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He X, Cui J, Li H, Zhou Y, Wu X, Jiang C, Xu Z, Wang R, Xiong L. Antipyretic effects of Xiangqin Jiere granules on febrile young rats revealed by combining pharmacodynamics, metabolomics, network pharmacology, molecular biology experiments and molecular docking strategies. J Biomol Struct Dyn 2024:1-18. [PMID: 38197809 DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2024.2301761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2024]
Abstract
Xiangqin Jiere granules (XQJRG) is a proprietary Chinese medicine treating children's colds and fevers, but its mechanism of action is unclear. The aim of this study was to explore the antipyretic mechanisms of XQJRG based on pharmacodynamics, non-targeted metabolomics, network pharmacology, molecular biology experiments, molecular docking, and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. Firstly, the yeast-induced fever model was constructed in young rats to study antipyretic effect of XQJRG. Metabolomics and network pharmacology studies were performed to identify the key compounds, targets and pathways involved in the antipyretic of XQJRG. Subsequently, MetScape was used to jointly analyze targets from network pharmacology and metabolites from metabolomics. Finally, the key targets were validated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the affinity and stability of key ingredient and targets were evaluated by molecular docking and MD simulation. The animal experimental results showed that after XQJRG treatment, body temperature of febrile rats was significantly reduced, 13 metabolites were significantly modulated, and pathways of differential metabolite enrichment were mainly related to amino acid and lipid metabolism. Network pharmacology results indicated that quercetin and kaempferol were the key active components of XQJRG, TNF, AKT1, IL6, IL1B and PTGS2 were core targets. ELISA confirmed that XQJRG significantly reduced the plasma concentrations of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α, and the hypothalamic concentrations of COX-2 and PGE2. Molecular docking demonstrated that the binding energies of kaempferol to the core targets were all below -5.0 kcal/mol. MD simulation results showed that the binding free energies of TNF-kaempferol, IL6-kaempferol, IL1B-kaempferol and PTGS2-kaempferol were -87.86 kcal/mol, -70.41 kcal/mol, -69.95 kcal/mol and -106.67 kcal/mol, respectively. In conclusion, XQJRG has antipyretic effects on yeast-induced fever in young rats, and its antipyretic mechanisms may be related to the inhibition of peripheral pyrogenic cytokines release by constituents such as kaempferol, the reduction of hypothalamic fever mediator production, and the amelioration of disturbances in amino acid and lipid metabolism.Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiying He
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
- College of Chinese Materia Medica, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Jieqiong Cui
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Huayan Li
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Yang Zhou
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Xinchen Wu
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Chunrong Jiang
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Zhichang Xu
- College of Chinese Materia Medica, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Ruirui Wang
- College of Chinese Materia Medica, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
| | - Lei Xiong
- The First School of Clinical Medicine, Yunnan University of Chinese Medicine, Kunming, China
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2
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Fan B, Bryant RH, Greer AW. Automatically Identifying Sickness Behavior in Grazing Lambs with an Acceleration Sensor. Animals (Basel) 2023; 13:2086. [PMID: 37443882 DOI: 10.3390/ani13132086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/22/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Acute disease of grazing animals can lead to alterations in behavioral patterns. Relatively recent advances in accelerometer technology have resulted in commercial products, which can be used to remotely detect changes in animals' behavior, the pattern and extent of which may provide an indicator of disease challenge and animal health status. The objective of this study was to determine if changes in behavior during use of a lipopolysaccharide (LPS) challenge model can be detected using ear-mounted accelerometers in grazing lambs. LPS infusion elevated rectal temperatures from 39.31 °C to 39.95 °C, indicating successful establishment of an acute fever response for comparison with groups (p < 0.001). For each of the five recorded behaviors, time spent eating, ruminating, not active, active, and highly active, the accelerometers were able to detect an effect of LPS challenge. Compared with the control, there were significant effects of LPS infusion by hour interaction on durations of eating (-6.71 min/h, p < 0.001), inactive behavior (+16.00 min/h, p < 0.001), active behavior (-8.39 min/h, p < 0.001), and highly active behavior (-2.90 min/h, p < 0.001) with a trend for rumination time (-1.41 min/h, p = 0.075) in lambs after a single LPS infusion. Results suggest that current sensors have the capability to correctly identify behaviors of grazing lambs, raising the possibility of detecting changes in animals' health status.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bowen Fan
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
| | - Racheal H Bryant
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
| | - Andrew W Greer
- Department of Agricultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Lincoln University, Lincoln 7647, New Zealand
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Pate BS, Bouknight SJ, Harrington EN, Mott SE, Augenblick LM, Smiley CE, Morgan CG, Calatayud BM, Martínez-Muñiz GA, Thayer JF, Wood SK. Site-Specific knockdown of microglia in the locus coeruleus regulates hypervigilant responses to social stress in female rats. Brain Behav Immun 2023; 109:190-203. [PMID: 36682513 PMCID: PMC11195023 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2023.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Women are at increased risk for psychosocial stress-related anxiety disorders, yet mechanisms regulating this risk are unknown. Psychosocial stressors activate microglia, and the resulting neuroimmune responses that females exhibit heightened sensitivity to may serve as an etiological factor in their elevated risk. However, studies examining the role of microglia during stress in females are lacking. METHODS Microglia were manipulated in the stress-sensitive locus coeruleus (LC) of female rats in the context of social stress in two ways. First, intra-LC lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 0 or 3 μg/side, n = 5-6/group), a potent TLR4 agonist and microglial activator, was administered. One hour later, rats were exposed to control or an aggressive social defeat encounter between two males (WS, 15-min). In a separate study, females were treated with intra-LC or intra-central amygdala mannosylated liposomes containing clodronate (m-CLD; 0 or 25 μg/side, n = 13-14/group), a compound toxic to microglia. WS-evoked burying, cardiovascular responses, and sucrose preference were measured. Brain and plasma cytokines were quantified, and cardiovascular telemetry assessed autonomic balance. RESULTS Intra-LC LPS augmented the WS-induced burying response and increased plasma corticosterone and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). Further, the efficacy and selectivity of microinjected m-CLD was fully characterized. In the context of WS, intra-LC m-CLD attenuated the hypervigilant burying response during WS as well as the accumulation of intra-LC IL-1β. Intra-central amygdala m-CLD had no effect on WS-evoked behavior. CONCLUSIONS These studies highlight an innovative method for depleting microglia in a brain region specific manner and indicate that microglia in the LC differentially regulate hypervigilant WS-evoked behavioral and autonomic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany S Pate
- Department of Exercise Science, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Samantha J Bouknight
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Evelynn N Harrington
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Sarah E Mott
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Lee M Augenblick
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Cora E Smiley
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA; WJB Dorn VA Medical Center, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Christopher G Morgan
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Brittney M Calatayud
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Gustavo A Martínez-Muñiz
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Julian F Thayer
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Susan K Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA; WJB Dorn VA Medical Center, Columbia, SC, USA.
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Wang J, Yang Y, Liu J, Qiu J, Zhang D, Ou M, Kang Y, Zhu T, Zhou C. Loss of sodium leak channel (NALCN) in the ventral dentate gyrus impairs neuronal activity of the glutamatergic neurons for inflammation-induced depression in male mice. Brain Behav Immun 2023; 110:13-29. [PMID: 36796706 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2023.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2022] [Revised: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The dentate gyrus (DG) has been implicated in the pathophysiology of depression. Many studies have revealed the cellular types, neural circuits, and morphological changes of the DG involved in the development of depression. However, the molecular regulating its intrinsic activity in depression is unknown. METHODS Utilizing the mode of depression induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS), we investigate the involvement of the sodium leak channel (NALCN) in inflammation-induced depressive-like behaviors of male mice. The expression of NALCN was detected by immunohistochemistry and real-time polymerase chain reaction. DG microinjection of the adeno-associated virus or lentivirus was carried out using a stereotaxic instrument and followed by behavioral tests. Neuronal excitability and NALCN conductance were recorded by whole-cell patch-clamp techniques. RESULTS The expression and function of NALCN were reduced in both the dorsal and ventral DG in LPS-treated mice; whereas, only knocking down NALCN in the ventral pole produced depressive-like behaviors and this effect of NALCN was specific to ventral glutamatergic neurons. The excitability of ventral glutamatergic neurons was impaired by both the knockdown of NALCN and/or the treatment of LPS. Then, the overexpression of NALCN in the ventral glutamatergic neurons decreased the susceptibility of mice to inflammation-induced depression, and the intracranial injection of substance P (non-selective NALCN activator) into the ventral DG rapidly ameliorated inflammation-induced depression-like behaviors in an NALCN-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS NALCN, which drives the neuronal activity of the ventral DG glutamatergic neurons, uniquely regulates depressive-like behaviors and susceptibility to depression. Therefore, the NALCN of glutamatergic neurons in the ventral DG may present a molecular target for rapid antidepressant drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinping Wang
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yaoxin Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jin Liu
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Jingxuan Qiu
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China; Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Donghang Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Mengchan Ou
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Yi Kang
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Tao Zhu
- Department of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.
| | - Cheng Zhou
- Laboratory of Anesthesia and Critical Care Medicine, National-Local Joint Engineering Research Centre of Translational Medicine of Anesthesiology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu 610041, China.
