Taekwondo training improves sensory organization and balance control in children with developmental coordination disorder: a randomized controlled trial

The Effects of Physical Activity Interventions on Children's Perception: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Perception is an essential component of children's psychological development, which is foundational to children's ability to understand and adapt to their external environment. Perception is also a crucial tool for understand and navigating one's surroundings, enabling children to identify objects and react appropriately to settings or situations. Substantial evidence indicates that engaging in physical activity is beneficial for the development of children's perceptual abilities, as the two are closely intertwined. Still, more research is necessary to gain a full understanding of the impact of physical activity on children's perception. To further identify and quantify the effects of physical activity on a number of specific perceptions in children. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Searches were performed using five online databases (i.e., PubMed, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, Web of Science, and Cochrane Library) for articles published up to and including June 2023 to identify eligible citations. A total of 12 randomized controlled trials, encompassing 1,761 children under the age of 12, were analyzed. Overall, physical activity as an intervention showed a notable effect on the development of children's perceptions. The meta-analysis indicated that participating in physical activity for 30 minutes around, daily, had a greater impact on children's visual perception and executive functioning than on their motor perception, body perception, and global self-worth (SMD = 1.33, 95% CI: 0.75, 1.91, p < 0.001). The effects of physical activity on children's perception performance varied by participant characteristics, with physical activity having better effects on body perception and overall self-worth in children who were obese or overweight. Furthermore, physical activity can also enhance executive function and attention in children with developmental coordination disorders. The effects of physical activity on children's perception performance varied according to the intervention time, with different activity durations resulting in different perception performances. Therefore, parents and educators must prioritize an appropriate length of physical activity time for children to ensure their optimal growth and development. Registration and protocol CRD42023441119.

Effects of a Tailored Pediatric Rehabilitation Protocol on Children With Neurometabolic Disorder: A Case Report

Neurometabolic disorders encompass a diverse group of conditions characterized by inborn errors of metabolism, affecting various aspects of neurological function. This case report focuses on an 11-year-old male child with a neurometabolic disorder who presents with walking difficulties, speech impairment, and neurological symptoms. The background emphasizes the heterogeneity of neurometabolic disorders, their genetic and clinical complexity, and the need for tailored interventions to address specific manifestations. The primary aim of this study is to implement a comprehensive physiotherapy intervention plan for an 11-year-old male child with a neurometabolic disorder, targeting the improvement of gait abnormalities, regaining developmental milestones, and addressing associated challenges such as fatigue. The physiotherapy intervention plan employs a multifaceted approach, incorporating principles of neuroplasticity, motor learning, and adaptive strategies. A comprehensive gait training protocol involves proper orthotic fitting, forearm support walker training, treadmill exercises, and parallel bar training. Developmental milestones are addressed through motor and fine motor skill exercises. Coping strategies and energy conservation techniques are integrated to manage fatigue. The study utilizes outcome measures, including the Gross Motor Function Measure, Manual Ability Classification System, and Functional Independence Measure, to assess the impact of the intervention on the patient's functional abilities. Preliminary findings suggest promising improvements in gait, motor skills, and overall functional independence following the implemented physiotherapy intervention. The study underscores the potential effectiveness of a tailored approach rooted in neuroplasticity and motor learning principles for individuals with neurometabolic disorders. The patient-centered care model, encompassing coping strategies and energy conservation techniques, contributes to holistic well-being. While specific literature on these interventions in neurometabolic disorders is limited, the study provides valuable insights and calls for further research to refine and expand tailored therapeutic approaches in this challenging clinical context.

Lateralization of the cerebral network of inhibition in children before and after cognitive training

Inhibitory control (IC) plays a critical role in cognitive and socio-emotional development. IC relies on a lateralized cortico-subcortical brain network including the inferior frontal cortex, anterior parts of insula, anterior cingulate cortex, caudate nucleus and putamen. Brain asymmetries play a critical role for IC efficiency. In parallel to age-related changes, IC can be improved following training. The aim of this study was to (1) assess the lateralization of IC network in children (N = 60, 9-10 y.o.) and (2) examine possible changes in neural asymmetry of this network from anatomical (structural MRI) and functional (resting-state fMRI) levels after 5-week computerized IC vs. active control (AC) training. We observed that IC training, but not AC training, led to a leftward lateralization of the putamen anatomy, similarly to what is observed in adults, supporting that training could accelerate the maturation of this structure.

