenic (1.12) indices also increased in 8w treated animals. The e-cig aerosol significantly impacted the cholesterol homeostasis, since the latter at 8w (21.57 mg/g) was significantly lower than control (24.56 mg/g); moreover, a significant increase of 7-dehydrocholesterol (1.87 mg/g) was also denoted in e-cig group. The e-cig aerosol also reduced the oxysterol formation (19.55 μg/g) after 4 weeks of exposure, except for triol and 5α,6α-epoxycholesterol (α-EC). The principal component analysis (PCA) separated all E-cig from control groups, evidencing that oxysterols (except triol and 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol (24(S)-HC)) were inversely correlated to 7-DHC and TI. The present research revealed that e-cigs aerosol affected the lipid and cholesterol homeostasis in rat brain, which could contribute to the new occurrence of some neurodegenerative diseases.

Attenuation of High-Fat Diet-Induced Rat Liver Oxidative Stress and Steatosis by Combined Hydroxytyrosol- (HT-) Eicosapentaenoic Acid Supplementation Mainly Relies on HT

Pharmacological therapy for nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is not approved at the present time. For this purpose, the effect of combined eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA; 50 mg/kg/day) modulating hepatic lipid metabolism and hydroxytyrosol (HT; 5 mg/kg/day) exerting antioxidant actions was evaluated on hepatic steatosis and oxidative stress induced by a high-fat diet (HFD; 60% fat, 20% protein, and 20% carbohydrates) compared to a control diet (CD; 10% fat, 20% protein, and 70% carbohydrates) in mice fed for 12 weeks. HFD-induced liver steatosis (i) was reduced by 32% by EPA, without changes in oxidative stress-related parameters and mild recovery of Nrf2 functioning affording antioxidation and (ii) was decreased by 42% by HT, concomitantly with total regain of the glutathione status diminished by HFD, 42% to 59% recovery of lipid peroxidation and protein oxidation enhanced by HFD, and regain of Nrf2 functioning, whereas (iii) combined EPA + HT supplementation elicited 74% reduction in liver steatosis, with total recovery of the antioxidant potential in a similar manner than HT. It is concluded that combined HT + EPA drastically decreases NAFLD development, an effect that shows additivity in HT and EPA effects that mainly relies on HT, strengthening the impact of oxidative stress as a central mechanism underlying liver steatosis in obesity.

Ageing: Is there a role for arachidonic acid and other bioactive lipids? A review

Ageing is inevitable. Recent studies suggest that it could be delayed. Low-grade systemic inflammation is seen in type 2 diabetes mellitus, hypertension and endothelial dysfunction that are common with increasing age. In all these conditions, an alteration in arachidonic acid (AA) metabolism is seen in the form of increased formation of pro-inflammatory eicosanoids and decreased production of anti-inflammatory lipoxins, resolvins, protectins and maresins and decreased activity of desaturases. Calorie restriction, exercise and parabiosis delay age-related changes that could be related to enhanced proliferation of stem cells, decrease in inflammation and transfer of GDF-11 (growth differentiation factor-11) and other related molecules from the young to the old, increase in the formation of lipoxin A4, resolvins, protectins and maresins, hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and nitric oxide (NO); inhibition of ageing-related hypothalamic or brain IKK-β and NF-kB activation, decreased gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) release resulting in increased neurogenesis and consequent decelerated ageing. This suggests that hypothalamus participates in ageing process. N-acylethanolamines (NAEs) and lipid-derived signalling molecules can be tuned favorably under dietary restriction to extend lifespan and/or prevent advanced age associated diseases in an mTOR dependent pathway manner. Sulfur amino acid (SAA) restriction increased hydrogen sulfide (H2S) production and protected tissues from hypoxia and tissue damage. Anti-inflammatory metabolites formed from AA such as LXA4, resolvins, protectins and maresins enhance production of NO, CO, H2S; suppress NF-kB expression and alter mTOR expression and thus, may aid in delaying ageing process. Dietary restriction and exercise enhance AA metabolism to form LXA4, resolvins, protectins and maresins that have anti-inflammatory actions. AA and their metabolites also influence stem cell biology, enhance neurogenesis to improve memory and augment autophagy to prolong life span. Thus, AA and other PUFAs and their anti-inflammatory metabolites inhibit inflammation, augment stem cell proliferation, restore to normal lipid-derived signaling molecules and NO and H2S production, enhance autophagy and prolong life span.

Adding a purple corn extract in rats supplemented with chia oil decreases gene expression of SREBP-1c and retains Δ5 and Δ6 hepatic desaturase activity, unmodified the hepatic lipid profile

Flavonoids upregulate gene expression of PPAR-α and underregulate the gene expression of SREBP-1c, and their intake increases the plasmatic concentration of n-3 LC-PUFAs. However, the biological mechanisms underlying these effects have not been elucidated. In this work, the effect of oral supplementation of ALA from chia (Salvia hispanica L.) seed oil and anthocyanins from a purple corn extract (PCE) on gene expression of SREBP-1c, PPAR-α and Δ5 and Δ6 desaturases (Δ5D and Δ6D), the activity of these enzymes in the liver as well as the hepatic lipid profile were evaluated in thirty-six female Sprague Dawley rats whose diet was supplemented with olive oil (OL), chia oil (CH), olive oil and PCE (OL + PCE) or chia oil and PCE (CH + PCE). Gene expression of PPAR-α was significantly higher when supplemented with CH and CH + PCE, SREBP-1c gene expression was higher when supplemented with chia oil. CH supplementation enhanced Δ5D expression whereas no significant differences between treatments were observed concerning Δ6D gene expression. Activities of both desaturases were increased by including olive oil (OL + PCE and OL), and they were found to be higher in CH + PCE respect to CH for both enzymes. The ALA and n-3 LCPUFAs hepatic content was higher with CH, decreasing the levels of AA and n-6 LCPUFAs. It is concluded that the joint action of flavonoids such as anthocyanins and ALA show an anti-adipogenic effect. Desaturase activity was inhibited by ALA and kept by the anthocyanins from PCE, thus anthocyanins would exert a protective effect on the desaturase activity but they would not affect on its gene expression, however, high doses of ALA increased the production of its metabolites, masking the effect of PCE.