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5
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Stone TW, Clanchy FIL, Huang YS, Chiang NY, Darlington LG, Williams RO. An integrated cytokine and kynurenine network as the basis of neuroimmune communication. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:1002004. [PMID: 36507331 PMCID: PMC9729788 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1002004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Two of the molecular families closely associated with mediating communication between the brain and immune system are cytokines and the kynurenine metabolites of tryptophan. Both groups regulate neuron and glial activity in the central nervous system (CNS) and leukocyte function in the immune system, although neither group alone completely explains neuroimmune function, disease occurrence or severity. This essay suggests that the two families perform complementary functions generating an integrated network. The kynurenine pathway determines overall neuronal excitability and plasticity by modulating glutamate receptors and GPR35 activity across the CNS, and regulates general features of immune cell status, surveillance and tolerance which often involves the Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor (AHR). Equally, cytokines and chemokines define and regulate specific populations of neurons, glia or immune system leukocytes, generating more specific responses within restricted CNS regions or leukocyte populations. In addition, as there is a much larger variety of these compounds, their homing properties enable the superimposition of dynamic variations of cell activity upon local, spatially limited, cell populations. This would in principle allow the targeting of potential treatments to restricted regions of the CNS. The proposed synergistic interface of 'tonic' kynurenine pathway affecting baseline activity and the superimposed 'phasic' cytokine system would constitute an integrated network explaining some features of neuroimmune communication. The concept would broaden the scope for the development of new treatments for disorders involving both the CNS and immune systems, with safer and more effective agents targeted to specific CNS regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trevor W. Stone
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, NDORMS, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom,*Correspondence: Trevor W. Stone,
| | - Felix I. L. Clanchy
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, NDORMS, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Yi-Shu Huang
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, NDORMS, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nien-Yi Chiang
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, NDORMS, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - L. Gail Darlington
- Department of Internal Medicine, Ashtead Hospital, Ashtead, United Kingdom
| | - Richard O. Williams
- The Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, NDORMS, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
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6
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Wolff BS, Alshawi SA, Feng LR, Juneau PL, Saligan LN. Inflammation plays a causal role in fatigue-like behavior induced by pelvic irradiation in mice. Brain Behav Immun Health 2021; 15:100264. [PMID: 34589770 PMCID: PMC8474574 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbih.2021.100264] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Fatigue is a persistent and debilitating symptom following radiation therapy for prostate cancer. However, it is not well-understood how radiation targeted to a small region of the body can lead to broad changes in behavior. In this study, we used targeted pelvic irradiation of healthy male mice to test whether inflammatory signaling mediates changes in voluntary physical activity levels. First, we tested the relationship between radiation dose, blood cell counts, and fatigue-like behavior measured as voluntary wheel-running activity. Next, we used oral minocycline treatments to reduce inflammation and found that minocycline reduces, but does not eliminate, the fatigue-like behavioral changes induced by radiation. We also used a strain of mice lacking the MyD88 adaptor protein and found that these mice also showed less fatigue-like behavior than the wild-type controls. Finally, using serum and brain tissue samples, we determined changes in inflammatory signaling induced by irradiation in wild-type, minocycline treated, and MyD88 knockout mice. We found that irradiation increased serum levels of IL-6, a change that was partially reversed in mice treated with minocycline or lacking MyD88. Overall, our results suggest that inflammation plays a causal role in radiation-induced fatigue and that IL-6 may be an important mediator.
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Key Words
- CCL, chemokine (CC) ligand
- CD30 L, CD30 ligand
- CFS, chronic fatigue syndrome
- CRF, cancer-related fatigue
- CXCL, chemokine (CXC) ligand
- Cancer-related fatigue
- Cytokines
- FGF, fibroblast growth factor
- Fas-L, Fas Ligand
- Fatigue
- G-CSF, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor
- GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor
- ICAM, intercellular adhesion molecule
- IFN, interferon
- IL, interleukin
- Inflammation
- LIF, leukemia inhibitory factor
- M-CSF, macrophage colony-stimulating factor
- MCV, mean corpuscular volume
- Minocycline
- MyD88, myeloid differentiation primary response 88 protein
- PDGF-bb, platelet-derived growth factor subunit B
- RANTES, regulated on activation normal T cell expressed and secreted
- RBC, red blood cell
- Radiotherapy
- TIMP, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases
- TLR, toll-like receptor
- TNF, tumor necrosis factor
- VEGF, vascular endothelial growth factor
- VWRA, voluntary wheel running activity
- Voluntary wheel-running activity
- WBC, white blood cell
- myd88
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian S Wolff
- National Institute of Nursing Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Sarah A Alshawi
- National Institute of Nursing Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Li Rebekah Feng
- National Institute of Nursing Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Paul L Juneau
- NIH Library, Office of Research Services, OD, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA/Contractor- Zimmerman Associates, Inc., Fairfax, VA, USA
| | - Leorey N Saligan
- National Institute of Nursing Research, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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7
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Chaves FM, Mansano NS, Frazão R, Donato J. Tumor Necrosis Factor α and Interleukin-1β Acutely Inhibit AgRP Neurons in the Arcuate Nucleus of the Hypothalamus. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21238928. [PMID: 33255553 PMCID: PMC7728092 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21238928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 11/19/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Obesity-associated low-grade inflammation favors weight gain, whereas systemic infection frequently leads to anorexia. Thus, inflammatory signals can either induce positive or negative energy balance. In this study, we used whole-cell patch-clamp to investigate the acute effects of three important proinflammatory cytokines, tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α), interleukin-6, and interleukin-1β (IL-1β) on the membrane excitability of agouti-related peptide (AgRP)- or proopiomelanocortin (POMC)-producing neurons. We found that both TNF-α and IL-1β acutely inhibited the activity of 35-42% of AgRP-producing neurons, whereas very few POMC neurons were depolarized by TNF-α. Interleukin-6 induced no acute changes in the activity of AgRP or POMC neurons. Our findings indicate that the effect of TNF-α and IL-1β, especially on the activity of AgRP-producing neurons, may contribute to inflammation-induced anorexia observed during acute inflammatory conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernanda M. Chaves
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-000, Brazil;
| | - Naira S. Mansano
- Departamento de Anatomia, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-900, Brazil;
| | - Renata Frazão
- Departamento de Anatomia, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-900, Brazil;
- Correspondence: (R.F.); (J.D.J.)
| | - Jose Donato
- Departamento de Fisiologia e Biofísica, Instituto de Ciencias Biomedicas, Universidade de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo 05508-000, Brazil;
- Correspondence: (R.F.); (J.D.J.)
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8
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Li W, Luo S, Wan C. Characterization of fever and sickness behavior regulated by cytokines during infection. BEHAVIOUR 2020. [DOI: 10.1163/1568539x-bja10028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
In response to invasion of pathogens, hosts present fever and a series of behavioural changes including reduced grooming, reduction of foraging, decreased locomotion, withdrawing from social activities and reproductive process, which are collectively termed sickness behaviour. Fever as well as sickness behaviour are adaptive and benefit the host to reduce pathology caused by infections and opportunity costs for time away from foraging, reproduction and predator avoidance. Antipathogenic fever and sickness behaviour are mediated proximately by cytokines including pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Pro-inflammation cytokines trigger these sickness responses, while anti-inflammatory cytokines constrain these responses and prevent damage to host from exaggerated responses. The present study reviews the characterization of fever and sickness behaviour regulated by cytokines during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiran Li
- aDepartment of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, No 20, 3rd section of Renmin South Road, Chengdu 610041, P.R. China
- bKey Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu 610041, P.R. China
| | - Shuanghong Luo
- aDepartment of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, No 20, 3rd section of Renmin South Road, Chengdu 610041, P.R. China
- bKey Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu 610041, P.R. China
| | - Chaomin Wan
- aDepartment of Pediatrics, West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University, No 20, 3rd section of Renmin South Road, Chengdu 610041, P.R. China
- bKey Laboratory of Birth Defects and Related Diseases of Women and Children (Sichuan University), Ministry of Education, Chengdu 610041, P.R. China
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González-Cano R, Montilla-García Á, Ruiz-Cantero MC, Bravo-Caparrós I, Tejada MÁ, Nieto FR, Cobos EJ. The search for translational pain outcomes to refine analgesic development: Where did we come from and where are we going? Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 113:238-261. [PMID: 32147529 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2019] [Revised: 02/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Pain measures traditionally used in rodents record mere reflexes evoked by sensory stimuli; the results thus may not fully reflect the human pain phenotype. Alterations in physical and emotional functioning, pain-depressed behaviors and facial pain expressions were recently proposed as additional pain outcomes to provide a more accurate measure of clinical pain in rodents, and hence to potentially enhance analgesic drug development. We aimed to review how preclinical pain assessment has evolved since the development of the tail flick test in 1941, with a particular focus on a critical analysis of some nonstandard pain outcomes, and a consideration of how sex differences may affect the performance of these pain surrogates. We tracked original research articles in Medline for the following periods: 1973-1977, 1983-1987, 1993-1997, 2003-2007, and 2014-2018. We identified 606 research articles about alternative surrogate pain measures, 473 of which were published between 2014 and 2018. This indicates that preclinical pain assessment is moving toward the use of these measures, which may soon become standard procedures in preclinical pain laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rafael González-Cano
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - Ángeles Montilla-García
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - M Carmen Ruiz-Cantero
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - Inmaculada Bravo-Caparrós
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - Miguel Á Tejada
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain; IMBA, Institute of Molecular Biotechnology of the Austrian Academy of Sciences, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Francisco R Nieto
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain.
| | - Enrique J Cobos
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; Institute of Neuroscience, Biomedical Research Center, University of Granada, Armilla, Granada, Spain; Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs.GRANADA, Granada, Spain; Teófilo Hernando Institute for Drug Discovery, Madrid, Spain.