A Clinical Practice Guide to Enhance Physical Activity Participation for Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder in Canada

Purpose

This clinical practice guide (CPG) aims to provide evidence-based recommendations for promoting and enhancing the participation and integration of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) into physical activities that take place in the home, school, community, or rehabilitation clinic contexts.

Methods

A panel of key stakeholders relevant to these contexts (parents, instructors, rehabilitation professionals) developed evidence-based recommendations using a consensus methodology after reviewing results from a recent systematic review of relevant literature. The quality of the evidence on which the recommendations were based was evaluated (2011 Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine Levels of Evidence scale) as was the strength of the final CPG recommendations (American Society of Plastic Surgeons Grade Recommendation Scale).

Results

Recommendations (n = 50; 36% supported by robust, empirically derived evidence) for the different stakeholder groups fell into three categories: 1) Choose an appropriate activity for your child, 2) Harmonize the activity with the child's interests and abilities, and 3) Help the child learn new movements prior to the activity.

Conclusions

This comprehensive CPG provides concrete recommendations, based on the currently available evidence, that can be used by stakeholders to address the physical activity participation and integration needs of children with DCD in a variety of contexts.

The Effect of a Short-Term Occupational Therapy Intervention on the Participation and Personal Factors of Preschoolers with Developmental Disabilities

BACKGROUND

Preschoolers with developmental disabilities are referred to occupational therapy due to their decreased participation in daily life occupations. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the improvement in preschoolers' participation and sensory-motor abilities following an occupational therapy intervention.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A prospective cohort study of 38 preschoolers and their parents was conducted using an interrupted time-series design, including assessments at three time points: base line (upon referral to an occupational therapy assessment), pre-intervention, and post-intervention after 9-12 sessions of occupational therapy interventions. Children were evaluated with the Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, as well as the balance and fine motor precision sub tests of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency. Parents completed the Children's Participation Questionnaire and the Child Performance Skills Questionnaire. Each intervention session was documented by the therapists using the Documentation of Occupational Therapy Session Intervention form.

RESULTS

Significant improvement in children's sensory-motor abilities were found in balance, visual integration, and fine motor precision post-intervention. There were also improvements in the measures of diversity, children's independence, and parental satisfaction.

CONCLUSIONS

A short-term occupational therapy intervention applied to preschoolers with developmental disabilities is effective in improving their sensory-motor abilities, as well as in promoting their participation in daily activities.

Social exercise interventions for children who have complex developmental needs: A systematic review

Exercise interventions are identified as effective treatments for children not meeting developmental milestones. This systematic review synthesizes research regarding exercise interventions that involved social participatory elements, for children with complex developmental needs. Academic Search Complete, CINAHL, Emcare, Proquest Theses and Dissertations, MEDLINE, and Google Scholar were searched systematically for relevant studies. Peer-reviewed studies meeting the review aim and published between 2000 and 2021 in English, were included. Methodological quality of 49 eligible studies (47 controlled trials, two mixed methods, total of 2355 participants) was appraised using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. Narrative synthesis identified two groups of studies: Group 1 incorporated intentional social participatory elements; Group 2 likely involved incidental social participation. Most studies were of moderate to low methodological quality. Few measured impacts of interventions upon total physical activity levels. Short-term improvements in physical outcomes - particularly motor skills - were most frequently reported and were the main benefit of social exercise interventions for children with complex developmental needs, for which evidence exists. Further rigorous, longitudinal research is needed to assess social, psychological, and executive function outcomes of social exercise interventions in this population. Such interventions should incorporate booster sessions to provide children with greater opportunity to meet developmental milestones.