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10
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Santos JC, Bever SR, Pereira-da-Silva G, Pyter LM. Tumor resection ameliorates tumor-induced suppression of neuroinflammatory and behavioral responses to an immune challenge in a cancer survivor model. Sci Rep 2019; 9:752. [PMID: 30679700 PMCID: PMC6345941 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-37334-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Breast cancer survivors display altered inflammatory responses to immune challenges relative to cancer-naive controls likely due to previous cancer treatments, stress associated with cancer, and/or tumor physiology. Proper inflammatory responses are necessary for adaptive sickness behaviors (e.g., fatigue, anorexia, and fever) and neuroinflammatory pathways are also implicated in mental health disturbances (e.g., cognitive impairment, depression) suffered by cancer patients and survivors. Rodent cancer models indicate that tumors are sufficient to exacerbate neuroinflammatory responses after an immune challenge, however primary tumors are not usually present in cancer survivors, and the behavioral consequences of these brain changes remain understudied. Therefore, we tested the extent to which mammary tumor resection attenuates tumor-induced neuroinflammation and sickness behavior following an immune challenge (i.p. lipopolysaccharide [LPS] injection) in mice. Tnf-α, Il-1β, and Il-6 mRNA decreased in multiple brain regions of LPS-treated tumor-bearing mice relative to LPS-treated controls; tumor resection attenuated these effects in some cases (but not Tnf-α). Tumors also attenuated sickness behaviors (hypothermia and lethargy) compared to LPS-treated controls. Tumor resection reversed these behavioral consequences, although basal body temperature remained elevated, comparable to tumor-bearing mice. Thus, tumors significantly modulate neuroinflammatory pathways with functional consequences and tumor resection mitigates most, but not all, of these changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica C Santos
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA.,Postgraduate Program in Basic and Applied Immunology, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Savannah R Bever
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA.,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Gabriela Pereira-da-Silva
- Postgraduate Program in Basic and Applied Immunology, Ribeirão Preto School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.,Department of Maternal-Infant Nursing and Public Health, Ribeirão Preto College of Nursing, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Leah M Pyter
- Institute for Behavioral Medicine Research, Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Columbus, OH, USA. .,Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA. .,Department of Neuroscience, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA. .,Arthur G. James Comprehensive Cancer Center and Solove Research institute, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH, USA.
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11
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Dangarembizi R, Erlwanger KH, Rummel C, Roth J, Madziva MT, Harden LM. Brewer's yeast is a potent inducer of fever, sickness behavior and inflammation within the brain. Brain Behav Immun 2018; 68:211-223. [PMID: 29074357 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2017.10.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 10/08/2017] [Accepted: 10/21/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Brewer's yeast, derived from the yeast species Saccharomyces cerevisiae (S. cerevisiae), is commonly used for inducing pyrexia in pharmacological studies screening antipyretics in rats. Despite its widespread use, the peripheral and central inflammatory response associated with Brewer's yeast-induced fever and sickness behavior in rats has not been investigated. Thus, we injected male Sprague-Dawley rats (150-200 g) subcutaneously with a high (4 g/kg, n = 9), medium (2 g/kg, n = 5) or low (0.4 g/kg, n = 6) dose of Brewer's yeast solution or saline (0.9%, n = 6) and measured core body temperature, cage activity, food intake and body mass for six days after injection. Blood and brain samples were collected at 2, 8, 18 and 72 h after injection; n = 5-7 per time point. Brewer's yeast administration dose-dependently induced fever, lethargy, anorexia and body mass stunting that was accompanied by increased blood plasma levels of interleukin (IL)-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and activation of inflammatory transcription factors (nuclear factor (NF) for interleukin-6, signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT)-3, and NF-κB)) in the hypothalamus and circumventricular organs. The increased activation of transcription factors following Brewer's yeast administration was accompanied by increased hypothalamic mRNA expression of TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 and rate-limiting enzymes for prostaglandin synthesis. Our results show that subcutaneous administration of S. cerevisae induces prolonged fever, anorexia and lethargy that is accompanied by a pronounced increase in the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines, key prostaglandin synthesizing enzymes and transcription factors, in the periphery and brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Dangarembizi
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa; Department of Physiology and Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, National University of Science and Technology, Box AC939, Ascot, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe.
| | - K H Erlwanger
- School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - C Rummel
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - J Roth
- Institute of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - M T Madziva
- School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - L M Harden
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, 2193 Johannesburg, South Africa
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12
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Garami A, Steiner AA, Romanovsky AA. Fever and hypothermia in systemic inflammation. HANDBOOK OF CLINICAL NEUROLOGY 2018; 157:565-597. [PMID: 30459026 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-64074-1.00034-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Systemic inflammation-associated syndromes (e.g., sepsis and septic shock) often have high mortality and remain a challenge in emergency medicine. Systemic inflammation is usually accompanied by changes in body temperature: fever or hypothermia. In animal studies, systemic inflammation is often modeled by administering bacterial lipopolysaccharide, which triggers autonomic and behavioral thermoeffector responses and causes either fever or hypothermia, depending on the dose and ambient temperature. Fever and hypothermia are regulated changes of body temperature, which correspond to mild and severe forms of systemic inflammation, respectively. Mediators of fever and hypothermia are called endogenous pyrogens and cryogens; they are produced when the innate immune system recognizes an infectious pathogen. Upon an inflammatory challenge, hepatic and pulmonary macrophages (and later brain endothelial cells) start to release lipid mediators, of which prostaglandin (PG) E2 plays the key role, and cytokines. Blood PGE2 enters the brain and triggers fever. At later stages of fever, PGE2 synthesized within the blood-brain barrier maintains fever. In both cases, PGE2 is synthesized by cyclooxygenase-2 and microsomal PGE2synthase-1. Mediators of hypothermia are not well established. Both fever and hypothermia are beneficial host defense responses. Based on evidence from studies in laboratory animals and clinical trials in humans, fever is beneficial for fighting mild infection. Based mainly on animal studies, hypothermia is beneficial in severe systemic inflammation and infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andras Garami
- Institute for Translational Medicine, Medical School, University of Pécs, Pécs, Hungary.
| | - Alexandre A Steiner
- Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Andrej A Romanovsky
- Thermoregulation and Systemic Inflammation Laboratory (FeverLab), Trauma Research, St. Joseph's Hospital and Medical Center, Phoenix, AZ, United States
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13
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Circulating and broncho-alveolar interleukin-6 in relation to body temperature in an experimental model of bovine Chlamydia psittaci infection. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0189321. [PMID: 29281663 PMCID: PMC5744922 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0189321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In rodent models of experimentally induced fever, the important role of interleukin-6 (IL-6) as a circulating endogenous pyrogen is well established. Studies employing larger animal species and real infections are scarce. Therefore, we assessed bioactive IL-6 in peripheral blood and in broncho-alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) of calves after intra-bronchial inoculation with vital Chlamydia psittaci (Cp), with inactivated Cp, or with BGM cells. Only calves inoculated with vital Cp developed fever (peak at 2-3 days after challenge) and significantly increased IL-6 activity. Controls inoculated with either inactivated Cp or BGM cells also expressed increased bioactive IL-6, but no fever developed. Activity of IL-6 in BALF was significantly higher compared to blood serum. This experimental model of Cp infection revealed no apparent relation between IL-6 in blood and body temperature, but did reveal a relation between IL-6 and other markers of inflammation in BALF. We conclude that a local inflammatory response in the lungs of infected calves caused fever, which developed by mechanisms including other mediators besides IL-6.
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14
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Hamasato EK, Lovelock D, Palermo-Neto J, Deak T. Assessment of social behavior directed toward sick partners and its relation to central cytokine expression in rats. Physiol Behav 2017; 182:128-136. [PMID: 29031549 PMCID: PMC5672824 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2017.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Revised: 09/26/2017] [Accepted: 10/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Acute illness not only reduces the expression of social behavior by sick rodents, but can also lead to avoidance responses when detected by healthy, would-be social partners. When healthy animals interact with a sick partner, an intriguing question arises: does exposure to a sick conspecific elicit an anticipatory immune response that would facilitate defense against future infection? To address this question, healthy adult male Sprague-Dawley rats (N=64) were given a brief social interaction (30min) with a partner that was either sick (250μg/kg injection with lipopolysaccharide [LPS] 3h prior to test) or healthy (sterile saline injection). During this exposure, social behavior directed toward the healthy or sick conspecific was measured. Additionally, the impact of housing condition was assessed, with rats group- or isolate-housed. Immediately after social interaction, brains were harvested for cytokine assessments within socially-relevant brain structures (olfactory bulb, amygdala, hippocampus and PVN). As expected, behavioral results demonstrated that (i) there was a robust suppression of social interaction directed against sick conspecifics; and (ii) isolate-housing generally increased social behavior. Furthermore, examination of central cytokine expression in healthy experimental subjects revealed a modest increase in TNF-α in rats that interacted with a sick social partner, but only in the olfactory bulb. Among the LPS-injected partners, expected increases in IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α expression were observed across all brain sites. Moreover, IL-1β and IL-6 expression was exacerbated in LPS-injected partners that interacted with isolate-housed experimental subjects. Together, these data replicate and extend our prior work showing that healthy rats avoid sick conspecifics, and provide preliminary evidence for an anticipatory cytokine response when rats are exposed to a sick partner. These data also provide new evidence to suggest that recent housing history potently modulates cytokine responses evoked by LPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eduardo Kenji Hamasato
- Neuroimmunomodulation Research Group, Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil; Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Binghamton University-SUNY, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, United States
| | - Dennis Lovelock
- Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Binghamton University-SUNY, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, United States
| | - João Palermo-Neto
- Neuroimmunomodulation Research Group, Department of Pathology, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Terrence Deak
- Behavioral Neuroscience Program, Department of Psychology, Binghamton University-SUNY, Binghamton, NY 13902-6000, United States.
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15
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Baartman TL, Swanepoel T, Barrientos RM, Laburn HP, Mitchell D, Harden LM. Divergent effects of brain interleukin-1ß in mediating fever, lethargy, anorexia and conditioned fear memory. Behav Brain Res 2017; 324:155-163. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2016] [Revised: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 02/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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16
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Nilsson A, Wilhelms DB, Mirrasekhian E, Jaarola M, Blomqvist A, Engblom D. Inflammation-induced anorexia and fever are elicited by distinct prostaglandin dependent mechanisms, whereas conditioned taste aversion is prostaglandin independent. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 61:236-243. [PMID: 27940259 PMCID: PMC5325121 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2016] [Revised: 11/28/2016] [Accepted: 12/05/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Systemic inflammation evokes an array of brain-mediated responses including fever, anorexia and taste aversion. Both fever and anorexia are prostaglandin dependent but it has been unclear if the cell-type that synthesizes the critical prostaglandins is the same. Here we show that pharmacological inhibition or genetic deletion of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, but not of COX-1, attenuates inflammation-induced anorexia. Mice with deletions of COX-2 selectively in brain endothelial cells displayed attenuated fever, as demonstrated previously, but intact anorexia in response to peripherally injected lipopolysaccharide (10μg/kg). Whereas intracerebroventricular injection of a cyclooxygenase inhibitor markedly reduced anorexia, deletion of COX-2 selectively in neural cells, in myeloid cells or in both brain endothelial and neural cells had no effect on LPS-induced anorexia. In addition, COX-2 in myeloid and neural cells was dispensable for the fever response. Inflammation-induced conditioned taste aversion did not involve prostaglandin signaling at all. These findings collectively show that anorexia, fever and taste aversion are triggered by distinct routes of immune-to-brain signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Nilsson
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Sweden
| | - Daniel Björk Wilhelms
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Sweden,Department of Emergency Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Elahe Mirrasekhian
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Sweden
| | - Maarit Jaarola
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Sweden
| | - Anders Blomqvist
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Sweden
| | - David Engblom
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Sweden.
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17
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Nogueira JE, Soriano RN, Fernandez RAR, Francescato HDC, Saia RS, Coimbra TM, Antunes-Rodrigues J, Branco LGS. Effect of Physical Exercise on the Febrigenic Signaling is Modulated by Preoptic Hydrogen Sulfide Production. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170468. [PMID: 28118407 PMCID: PMC5261610 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 01/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
We tested the hypothesis that the neuromodulator hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in the preoptic area (POA) of the hypothalamus modulates the febrigenic signaling differently in sedentary and trained rats. Besides H2S production rate and protein expressions of H2S-related synthases cystathionine β-synthase (CBS), 3-mercaptopyruvate sulfurtransferase (3-MPST) and cystathionine γ-lyase (CSE) in the POA, we also measured deep body temperature (Tb), circulating plasma levels of cytokines and corticosterone in an animal model of systemic inflammation. Rats run on a treadmill before receiving an intraperitoneal injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 100 μg/kg) or saline. The magnitude of changes of Tb during the LPS-induced fever was found to be similar between sedentary and trained rats. In sedentary rats, H2S production was not affected by LPS. Conversely, in trained rats LPS caused a sharp increase in H2S production rate that was accompanied by an increased CBS expression profile, whereas 3-MPST and CSE expressions were kept relatively constant. Sedentary rats showed a significant LPS-induced release of cytokines (IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α) which was virtually abolished in the trained animals. Correlation between POA H2S and IL-6 as well as TNF-α was observed. Corticosterone levels were augmented after LPS injection in both groups. We found correlations between H2S and corticosterone, and corticosterone and IL-1β. These data are consistent with the notion that the responses to systemic inflammation are tightly regulated through adjustments in POA H2S production which may play an anti-inflammatory role downmodulating plasma cytokines levels and upregulating corticosterone release.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonatas E. Nogueira
- Postgraduate Program in Rehabilitation and Functional Performance, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- School of Physical Education and Sports of Ribeirao Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Renato N. Soriano
- Federal University of Juiz de Fora, Governador Valadares, MG, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo A. R. Fernandez
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Heloísa D. C. Francescato
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Rafael S. Saia
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Terezila M. Coimbra
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - José Antunes-Rodrigues
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Luiz G. S. Branco
- Postgraduate Program in Rehabilitation and Functional Performance, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
- Department of Morphology, Physiology, and Basic Pathology, Dental School of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
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18
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Grace PM, Loram LC, Christianson JP, Strand KA, Flyer-Adams JG, Penzkover KR, Forsayeth JR, van Dam AM, Mahoney MJ, Maier SF, Chavez RA, Watkins LR. Behavioral assessment of neuropathic pain, fatigue, and anxiety in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) and attenuation by interleukin-10 gene therapy. Brain Behav Immun 2017; 59:49-54. [PMID: 27189037 PMCID: PMC5108696 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2015] [Revised: 04/30/2016] [Accepted: 05/14/2016] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis is commonly associated with motor impairments, neuropathic pain, fatigue, mood disorders, and decreased life expectancy. However, preclinical pharmacological studies predominantly rely on clinical scoring of motor deficit as the sole behavioral endpoint. Thus, the translational potential of these studies is limited. Here, we have assessed the therapeutic potential of a novel anti-inflammatory interleukin-10 (IL-10) non-viral gene therapy formulation (XT-101-R) in a rat relapsing remitting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) model. EAE induced motor deficits and neuropathic pain as reflected by induction of low-threshold mechanical allodynia, suppressed voluntary wheel running, decreased social exploration, and was associated with markedly enhanced mortality. We also noted that voluntary wheel running was depressed prior to the onset of motor deficit, and may therefore serve as a predictor of clinical symptoms onset. XT-101-R was intrathecally dosed only once at the onset of motor deficits, and attenuated each of the EAE-induced symptoms and improved survival, relative to vehicle control. This is the first pharmacological assessment of such a broad range of EAE symptoms, and provides support for IL-10 gene therapy as a clinical strategy for the treatment of multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter M. Grace
- Department of Psychology and The Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Lisa C. Loram
- Department of Psychology and The Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - John P. Christianson
- Department of Psychology and The Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Keith A. Strand
- Department of Psychology and The Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Johanna G. Flyer-Adams
- Department of Psychology and The Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Kathryn R. Penzkover
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering Pharmacology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | | | - Anne-Marie van Dam
- Department of Anatomy and Neurosciences, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Melissa J. Mahoney
- Department of Chemical & Biological Engineering Pharmacology, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | - Steven F. Maier
- Department of Psychology and The Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA
| | | | - Linda R. Watkins
- Department of Psychology and The Center for Neuroscience, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, USA,Xalud Therapeutics, San Francisco, CA, USA
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19
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Shattuck EC, Muehlenbein MP. Towards an integrative picture of human sickness behavior. Brain Behav Immun 2016; 57:255-262. [PMID: 27165989 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Revised: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 05/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Sickness behavior, a coordinated set of behavioral changes during infection and elicited by the pro-inflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and interleukin-1β (IL-1β), is well studied in non-human animals. Over the last two decades, several papers have expanded this research to include humans. However, these studies use a variety of research designs, and typically focus on a single cytokine and only a few of the many behavioral changes constituting sickness behavior. Therefore, our understanding of human sickness behavior remains equivocal. To generate a more holistic, integrative picture of this phenomenon, a meta-analysis of the human sickness behavior literature was conducted. Full model results show that both IL-6 and IL-1β have significant relationships with sickness behavior, and the strength of these relationships is affected by a number of study parameters, such as type of immune stimulus and inclusion of controls. In addition to research design heterogeneity, other issues to address in future studies include an unequal focus on different cytokines and different sickness behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric C Shattuck
- Laboratory for Evolutionary Medicine, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States.
| | - Michael P Muehlenbein
- Laboratory for Evolutionary Medicine, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, United States
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20
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Toaff-Rosenstein RL, Gershwin LJ, Tucker CB. Fever, feeding, and grooming behavior around peak clinical signs in bovine respiratory disease1. J Anim Sci 2016; 94:3918-3932. [DOI: 10.2527/jas.2016-0346] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
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21
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Swanepoel T, Sabbar M, Baartman TL, Laburn HP, Mitchell D, Dukhan T, Harden LM. Simulated acute central Mycoplasma infections in rats induce fever, anorexia, body mass stunting and lethargy but spare memory. Physiol Behav 2016; 163:294-304. [PMID: 27180133 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2015] [Revised: 05/09/2016] [Accepted: 05/10/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Despite the documented post-infectious neurological complications of a central nervous system (CNS) Mycoplasma infection in humans, very few studies have investigated the acute inflammatory responses and sickness behaviours induced by CNS Mycoplasma infections. We therefore determined the effect of acute central administration of fibroblast-stimulating lipopeptide-1 (FSL-1), derived from Mycoplasma salivarium, and FAM-20 from a more pathogenic species, namely Mycoplasma pneumoniae, on behavioural and inflammatory responses in rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats had radiotransmitters implanted, intra-abdominally, to measure body temperature and cage activity continuously. After recovery from surgery, rats were conditioned in a fear conditioning task and then immediately received an intra-cisterna magna (i.c.m.) injection of either: (1) FSL-1 (10 or 100μg/5μl) or its vehicle (phosphate-buffered saline, 5μl), or (2) FAM-20 (10 or 100μg/5μl) or its vehicle (dimethyl sulfoxide, 5μl). Body mass and food intake were measured daily. Memory was assessed seven days after injection using fear conditioning tests. A single, i.c.m. injection of either FSL-1 or FAM-20 induced profound, dose-dependent fever, anorexia, lethargy and body mass stunting in rats. Moreover, rats that received an i.c.m. injection of 100μg/5μl FAM-20 had a significant increase in the concentration of IL-1β in both the hypothalamus and the hippocampus for ~27h after injection. Seven days after FSL-1 or FAM-20 injection, when body mass of rats still was stunted, they maintained their memory for fear of the context and for fear of the tone, despite the increase in hippocampal IL-1β concentration after FAM-20 administration. Thus, acute simulated CNS Mycoplasma infections caused pronounced sickness responses and brain inflammation in rats, but spared fear memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanya Swanepoel
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa.
| | - Mariam Sabbar
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa.
| | - Tamzyn L Baartman
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa.
| | - Helen P Laburn
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa
| | - Duncan Mitchell
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa.
| | - Tanusha Dukhan
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa.
| | - Lois M Harden
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg 2193, South Africa.