Mediolateral Postural Control Mechanisms and Proprioception Improve With Kicking Sports Training During Adolescence

Sensorimotor stimulation during the sensitive period is crucial for proper brain development. Kicking sports (KS) training stimulates these sensorimotor functions. The purpose of this study was to investigate if incorporating specific sensorimotor stimulation in mediolateral axis and proprioceptive inputs during KS training will improve the specific sensorimotor performance in adolescents. We assessed stability limits in 13 KS practitioners and 20 control participants. Starting from an upright position, subjects were asked to lean as far as possible (forward, backward, rightward, and leftward). Three sensory conditions were tested: (1) eyes open, (2) eyes closed, and (3) eyes closed while standing on a foam mat. We analyzed the maximal center of pressure excursion and the root means square of the center of pressure displacements. Results showed that KS group had smaller root means square and larger maximal center of pressure excursions than those of control participants in mediolateral axis in all sensory conditions. Furthermore, the results also revealed a significant smaller root means square excursion in KS group under foam mat condition compared to control group ML axis. This study provides evidence that KS training improved the lateral balance control and proprioceptive integration.

Table Tennis, as a Method of Sensorimotor Training, Induces Haptic and Motor Gains in Children With a Probable Developmental Coordination Disorder

This study examined whether table tennis as a method of sensorimotor training improves haptic and motor function and to what extent haptic function gain correlates with changes in motor ability in children with probable developmental coordination disorder (pDCD). Children with pDCD were randomly assigned to the table tennis and nontraining control groups. The children in the table tennis group received 36 sessions of table tennis training, including ball balancing, hitting the ball against the wall, strokes, and serving. Haptic sensitivity, acuity, and motor function domains were measured. The results showed a 41.5% improvement in haptic sensitivity in children exposed to table tennis training compared with 2.8% in those without training. This improved haptic sensitivity significantly correlated with motor function gain, suggesting that somatosensory gains occur simultaneously with changes in motor function in children with pDCD. This novel upper limb motor training approach may be an interesting method of sensorimotor training in neurological rehabilitation in children with pDCD.

Tai chi-muscle power training for children with developmental coordination disorder: a randomized controlled trial

This study compared the effectiveness of tai chi (TC) muscle power training (MPT), TC alone, MPT alone, and no training for improving the limits of stability (LOS) and motor and leg muscular performance and decreasing falls in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). One hundred and twenty-one children with DCD were randomly assigned to the TC-MPT, TC, MPT, or control group. The three intervention groups received TC-MPT, TC, or MPT three times per week for 3 months. Measurements were taken before and after the intervention period. The primary outcomes were the LOS completion time and dynamic LOS scores. The secondary outcomes included the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-Second Edition total test score and percentile rank, knee muscle peak force and time to peak force, and the number of falls. None of the interventions affected the LOS test scores. Improvements in the peak forces of the knee extensors and flexors were demonstrated in the TC (p = 0.006) and MPT groups (p = 0.032), respectively. The number of falls also decreased in these two groups (p < 0.001). Thus, clinicians may prescribe TC or MPT for children with DCD to increase their knee muscle strength and reduce their risk of falls.

Effects of Chinese Martial Arts on Motor Skills in Children between 5 and 6 Years of Age: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Children’s motor skills can be fully developed only by the appropriate stimulation of physical activities and the environment, and the poor development of motor skills greatly increases the risk of cognitive impairment, obesity, and movement coordination disorder. This study aimed to examine the effects of Chinese martial arts on the motor skills of preschool children aged 5−6 years through a randomized controlled trial. A total of 87 children aged 5−6 years served as participants in a martial arts sensory teaching group (MAST, n = 29), a martial arts traditional teaching group (MATT, n = 29), and a free activity group (FA, n = 29). The interventions were conducted twice weekly for a total of 10 weeks, with each session lasting 30 min. Children’s motor skills were assessed before and after the intervention using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2). The results indicated that the balance index scores in the MAST (p < 0.001) and MATT (p = 0.014) groups were significantly higher than those in the FA and that the MAST score was significantly higher than the MATT (p = 0.004). Meanwhile, the MAST was significantly higher in total scores on motor skills when compared to the FA (p = 0.039), and the MAST showed significantly higher scores on manual dexterity when compared to both the MATT (p = 0.021) and FA (p = 0.011). Chinese martial arts can significantly improve the balance ability of preschool children, and the MAST method was found to be better than that of the MATT. Meanwhile, the MAST had good potential for the development of preschool children’s manual dexterity and their overall level of motor skills.