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22
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Rummel C, Bredehöft J, Damm J, Schweighöfer H, Peek V, Harden LM. Obesity Impacts Fever and Sickness Behavior During Acute Systemic Inflammation. Physiology (Bethesda) 2016; 31:117-30. [DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00049.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Obesity is reaching dramatic proportions in humans and is associated with a higher risk for cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and cognitive alterations, and a higher mortality during infection and inflammation. The focus of the present review is on the influence of obesity on the presentation of fever, sickness behavior, and inflammatory responses during acute systemic inflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Rummel
- Department of Veterinary-Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany; and
| | - Janne Bredehöft
- Department of Veterinary-Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany; and
| | - Jelena Damm
- Department of Veterinary-Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany; and
| | - Hanna Schweighöfer
- Department of Veterinary-Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany; and
| | - Verena Peek
- Department of Veterinary-Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University Giessen, Giessen, Germany; and
| | - Lois M Harden
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
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Hou Y, Li N, Xie G, Wang J, Yuan Q, Jia C, Liu X, Li G, Tang Y, Wang B. Pterostilbene exerts anti-neuroinflammatory effect on lipopolysaccharide-activated microglia via inhibition of MAPK signalling pathways. J Funct Foods 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Excessive eccentric exercise leads to transitory hypothalamic inflammation, which may contribute to the low body weight gain and food intake in overtrained mice. Neuroscience 2015; 311:231-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.10.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2015] [Revised: 10/09/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Poon DCH, Ho YS, You R, Tse HL, Chiu K, Chang RCC. PKR deficiency alters E. coli-induced sickness behaviors but does not exacerbate neuroimmune responses or bacterial load. J Neuroinflammation 2015; 12:212. [PMID: 26585788 PMCID: PMC4653925 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-015-0433-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2015] [Accepted: 11/14/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Systemic inflammation induces neuroimmune activation, ultimately leading to sickness (e.g., fever, anorexia, motor impairments, exploratory deficits, and social withdrawal). In this study, we evaluated the role of protein kinase R (PKR), a serine-threonine kinase that can control systemic inflammation, on neuroimmune responses and sickness. Methods Wild-type (WT) PKR+/+ mice and PKR−/− mice were subcutaneously injected with live Escherichia coli (E. coli) or vehicle. Food consumption, rotarod test performance, burrowing, open field activity, object investigation, and social interaction were monitored. Plasma TNF-α and corticosterone were measured by ELISA. The percentage of neutrophils in blood was deduced from blood smears. Inflammatory gene expression (IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, cyclooxygenase (COX)-2, iNOS) in the liver and the brain (hypothalamus and hippocampus) were quantified by real-time PCR. Blood and lavage fluid (injection site) were collected for microbiological plate count and for real-time PCR of bacterial 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA). Corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) expression in the hypothalamus was also determined by real-time PCR. Results Deficiency of PKR diminished peripheral inflammatory responses following E. coli challenge. However, while the core components of sickness (anorexia and motor impairments) were similar between both strains of mice, the behavioral components of sickness (reduced burrowing, exploratory activity deficits, and social withdrawal) were only observable in PKR−/− mice but not in WT mice. Such alteration of behavioral components was unlikely to be caused by exaggerated neuroimmune activation, by an impaired host defense to the infection, or due to a dysregulated corticosterone response, because both strains of mice displayed similar neuroimmune responses, bacterial titers, and plasma corticosterone profiles throughout the course of infection. Nevertheless, the induction of hypothalamic corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) by E. coli was delayed in PKR−/− mice relative to WT mice, suggesting that PKR deficiency may postpone the CRH response during systemic inflammation. Conclusions Taken together, our findings show that (1) loss of PKR could alter E. coli-induced sickness behaviors and (2) this was unlikely to be due to exacerbated neuroimmune activation, (3) elevated bacterial load, or (4) dysregulation in the corticosterone response. Further studies can address the role of PKR in the CRH response together with its consequence on sickness.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Chun-Hei Poon
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| | - Yuen-Shan Ho
- School of Nursing, Faculty of Health and Social Sciences, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| | - Ran You
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| | - Hei-Long Tse
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| | - Kin Chiu
- Department of Ophthalmology, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| | - Raymond Chuen-Chung Chang
- Laboratory of Neurodegenerative Diseases, School of Biomedical Sciences, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China. .,Research Centre of Heart, Brain, Hormone and Healthy Aging, LKS Faculty of Medicine, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China. .,State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong SAR, China. .,Rm. L1-49, Laboratory Block, Faculty of Medicine Building, 21 Sassoon Road, Pokfulam, Hong Kong SAR, China.
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Harden LM, Kent S, Pittman QJ, Roth J. Fever and sickness behavior: Friend or foe? Brain Behav Immun 2015; 50:322-333. [PMID: 26187566 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2015] [Revised: 07/10/2015] [Accepted: 07/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Fever has been recognized as an important symptom of disease since ancient times. For many years, fever was treated as a putative life-threatening phenomenon. More recently, it has been recognized as an important part of the body's defense mechanisms; indeed at times it has even been used as a therapeutic agent. The knowledge of the functional role of the central nervous system in the genesis of fever has greatly improved over the last decade. It is clear that the febrile process, which develops in the sick individual, is just one of many brain-controlled sickness symptoms. Not only will the sick individual appear "feverish" but they may also display a range of behavioral changes, such as anorexia, fatigue, loss of interest in usual daily activities, social withdrawal, listlessness or malaise, hyperalgesia, sleep disturbances and cognitive dysfunction, collectively termed "sickness behavior". In this review we consider the issue of whether fever and sickness behaviors are friend or foe during: a critical illness, the common cold or influenza, in pregnancy and in the newborn. Deciding whether these sickness responses are beneficial or harmful will very much shape our approach to the use of antipyretics during illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M Harden
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg, South Africa.
| | - S Kent
- School of Psychology and Public Health, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia.
| | - Q J Pittman
- Hotchkiss Brain Institute, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, University of Calgary, Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
| | - J Roth
- Institute of Veterinary-Physiology and -Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany.
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Suppression of Locomotor Activity in Female C57Bl/6J Mice Treated with Interleukin-1β: Investigating a Method for the Study of Fatigue in Laboratory Animals. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140678. [PMID: 26469939 PMCID: PMC4607158 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2015] [Accepted: 09/29/2015] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Fatigue is a disabling symptom in patients with multiple sclerosis and Parkinson’s Disease, and is also common in patients with traumatic brain injury, cancer, and inflammatory disorders. Little is known about the neurobiology of fatigue, in part due to the lack of an approach to induce fatigue in laboratory animals. Fatigue is a common response to systemic challenge by pathogens, a response in part mediated through action of the pro-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β). We investigated the behavioral responses of mice to IL-1β. Female C57Bl/6J mice of 3 ages were administered IL-1β at various doses i.p. Interleukin-1β reduced locomotor activity, and sensitivity increased with age. Further experiments were conducted with middle-aged females. Centrally administered IL-1β dose-dependently reduced locomotor activity. Using doses of IL-1β that caused suppression of locomotor activity, we measured minimal signs of sickness, such as hyperthermia, pain or anhedonia (as measured with abdominal temperature probes, pre-treatment with the analgesic buprenorphine and through sucrose preference, respectively), all of which are responses commonly reported with higher doses. We found that middle-aged orexin-/- mice showed equivalent effects of IL-1β on locomotor activity as seen in wild-type controls, suggesting that orexins are not necessary for IL-1β -induced reductions in wheel-running. Given that the availability and success of therapeutic treatments for fatigue is currently limited, we examined the effectiveness of two potential clinical treatments, modafinil and methylphenidate. We found that these treatments were variably successful in restoring locomotor activity after IL-1β administration. This provides one step toward development of a satisfactory animal model of the multidimensional experience of fatigue, a model that could allow us to determine possible pathways through which inflammation induces fatigue, and could lead to novel treatments for reversal of fatigue.
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Roth J, Blatteis CM. Mechanisms of fever production and lysis: lessons from experimental LPS fever. Compr Physiol 2015; 4:1563-604. [PMID: 25428854 DOI: 10.1002/cphy.c130033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Fever is a cardinal symptom of infectious or inflammatory insults, but it can also arise from noninfectious causes. The fever-inducing agent that has been used most frequently in experimental studies designed to characterize the physiological, immunological and neuroendocrine processes and to identify the neuronal circuits that underlie the manifestation of the febrile response is lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Our knowledge of the mechanisms of fever production and lysis is largely based on this model. Fever is usually initiated in the periphery of the challenged host by the immediate activation of the innate immune system by LPS, specifically of the complement (C) cascade and Toll-like receptors. The first results in the immediate generation of the C component C5a and the subsequent rapid production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). The second, occurring after some delay, induces the further production of PGE2 by induction of its synthesizing enzymes and transcription and translation of proinflammatory cytokines. The Kupffer cells (Kc) of the liver seem to be essential for these initial processes. The subsequent transfer of the pyrogenic message from the periphery to the brain is achieved by neuronal and humoral mechanisms. These pathways subserve the genesis of early (neuronal signals) and late (humoral signals) phases of the characteristically biphasic febrile response to LPS. During the course of fever, counterinflammatory factors, "endogenous antipyretics," are elaborated peripherally and centrally to limit fever in strength and duration. The multiple interacting pro- and antipyretic signals and their mechanistic effects that underlie endotoxic fever are the subjects of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Roth
- Department of Veterinary Physiology and Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University, Giessen, Germany; Department of Physiology, College of Medicine, University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennessee
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Anti-inflammatory Effect of Astaxanthin on the Sickness Behavior Induced by Diabetes Mellitus. Cell Mol Neurobiol 2015; 35:1027-37. [DOI: 10.1007/s10571-015-0197-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
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Bastos-Pereira AL, Leite MCG, Fraga D, Zampronio AR. Central mediators involved in the febrile response induced by polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid: lack of involvement of endothelins and substance P. J Neuroimmunol 2014; 278:100-7. [PMID: 25595258 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2014] [Revised: 12/08/2014] [Accepted: 12/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The present study evaluated the involvement of interleukin(IL)-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), IL-6, interferon(IFN)-γ, prostaglandins of the E2 series, endothelins, substance P and opioids within the central nervous system in polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (Poly I:C)-induced fever in rats. Poly I:C injection induced a febrile response which was reduced by intracerebroventricular administration of the antibodies against TNF-α, IL-6, or IFN-γ, or by IL-1 or μ receptor antagonists. Intraperitoneal injection of indomethacin or oral administration of celecoxib also reduced Poly I:C-induced fever. Poly I:C increased prostaglandin E2 levels in the cerebrospinal fluid of the animals which was also reduced by indomethacin. The intracerebroventricular injection of ETB or NK1 receptor antagonists did not alter Poly I:C-induced fever. These data suggest the involvement of IL-1β, TNF-α, IL-6, IFN-γ, prostaglandin E2, and opioids but not endothelins and substance P on Poly I:C-induced fever.
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Affiliation(s)
- A L Bastos-Pereira
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Paraná, P.O. Box 19031, 81540-970 Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - M C G Leite
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Paraná, P.O. Box 19031, 81540-970 Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - D Fraga
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Paraná, P.O. Box 19031, 81540-970 Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - A R Zampronio
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Paraná, P.O. Box 19031, 81540-970 Curitiba, PR, Brazil.
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Damm J, Wiegand F, Harden LM, Wenisch S, Gerstberger R, Rummel C, Roth J. Intraperitoneal and subcutaneous injections of the TLR9 agonist ODN 1668 in rats: brain inflammatory responses are related to peripheral IL-6 rather than interferons. J Neuroimmunol 2014; 277:105-17. [PMID: 25465287 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2014.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2014] [Revised: 10/20/2014] [Accepted: 10/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Subcutaneous or intraperitoneal administration of Toll-like receptor (TLR)-9 agonist, ODN 1668 caused moderate fever and anorexia. In comparison to stimulation of other intracellular TLRs, activation of TLR9 did not result in pronounced peripheral induction of interferons, but rather induced interleukin-6. Expression of cytokines (TNFα, IL-1β) and inducible forms of enzymes for prostaglandin E2 synthesis occurred in the brain, in conjunction with a moderate activation of the transcription factors STAT3 and NF-IL6 in brain endothelial cells. The lack of a septic-like state in ODN 1668-treated rats reinforces the therapeutic value of this drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Damm
- Institute of Veterinary-Physiology and -Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - F Wiegand
- Institute of Veterinary-Physiology and -Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - L M Harden
- Institute of Veterinary-Physiology and -Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany; Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Parktown, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - S Wenisch
- Institute of Veterinary-Anatomy, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 98, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - R Gerstberger
- Institute of Veterinary-Physiology and -Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - C Rummel
- Institute of Veterinary-Physiology and -Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - J Roth
- Institute of Veterinary-Physiology and -Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig-University of Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany.
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Bastos-Pereira AL, Fraga D, Ott D, Simm B, Murgott J, Roth J, Zampronio AR. Involvement of brain cytokines in zymosan-induced febrile response. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014; 116:1220-9. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.01278.2013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
This study compared the involvement of interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) within the central nervous system (CNS) in the febrile response induced by zymosan (zym) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In addition, we investigated whether zym could activate important regions related to fever; namely, the vascular organ of the laminae terminalis (OVLT) and the median preoptic nucleus (MnPO). Intraperitoneal injection of zym (1, 3, and 10 mg/kg) induced a dose-related increase in core temperature. Zym (3 mg/kg) also reduced tail skin temperature, suggesting the activation of heat conservation mechanisms, as expected, during fever. LPS increased plasma levels of TNF-α measured at 1 h, IL-1β measured at 2 h, and IL-6 measured at 3 h after injection. Zym increased circulating levels of IL-6 but not those of TNF-α or IL-1β at the same time points. In addition, an intracerebroventricular injection of antibodies against TNF-α (2.5 μg) and IL-6 (10 μg) or the IL-1 receptor antagonist (160 ng) reduced the febrile response induced by zym and LPS. Zym (100 μg/ml) also increased intracellular calcium concentration in the OVLT and MnPO from rat primary neuroglial cultures and increased release of TNF-α and IL-6 into the supernatants of these cultures. Together, these results suggest that TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 within the CNS participate in the febrile response induced by zym. However, the time course of release of these cytokines may be different from that of LPS. In addition, zym can directly activate the brain areas related to fever.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Fraga
- Department of Pharmacology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, Brazil; and
| | - Daniela Ott
- Institut für Veterinär-Physiologie, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Björn Simm
- Institut für Veterinär-Physiologie, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Jolanta Murgott
- Institut für Veterinär-Physiologie, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Joachim Roth
- Institut für Veterinär-Physiologie, Justus-Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
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Mohsin S, Kurup GM, Mahadevan R. Effect of ascophyllan from brown algae Padina tetrastromatica on inflammation and oxidative stress in carrageenan-induced rats. Inflammation 2013; 36:1268-78. [PMID: 23760559 DOI: 10.1007/s10753-013-9665-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Sulfated polysaccharide ascophyllan was isolated from the brown algae Padina tetrastromatica and purified by ion-exchange chromatography. Anti-inflammatory effect of ascophyllan fraction against carrageenan-induced paw edema in rats was studied. Paw edema in rats was induced by injecting 0.1 ml, 1 % carrageenan suspension in 0.9 % NaCl solution into the sub-plantar tissue of the right hind paw. Carrageenan caused a significant increase in the activity of inflammatory marker enzymes like lipoxygenases and cyclooxygenase in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and paw tissue and also increased the concentration of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) in paw tissue. When compared to the reference drug diclofenac, ascophyllan fraction-3 (AF3) treatment significantly reduced the activities of anti-inflammatory enzymes, concentration of PGE2 and MPO. AF3 treatment decreased the mRNA level expression of TNF-α and IL-6. Concentration of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances was decreased. Activities of antioxidant enzymes and reduced glutathione level were increased on treatment with AF3. Histopathology of paw tissue showed decreased edema formation and cellular infiltration on supplementation with AF3. Thus the results demonstrated the potential beneficiary effect of ascophyllan fraction on carrageenan-treated rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sulaiman Mohsin
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Kerala, Kariavattom, Thiruvananthapuram, 695 581, India