The effect of karate interventions on the motor proficiency of female adolescents with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) from high and low socio-economic status

Background

There is not a general consensus on the best type of intervention to improve the motor proficiency (MP) of adolescents with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Considering the effect of socio-economic status (SES) in relation to the MP of adolescents with DCD, it is necessary to examine this issue further. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of Karate-Do interventions on the MP of adolescents with DCD from high/low SES.

Methods

Participants included 16 adolescent girls (12 to 13 years old) with DCD, and their classification into high/low SES groups was done by using appropriate previously validated questionnaire. A short form of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, Second Edition (BOT-2), was used to assess fine motor precision, fine motor integration, manual dexterity, upper limb coordination, bilateral coordination, balance, strength, speed, agility, and overall MP level of the participants. Both high/low-SES groups completed a specifically prescribed Karate-Do intervention program for 8 consecutive weeks (3 sessions per week with each session lasting for 75 min).

Results

Results from this 8-week intervention showed that the pattern of change in manual dexterity, bilateral coordination, strength and the total MP score improved over time in both groups with varied socioeconomic backgrounds. Specifically, the high-SES group performed significantly better than their low-SES counterparts during the 8-week Karate-Do intervention (p < 0.05).

Conclusions

Following participants’ completion of the Karate-Do intervention, the existence of significant changes in the MP of adolescents’ with DCD at high/low SES confirmed our hypothesis. Compared to the low-SES group, adolescents with high SES displayed superior MP following the intervention. It seems that karate (kata) training serves as a good alternative for rehabilitation MP programs, however, an important issue concerning social infrastructure is to create a suitable exercise environment for adolescents at lower SES. Until the SES achievement gap in female adolescent MP is stable, future work is warranted to discover more practical and meaningful interventions.

Effects of Aquatic Training in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder

Simple Summary

Swimming can be an alternative in the physical exercise curriculum to improve the motor abilities as well as the social behavior and communication skills of children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in schools and institutions. It is important to assess the effects of different forms of aquatic training (e.g., technical vs. game-based) to improve motor and stereotypy skills as well as emotion regulation in autistic children. This information should be of great interest to professionals to choose the appropriate training form to improve each of these abilities. The finding that both forms of swimming had a positive effect on gross motor skills and stereotyped behaviors in autistic children is in agreement with the accumulated evidence of swimming’s effectiveness to alleviate symptoms of motor and behavioral problems. In contrast, emotion regulation is not likely to improve after a short intervention period. The preliminary findings of this study are an important guidance for future researchers to further examine the neurophysiological and cognitive mechanisms of exercise–emotion and exercise–behavior relationships in children with ASD.

Abstract

A variety of aquatic training regimens have been found to be beneficial for individuals with autism spectrum disorders (ASD) in multiple domains. This study investigated and compared the efficacy of two aquatic training regimens (technical vs. game-based) on gross motor skills, stereotypy behavior and emotion regulation in children with ASD. Twenty-two autistic children were randomly assigned into three groups: two experimental groups performed either a technical aquatic program or a game-based aquatic program and a control group. Participants were assessed before and after an 8-week training period, with the Test of Gross Motor Development, the stereotypy subscale of the Gilliam Autism Rating Scale, and the Emotion Regulation Checklist. A significant effect for time was found in gross motor skills and stereotypy behavior in both experimental groups. An improvement in gross motor skills was observed in both experimental groups compared to the control group. A small pre-post change effect in emotion functioning was found in all groups. No significant differences were observed between the experimental groups in all assessed variables. Our findings provide additional evidence suggesting the effectiveness of beneficial effects of aquatic activities on the motor and social skills that underpin the hypothesis that motor and intellectual domains are highly interrelated in autistic children.