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Soares DM, Ott D, Melo MCC, Souza GEP, Roth J. Chemokine ligand (CCL)-3 promotes an integrated febrile response when injected within pre-optic area (POA) of rats and induces calcium signaling in cells of POA microcultures but not TNF-α or IL-6 synthesis. Brain Behav Immun 2013; 34:120-9. [PMID: 23999490 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2013.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2013] [Revised: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 08/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Although studies have shown that chemokines are pyrogenic when injected into the brain, there are no data indicating which cell types and receptors in the CNS are employed by chemokines such as CCL3 (synonym: MIP-1α) to induce fever in rats. We aimed to study, whether CCL3 induces fever when injected directly into the thermoregulatory center within the pre-optic area (POA). Moreover, we investigated whether CCL3 activates cells from POA microcultures resulting in intracellular Ca++ mobilization and synthesis/release of TNF-α and IL-6. Microinjections of CCL3 into the POA induced a dose-dependent fever, which was accompanied by a decrease in tail skin temperature. The primary microcultures of the POA (from topographically excised rat pup brain tissue) were stimulated by bolus administrations of 100 μl CCL3 (0.1 or 0.01 μg) or sterile PBS as control. We evaluated the responses of 261 (30.89%) neurons, 346 (40.94%) astrocytes and 238 microglia cells (29.17%). Stimulation of rat POA microcultures with CCL3 was capable of inducing Ca++ signaling in 15.31% of all astrocytes and 5.75% of all neurons investigated. No cellular Ca++-signals were observed after overnight incubation of the cultures with antiCCR1 or antiCCR5 antibodies. CCL3 did not alter the release of the pyrogenic cytokines IL-6 or TNF-α into the supernatant of the cultures. In conclusion the present study shows for the first time that CCL-3 injected directly into the rat POA, evoked an integrated febrile response. In parallel this chemokine induces Ca++ signaling in astrocytes and neurons via both CCR1 and CCR5 receptors when administered to POA microcultures without stimulating the synthesis of TNF-α and IL-6. It is a possibility that CCL3-induced fever may occur via CCR1 and CCR5 receptors stimulation of astrocytes and neurons from POA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denis Melo Soares
- Laboratory of Pharmacology, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Science, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
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Critical role for peripherally-derived interleukin-10 in mediating the thermoregulatory manifestations of fever and hypothermia in severe forms of lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammation. Pflugers Arch 2013; 466:1451-66. [DOI: 10.1007/s00424-013-1371-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2013] [Accepted: 09/23/2013] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Damm J, Harden LM, Gerstberger R, Roth J, Rummel C. The putative JAK-STAT inhibitor AG490 exacerbates LPS-fever, reduces sickness behavior, and alters the expression of pro- and anti-inflammatory genes in the rat brain. Neuropharmacology 2013; 71:98-111. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2013.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2012] [Revised: 02/28/2013] [Accepted: 03/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Skelly DT, Hennessy E, Dansereau MA, Cunningham C. A systematic analysis of the peripheral and CNS effects of systemic LPS, IL-1β, [corrected] TNF-α and IL-6 challenges in C57BL/6 mice. PLoS One 2013; 8:e69123. [PMID: 23840908 PMCID: PMC3698075 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0069123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 06/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is increasingly clear that systemic inflammation has both adaptive and deleterious effects on the brain. However, detailed comparisons of brain effects of systemic challenges with different pro-inflammatory cytokines are lacking. In the present study, we challenged female C57BL/6 mice intraperitoneally with LPS (100 µg/kg), IL-1β (15 or 50 µg/kg), TNF-α (50 or 250 µg/kg) or IL-6 (50 or 125 µg/kg). We investigated effects on core body temperature, open field activity and plasma levels of inflammatory markers at 2 hours post injection. We also examined levels of hepatic, hypothalamic and hippocampal inflammatory cytokine transcripts. Hypothermia and locomotor hypoactivity were induced by LPS>IL-1β>TNF-α>>IL-6. Systemic LPS, IL-1β and TNF-α challenges induced robust and broadly similar systemic and central inflammation compared to IL-6, which showed limited effects, but did induce a hepatic acute phase response. Important exceptions included IFNβ, which could only be induced by LPS. Systemic IL-1β could not induce significant blood TNF-α, but induced CNS TNF-α mRNA, while systemic TNF-α could induce IL-1β in blood and brain. Differences between IL-1β and TNF-α-induced hippocampal profiles, specifically for IL-6 and CXCL1 prompted a temporal analysis of systemic and central responses at 1, 2, 4, 8 and 24 hours, which revealed that IL-1β and TNF-α both induced the chemokines CXCL1 and CCL2 but only IL-1β induced the pentraxin PTX3. Expression of COX-2, CXCL1 and CCL2, with nuclear localisation of the p65 subunit of NFκB, in the cerebrovasculature was demonstrated by immunohistochemistry. Furthermore, we used cFOS immunohistochemistry to show that LPS, IL-1β and to a lesser degree, TNF-α activated the central nucleus of the amygdala. Given the increasing attention in the clinical literautre on correlating specific systemic inflammatory mediators with neurological or neuropsychiatric conditions and complications, these data will provide a useful resource on the likely CNS inflammatory profiles resulting from systemic elevation of particular cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Donal T. Skelly
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
| | - Edel Hennessy
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
| | - Marc-Andre Dansereau
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
| | - Colm Cunningham
- School of Biochemistry and Immunology and Trinity College Institute of Neuroscience, Trinity College, Dublin, Republic of Ireland
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Hatzelmann T, Harden LM, Roth J, Gerstberger R. Antipyretic effect of central [Pyr1]apelin13 on LPS-induced fever in the rat. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 184:6-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.regpep.2013.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2012] [Revised: 01/15/2013] [Accepted: 03/03/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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McCusker RH, Kelley KW. Immune-neural connections: how the immune system's response to infectious agents influences behavior. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013; 216:84-98. [PMID: 23225871 DOI: 10.1242/jeb.073411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 298] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Humans and animals use the classical five senses of sight, sound, touch, smell and taste to monitor their environment. The very survival of feral animals depends on these sensory perception systems, which is a central theme in scholarly research on comparative aspects of anatomy and physiology. But how do all of us sense and respond to an infection? We cannot see, hear, feel, smell or taste bacterial and viral pathogens, but humans and animals alike are fully aware of symptoms of sickness that are caused by these microbes. Pain, fatigue, altered sleep pattern, anorexia and fever are common symptoms in both sick animals and humans. Many of these physiological changes represent adaptive responses that are considered to promote animal survival, and this constellation of events results in sickness behavior. Infectious agents display a variety of pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) that are recognized by pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). These PRR are expressed on both the surface [e.g. Toll-like receptor (TLR)-4] and in the cytoplasm [e.g. nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain (Nod)-like receptors] of cells of the innate immune system, primarily macrophages and dendritic cells. These cells initiate and propagate an inflammatory response by stimulating the synthesis and release of a variety of cytokines. Once an infection has occurred in the periphery, both cytokines and bacterial toxins deliver this information to the brain using both humoral and neuronal routes of communication. For example, binding of PRR can lead to activation of the afferent vagus nerve, which communicates neuronal signals via the lower brain stem (nucleus tractus solitarius) to higher brain centers such as the hypothalamus and amygdala. Blood-borne cytokines initiate a cytokine response from vascular endothelial cells that form the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Cytokines can also reach the brain directly by leakage through the BBB via circumventricular organs or by being synthesized within the brain, thus forming a mirror image of the cytokine milieu in the periphery. Although all cells within the brain are capable of initiating cytokine secretion, microglia have an early response to incoming neuronal and humoral stimuli. Inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines that are induced following bacterial infection blocks the appearance of sickness behaviors. Collectively, these data are consistent with the notion that the immune system communicates with the brain to regulate behavior in a way that is consistent with animal survival.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert H McCusker
- Integrative Immunology and Behavior Program, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801-3873, USA.
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Harden LM, Rummel C, Luheshi GN, Poole S, Gerstberger R, Roth J. Interleukin-10 modulates the synthesis of inflammatory mediators in the sensory circumventricular organs: implications for the regulation of fever and sickness behaviors. J Neuroinflammation 2013; 10:22. [PMID: 23388469 PMCID: PMC3582531 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-10-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Whereas the role played by interleukin (IL)-10 in modulating fever and sickness behavior has been linked to it targeting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in the circulation, liver and spleen, it is not known whether it could directly target the local production of pro-inflammatory cytokines within the sensory circumventricular organs (CVOs) situated within the brain, but outside the blood–brain barrier. Using inactivation of IL-10, we, therefore, investigated whether IL-10 could modulate the synthesis of pro-inflammatory cytokines within the sensory CVOs, in particular the organum vasculosum laminae terminalis (OVLT) and area postrema (AP). Findings Primary OVLT and AP microcultures were established from topographically excised rat pup brain tissue. The microcultures were pretreated with either IL-10 antibodies (AB) (10 μl/350 μl medium) or phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) (10 μl/350 μl medium) before being incubated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) (100 μg/ml) or PBS in complete medium for 6 h. Supernatants were removed from the microcultures after 6 h of incubation with LPS and used for the determination of IL-6 and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. Pre-treating the OVLT and AP microcultures with IL-10 antibodies significantly enhanced the LPS-induced increase in TNF-α and IL-6 in the supernatant obtained from the microcultures. Conclusions Our results show for the first time that the LPS-induced release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in cells cultured from the AP and OVLT can be modulated in the presence of IL-10 antibodies. Thus, we have identified that the sensory CVOs may have a key role to play in both the initiation and modulation of neuroinflammation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lois M Harden
- Brain Function Research Group, School of Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, 7 York Road, Johannesburg, Parktown, South Africa.
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Al-Saffar H, Lewis K, Liu E, Schober A, Corrigan JJ, Shibata K, Steiner AA. Lipopolysaccharide-induced hypothermia and hypotension are associated with inflammatory signaling that is triggered outside the brain. Brain Behav Immun 2013. [PMID: 23207106 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2012.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the neuroimmune mechanisms responsible for the switch from fever to hypothermia observed in severe forms of systemic inflammation. We evaluated whether bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) acting directly on the brain could promote a fever-hypothermia switch as well as the hypotension that is often associated with hypothermia in models of systemic inflammation. At an ambient temperature of 22°C, freely moving rats received intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injections of LPS at doses ranging from 0.5 to 25μg. Despite the use of such high doses, the prevailing thermal response was fever. To investigate if a hypothermic response could be hidden within the prevailing febrile response, rats were pretreated with a cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitor (SC-236, 3.5mg/kg i.v.) known to block fever, but this strategy also failed to reveal any consistent hypothermic response following i.c.v. LPS. At the doses tested, i.c.v. LPS was similarly ineffective at inducing hypotension. Additional doses of LPS did not need to be tested because the 25-μg dose was already sufficient to induce both hypothermia and hypotension when administered peripherally (intra-arterially). An empirical 3D model of the interplay among body temperature, arterial pressure and heart rate following intra-arterial LPS reinforced the strong association of hypothermia with hypotension and, at the same time, exposed a bell-shaped relationship between heart rate and body temperature. In summary, the present study demonstrates that hypothermia and hypotension are triggered exclusively by LPS acting outside the brain and provides an integrated model of the thermal and cardiovascular responses to peripheral LPS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiba Al-Saffar
- Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences, Albany, NY, USA
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Ott D, Wuchert F, Murgott J, Rummel C, Gerstberger R, Roth J. The viral mimetic polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) induces cellular responses in primary cultures from rat brain sites with an incomplete blood-brain barrier. Neurosci Lett 2012; 530:64-8. [PMID: 23022505 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2012.09.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2012] [Revised: 08/30/2012] [Accepted: 09/13/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Primary microcultures of the organum vasculosum laminae terminalis (OVLT) and the area postrema (AP), brain sites with an incomplete blood-brain barrier, were established from topographically excised rat pup tissue, with cellular identification by marker protein-specific immunocytochemistry. Employing the ratio calcium imaging technique, we showed for the first time that polyinosinic:polycytidylic acid (poly I:C) can induce calcium signalling in single OVLT and AP cells. Poly I:C stimulation caused fast, transient rises in intracellular calcium in about 5% of neurons and astrocytes and some microglial cells. Frequently, the responses of astrocytes and microglial cells showed a shorter onset-latency compared to neurons. In addition, exposure to poly I:C led to a time dependent release of bioactive tumour necrosis factor (TNF) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) into the supernatants of OVLT and AP cultures. The demonstration of direct cellular responses of OVLT- and AP-intrinsic cells to stimulations with poly I:C is in agreement with the discovered existence of Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3), the cognate receptor for poly I:C, in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniela Ott
- Department of Veterinary-Physiology and -Biochemistry, Justus-Liebig University Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
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Neurobiological studies of fatigue. Prog Neurobiol 2012; 99:93-105. [PMID: 22841649 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2012.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2011] [Revised: 05/24/2012] [Accepted: 07/09/2012] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Fatigue is a symptom associated with many disorders, is especially common in women and in older adults, and can have a huge negative influence on quality of life. Although most past research on fatigue uses human subjects instead of animal models, the use of appropriate animal models has recently begun to advance our understanding of the neurobiology of fatigue. In this review, results from animal models using immunological, developmental, or physical approaches to study fatigue are described and compared. Common across these animal models is that fatigue arises when a stimulus induces activation of microglia and/or increased cytokines and chemokines in the brain. Neurobiological studies implicate structures in the ascending arousal system, sleep executive control areas, and areas important in reward. In addition, the suprachiasmatic nucleus clearly plays an important role in homeostatic regulation of the neural network mediating fatigue. This nucleus responds to cytokines, shows decreased amplitude firing rate output in models of fatigue, and responds to exercise, one of our few treatments for fatigue. This is a young field but very important as the symptom of fatigue is common across many disorders and we do not have effective treatments.
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Maes M, Berk M, Goehler L, Song C, Anderson G, Gałecki P, Leonard B. Depression and sickness behavior are Janus-faced responses to shared inflammatory pathways. BMC Med 2012; 10:66. [PMID: 22747645 PMCID: PMC3391987 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-10-66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 403] [Impact Index Per Article: 33.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2012] [Accepted: 06/29/2012] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
It is of considerable translational importance whether depression is a form or a consequence of sickness behavior. Sickness behavior is a behavioral complex induced by infections and immune trauma and mediated by pro-inflammatory cytokines. It is an adaptive response that enhances recovery by conserving energy to combat acute inflammation. There are considerable phenomenological similarities between sickness behavior and depression, for example, behavioral inhibition, anorexia and weight loss, and melancholic (anhedonia), physio-somatic (fatigue, hyperalgesia, malaise), anxiety and neurocognitive symptoms. In clinical depression, however, a transition occurs to sensitization of immuno-inflammatory pathways, progressive damage by oxidative and nitrosative stress to lipids, proteins, and DNA, and autoimmune responses directed against self-epitopes. The latter mechanisms are the substrate of a neuroprogressive process, whereby multiple depressive episodes cause neural tissue damage and consequent functional and cognitive sequelae. Thus, shared immuno-inflammatory pathways underpin the physiology of sickness behavior and the pathophysiology of clinical depression explaining their partially overlapping phenomenology. Inflammation may provoke a Janus-faced response with a good, acute side, generating protective inflammation through sickness behavior and a bad, chronic side, for example, clinical depression, a lifelong disorder with positive feedback loops between (neuro)inflammation and (neuro)degenerative processes following less well defined triggers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Maes
- Maes Clinics @ TRIA, Piyavate Hospital, 998 Rimklongsamsen Road, Bangkok 10310, Thailand.
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Damm J, Wiegand F, Harden LM, Gerstberger R, Rummel C, Roth J. Fever, sickness behavior, and expression of inflammatory genes in the hypothalamus after systemic and localized subcutaneous stimulation of rats with the Toll-like receptor 7 agonist imiquimod. Neuroscience 2011; 201:166-83. [PMID: 22116053 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2011.11.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2011] [Revised: 11/03/2011] [Accepted: 11/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The Toll-like receptor 7 (TLR7) agonist imiquimod is used for topical treatment of skin cancers. We studied the consequences of injections of imiquimod into a subcutaneous (s.c.) air pouch or of intraperitoneal (i.p.) injections on the manifestation of fever, sickness behavior, and the peripheral and brain-intrinsic induction of a variety of inflammatory molecules. Rats were given imiqimod s.c. or i.p. (1 or 5 mg/kg). Body temperature, motor activity, and food and water intake were recorded by telemetric devices. Peripheral and brain-intrinsic induction of inflammatory mediators was analyzed by real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), bioassays, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), and immunohistochemistry. Imiquimod is the first TLR-agonist to produce more potent effects with s.c. than i.p. administration. Peripheral induction of interferons (IFNs) and putative circulating pyrogens corresponded to the magnitude of the illness responses. In the brain, an expression of cytokines (TNFα, IL-1β, and IL-6) and inducible forms of enzymes for prostaglandin E2 synthesis (COX-2 and mPGES) occurred, which was accompanied by a moderate activation of the transcription factors NFκB and STAT3, and a strong activation of the transcription factor NF-IL6, in cells of specific areas with an open blood-brain barrier. These inflammatory responses noted within the brain were more marked after s.c. administration, than i.p. administration of imiquimod. At a dose of 5 mg/kg, imiquimod causes rather moderate brain-inflammatory responses, which are related to peripheral IFN-expression and possibly mediated by brain-intrinsic activation of NF-IL6 and induction of a proinflammatory cocktail. The lack of a septic-like state in imiquimod-treated rats reinforces the therapeutic use of this drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Damm
- Institut für Veterinär-Physiologie und -Biochemie, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, Frankfurter Strasse 100, D-35392 Giessen, Germany
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Dissociation between learning and memory impairment and other sickness behaviours during simulated Mycoplasma infection in rats. Brain Behav Immun 2011; 25:1607-16. [PMID: 21635947 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2011.05.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2011] [Revised: 05/13/2011] [Accepted: 05/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
To investigate potential consequences for learning and memory, we have simulated the effects of Mycoplasma infection, in rats, by administering fibroblast-stimulating lipopepide-1 (FSL-1), a pyrogenic moiety of Mycoplasma salivarium. We measured the effects on body temperature, cage activity, food intake, and on spatial learning and memory in a Morris Water Maze. Male Sprague-Dawley rats had radio transponders implanted to measure abdominal temperature and cage activity. After recovery, rats were assigned randomly to receive intraperitoneal (I.P.) injections of FSL-1 (500 or 1000 μg kg(-1) in 1 ml kg(-1) phosphate-buffered saline; PBS) or vehicle (PBS, 1 ml kg(-1)). Body mass and food intake were measured daily. Training in the Maze commenced 18 h after injections and continued daily for four days. Spatial memory was assessed on the fifth day. In other rats, we measured concentrations of brain pro-inflammatory cytokines, interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-6, at 3 and 18 h after injections. FSL-1 administration induced a dose-dependent fever (∼1°C) for two days, lethargy (∼78%) for four days, anorexia (∼65%) for three days and body mass stunting (∼6%) for at least four days. Eighteen hours after FSL-1 administration, when concentrations of IL-1β, but not that of IL-6, were elevated in both the hypothalamus and the hippocampus, and when rats were febrile, lethargic and anorexic, learning in the Maze was unaffected. There also was no memory impairment. Our results support emerging evidence that impaired learning and memory is not inevitable during simulated infection.
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Hains LE, Loram LC, Taylor FR, Strand KA, Wieseler JL, Barrientos RM, Young JJ, Frank MG, Sobesky J, Martin TJ, Eisenach JC, Maier SF, Johnson JD, Fleshner M, Watkins LR. Prior laparotomy or corticosterone potentiates lipopolysaccharide-induced fever and sickness behaviors. J Neuroimmunol 2011; 239:53-60. [PMID: 21907418 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2011.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2011] [Revised: 08/12/2011] [Accepted: 08/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Stimulating sensitized immune cells with a subsequent immune challenge results in potentiated pro-inflammatory responses translating into exacerbated sickness responses (i.e. fever, pain and lethargy). Both corticosterone (CORT) and laparotomy cause sensitization, leading to enhanced sickness-induced neuroinflammation or pain (respectively). However, it is unknown whether this sensitization affects all sickness behaviors and immune cell responses equally. We show that prior CORT and prior laparotomy potentiated LPS-induced fever but not lethargy. Prior CORT, like prior laparotomy, was able to potentiate sickness-induced pain. Release of nitric oxide (NO) from peritoneal macrophages stimulated ex vivo demonstrates that laparotomy, but not CORT sensitizes these cells.
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