Validity and reliability of balance Y-MED application in chronic mechanical low back pain patients

Background

Low back pain patients suffer from balance disturbance. Balance allows a person to interact with the surrounding environment and to do his daily activities. As recent technology has facilitated patient monitoring and enhanced our ability to monitor patients remotely, smartphone apps have been developed to achieve this goal. There are various balance assessment instruments used nowadays. It may be subjective or objective assessments. This study was applied to verify if the measurements of balance Y-MED smartphone applications are valid and reliable compared to the HUMAC balance board in order to offer easy, fast, cost-effective, and time-effective valid and reliable balance assessment that can be used in a clinical setting.

Methods

Fifty-four patients (12 males and 42 females) with chronic mechanical low back pain for more than 3 months was volunteered to participate in the current study with an age range of 25–60 years and BMI range of 18–34 kg/m2. Compared with the HUMAC balance board, the validity of the balance Y-MED smartphone application is evaluated, and the test-retest reliability of the balance Y-MED smartphone application is obtained by the same examiner 3 times.

Results

For concurrent validity, the correlations between balance measurements by Y-MED smartphone application and HUMAC balance board were not significant in both eyes open (r = − 0.12, p = 0.38) and eyes closed (r = 0.26, p = 0.054). The smartphone application showed poor test-retest reliability measurement of balance with eyes open; (ICC was 0.279, with 95% CI − 0.117–0.554) and with eyes closed (ICC was − 0.159, with 95% CI − 0.814–0.287).

Conclusions

According to the evaluation scheme selected in this study, the researchers were unable to confirm the validity of the balance Y-MED smartphone application in the balance assessment of patients with mechanical chronic low back pain. More than that, the balance Y-MED smartphone application has been shown poor score reliability. This makes it inaccurate for use in assessment balance.

Effectiveness of Occupational Therapy Using a Sensory Integration Approach: A Multiple-Baseline Design Study

IMPORTANCE

Occupational therapy using an Ayres Sensory Integration® (ASI) approach is a common intervention that has not been extensively studied in children with idiopathic sensory processing and integration challenges (e.g., without a diagnosis of autism).

OBJECTIVE

To test the effectiveness of ASI using measures related to motor coordination and functional performance in children with a sensory-based motor disorder (SBMD).

DESIGN

Nonconcurrent, multiple baseline, single subject.

SETTING

Outpatient clinic that was part of a children's hospital in an urban setting.

PARTICIPANTS

Three boys (ages 5-8 yr) with an SBMD.

INTERVENTION

Each participant received ASI 3 times per week for 10 wk. Outcomes and Measures: Three motor probes were measured weekly. Pre- and posttest assessments included goal attainment scaling (GAS) and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Second Edition (BOT-2).

RESULTS

All 3 participants showed improvements in motor probes during the intervention period on the basis of a 2 SD band method of analysis. Statistically significant improvements were noted across GAS goals, and positive changes were found on the BOT-2, with large effect sizes.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Findings suggest improved motor performance and high goal achievement using ASI for children with idiopathic sensory processing and integration challenges. What This Article Adds: This study adds to a body of literature suggesting that ASI is effective in increasing functional performance in children with sensory processing and integration challenges. Future studies using multiple baseline designs are feasible in the clinic setting and can help build the evidence base for ASI.

Perception of Self-Efficacy and Health-Related Behavior in Context of Taekwon-Do Sport Camps

Background: The aim of this paper is to expand the knowledge on the subject matter of the relations between behavior that is geared towards health and the feeling of effectiveness in the context of martial arts tourism in the form of Taekwon-do training summer camps. Method: The research encompassed 58 people (32 men and 26 women) who train Taekwon-do (ITF) (aged: 26.36 ± 8.97; scope: 18–45 years of age). The measurement of the feeling of effectiveness and healthy behavior was conducted by means of standardized tools, including the General Self-Efficacy Scale. Results: The analyzed fighters who participated in the research in the majority of the sports meetings declared a higher level of the feeling of effectiveness (p < 0.001). Through cluster analysis emerged two groups, with a significant difference between self-efficacy (mean value of 20.05 points in contrast to 33.93 points in the second group). The group with higher psychological indices values attended a higher amount of summer camps during their practice history (at least two camps attended in the second cluster). Conclusion: Sports tourism connected with martial arts, as exemplified by training groups (professionally organized training camps) of Taekwon-do (ITF), is connected with the increased feeling of personal effectiveness, while also serving the enhancement of psycho-physical health, well-being, and the development of social skills.

Preliminary Improvements in Dynamic Postural Control after A Group-based Intervention Program for Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Brief Report

OBJECTIVE

To determine the value of a traditional (easy to implement) group-based intervention program on both static and dynamic postural control in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD).

METHODS

Sway and stability indices were measured with the Clinical Test of Sensory Integration in Balance (CTSIB) and efficiency of goal-directed movement was measured during a Limits-of-Stability (LoS) task, before and after the intervention program. The intervention involved a total of 10 one-hour group sessions, administered once per week for 10 weeks.

RESULTS

Results indicated significant group increases in dynamic postural control (p <.05). These results suggest it is possible to improve dynamic postural control in this population. This type of intervention does not require any expensive materials, it is feasible, and easy-to-implement to a group of children.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that this simple form of intervention involving fun group activities can significantly improve dynamic postural control in children with DCD.

Studies on Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder in the Past 20 Years: A Bibliometric Analysis via CiteSpace

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have been commonly observed and drawn an increasing amount of attention over the past decades. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the origin, current hotspots, and research trends on children with DCD using a bibliometric tool. After searching with "children" and "developmental coordination disorder" as the "topic" and "title" words, respectively, 635 original articles with 12,559 references were obtained from the electronic databases, Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC). CiteSpace V.5.7.R2 was used to perform the analysis. The number of publications in this field was increasing over the past two decades. John Cairney from the Department of Family Medicine, McMaster University, Canada, was found to be the most productive researcher. Meanwhile, McMaster University and Canada were the most productive research institution and country, respectively. Reference and journal co-citation analyses revealed the top landmark articles and clusters in this field. Clumsiness was the most strength burst keyword. Moreover, task, meta-analysis, difficulty, adult, and impact will be the active research hotspots in future. These findings provide the trends and frontiers in the field of children with DCD, and valuable information for clinicians and scientists to identify new perspectives with potential collaborators and cooperative countries.

Physical Therapy Management of Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder: An Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guideline From the Academy of Pediatric Physical Therapy of the American Physical Therapy Association

BACKGROUND

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD), classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), affects approximately 5% to 6% of school-aged children. Characteristics of DCD include poor motor coordination and delayed development of motor skills, not explained by other conditions. Motor deficits negatively affect school productivity, performance in activities of daily living, and recreation participation. Children with coordination problems, at risk for or diagnosed with DCD, should be evaluated by a team of professionals, including a physical therapist (PT).

PURPOSE

This clinical practice guideline (CPG) provides management strategies for PTs and informs clinicians and families about DCD. It links 13 action statements with specific levels of evidence through critical appraisal of the literature and provides recommendations for implementation.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS

The DCD CPG addresses examination, referral, first choice and supplemental interventions, discharge, compliance audits, implementation, and research recommendations. Supplemental tools are provided to support PT management.

Neuromuscular training for children with developmental coordination disorder: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Adaptive balance control is often compromised in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Neuromuscular training (NMT) is commonly used in clinical settings to improve neuromuscular control and hence balance performance in these children. However, its effectiveness has not been proven scientifically. This randomized controlled study aimed to explore the effectiveness of NMT for improving adaptive balance performance and the associated leg muscle activation times in children with DCD.

METHODS

Eighty-eight children with DCD were randomly assigned to the NMT or control group (44 per group). The NMT group received two 40-minute NMT sessions/week for 3 months, whereas the control group received no intervention. The outcomes were measured at baseline and 3 and 6 months. The primary outcome was the sway energy score (SES) in both the toes-up and toes-down conditions as derived using the Adaptation Test (ADT). Secondary outcomes included the medial gastrocnemius, medial hamstring, tibialis anterior and rectus femoris muscle activation onset latencies during ADT, measured using surface electromyography and accelerometry. Data were analyzed using a repeated measures analysis of covariance based on the intention-to-treat principle.

RESULTS

At 3 months, no significant within-group or between-group differences were noted in the SESs for either group. At 6 months, the toes-down SES decreased by 6.8% compared to the baseline value in exclusively the NMT group (P = .004). No significant time, group or group-by-time interaction effects were observed in any leg muscle activation outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

Short-term NMT failed to improve adaptive balance performance and leg muscle activation times in children with DCD. Further studies should explore the clinical applications of longer-term task-specific interventions intended to improve the adaptive balance performance of these children.

Recruitment, use, and satisfaction with a web platform supporting families of children with suspected or diagnosed developmental coordination disorder: a randomized feasibility trial

Objectives. To determine the feasibility of recruiting families of children with suspected or diagnosed developmental coordination disorder (sdDCD) and explore their satisfaction with a web-based intervention Design. A feasibility randomized trial was conducted. Participants were the parents of 5-12-year-old children with sdDCD. The intervention group had access to online resources, group and private forums, and videoconferencing with a therapist. Main outcomes were recruitement and retention rates. Satisfaction was documented through a post-intervention survey and interview. Results. The recruitment rate was seven participants per month (n = 28 participants) and retention rate was 68%. Satisfaction was moderate. No differences in use and satisfaction were observed between groups. Participants formulated recommendations for improving the intervention, including targeting families earlier in the diagnosis process, and pre-scheduling meetings with therapists. Conclusions. This study demonstrated the feasibility of future trials, and highlighted avenues for improvement. Parent involvement during the development of the intervention is discussed at length. Abbreviations: DCD: Developmental Coordination Disorder; sdDCD: suspected or diagnosed Developmental Coordination Disorder; RCT: randomized-controled trial.

Influence of a Specific Aquatic Program on Social and Gross Motor Skills in Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders: Three Case Reports

Swimming pool activities revealed to be efficacious to train psychomotor skills and increase adaptive behaviors in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of a specific multi-systemic aquatic therapy (CI-MAT) on gross motor and social skills in three adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD).

METHODS

three adolescents with ASD of which two boys (M1 with a chronological age of 10.3 years and a mental age of 4.7 years; M2 with a chronological age of 14.6 and a mental age inferior to 4 years) and one girl (chronological age of 14.0 and a mental age inferior to 4 years). The study was divided into three phases: baseline, 12-week CI-MAT program and Post-Test. Participants were administered a battery of tests incorporating anthropometric measurements, gross motor development test and a social skills questionnaire before and after a 12-week MAT-CI program.

RESULTS

Subjects improved locomotors and object control skills following the CI-MAT program in a different way. Concerning social behaviors, the higher proportion of gains was observed in the sensitivity of other's presence and eye contact, for the contact domain, and in the comply turn for the relationship domain.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study showed that the CI-MAT program was effective for the development of gross-motor skills and social behaviors in subjects with ASD. Moreover there is an urge to carry out a whole psychological assessment targeting both motor and adaptive development suitable to provide educational and vocational plans of exercises for people with ASD.

Non-combative taekwondo evokes highly anaerobic physiological responses in elite-level athletes: potential evidence for a new training modality

BACKGROUND

Despite the increasing international popularity of taekwondo (TKD) poomsae, there is a lack of physiological characterizations of elite-level competitors in the sport. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the physiological demands associated with various types of TKD poomsae.

METHODS

Eight male international TKD poomsae competitors carried out tae-geuk (TG) and professional (PF) poomsaes (in accordance with international competition standards), and consecutive TG (CTG) poomsae (a previously identified poomsae-specific training method). During each poomsae performance, oxygen uptake, heart rate, respiratory exchange ratio, and blood lactate were measured. The physiological responses were normalized and compared to maximal aerobic exercise tests such as a graded treadmill exercise (GXT) and maximal graded arm-crank ergometer exercise (ACE) to analyze the relative exercise intensity of each TKD poomsae.

RESULTS

The results showed the relative exercise intensity of TG and PF poomsaes elicit moderate to high intensity physiological proportions of the maximal responses found during the GXT and ACE tests. Interestingly, CTG poomsae responses resulted in similar exercise intensities as those reported during high intensity interval training, indicating that CTG may be an effective training modality to improve aerobic and anaerobic exercise capacity while also utilizing and developing sport specific techniques and skills.

CONCLUSIONS

This indicates the need for poomsae athletes to develop and maintain both aerobic and anaerobic capacity to enhance performance. Therefore, these physiological findings will help elite poomsae competitors and coaches to develop exercise programs of substantial duration and intensity to elicit beneficial performance adaptations.

Comparison of posturographic parameters between young taekwondo and tennis athletes

[Purpose] Physical activity can influence the development of postural control and balance. Therefore, the aim of study was to use posturography assessment to compare balance control on the Romberg test between athletes in two very different sports, taekwondo and tennis. [Participants and Methods] Twenty-nine young athletes participated in the study, 11 forming the taekwondo group and 18 the tennis group. Posturography was performed using the FreeMed system (Sensor Medica). Between-group differences were evaluated using unpaired Student’s t-test. [Results] There was a significance between-group difference in the centre of pressure and the ellipse surface area with no between-group difference in frontal and sagittal plane postural control. [Conclusion] The taekwondo athletes displayed greater stability than tennis athletes, with a smaller ellipse area and a decrease in the amplitude of oscillations of the centre of pressure along the frontal plane, adaptations which likely reflect the demands of the taekwondo. Further studies are needed to support these conclusions.

Adapted Taekwondo Training for Prepubertal Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Randomized, Controlled Trial

This study evaluated the effectiveness of adapted Taekwondo (TKD) training on skeletal development and motor performance in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). One hundred forty-five prepubertal children with DCD were allocated to either the TKD or control groups. Children in the TKD group participated in a weekly 1-hour adapted TKD intervention and daily TKD home exercises for 12 weeks. The primary outcome (delay in skeletal development) and secondary outcomes (Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC) total impairment score, eye-hand coordination (EHC) scores, and a standing balance score) were measured at baseline, after the intervention and 3 months after the intervention. Skeletal development improved in both groups over time (p < 0.017). The TKD group had a significant delay in skeletal development at baseline compared to the control group (p = 0.003) but caught up with the controls at 3 months (p = 0.041). Improvements in the MABC scores were also seen in both groups across time (p < 0.017). Only the TKD group had a significant improvement in the EHC movement time at 3 (p = 0.009) and 6 months (p = 0.016). The adapted TKD intervention may be effective in improving the skeletal development and EHC movement time of children with DCD. For motor performance, the effect of maturation might be more profound.

Balance Performance in Autism: A Brief Overview

Children with autism not only have limited social and communicative skills but also have motor abnormalities, such as poor timing and coordination of balance. Moreover, impaired gross motor skills hamper participation with peers. Balance control is interesting from a cognitive science perspective, since it involves a complex interplay between information processing, motor planning, and timing and sequencing of muscle movements. In this paper, we discuss the background of motor problems in children with autism, focusing on how posture is informed by sensory information processing. We also discuss the neurobiological basis of balance problems, and how this is related to anxiety in this group. We then discuss possible avenues for treatment of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) symptoms, especially as regards movement-related interventions. Finally, we present a theoretical outlook and discuss whether some of the symptoms in ASD can be understood from an embodied cognition perspective.

Taekwondo Training Improves Mood and Sociability in Children from Multicultural Families in South Korea: A Randomized Controlled Pilot Study

Purpose: Children from multicultural families face physical, social, mental, and intellectual hurdles; however, relative interventions are lacking in South Korea (hereafter Korea) in this regard. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of regular Taekwondo (TKD) training on physical fitness, mood, sociability, and cognitive functions in these children. Methods: This study included 30 children from multicultural families in Korea who were randomly assigned to a TKD group (n = 15) and control group (n = 15). The children in TKD group underwent 16 weeks of TKD training once a week for 60 min. Each participant underwent a basic fitness test and sociability questionnaire before and after the intervention. Furthermore, we examined the changes in the mood and cognitive function by determining the profile of mood states (POMS), and Stroop color and word test, respectively. Results: Results of the Stork test of balance were significantly higher in the TKD group after intervention (p < 0.05). In terms of sub-variables, POMS, tension, and depression scores were significantly lower (p < 0.05) after the intervention, while the vigor score was significantly higher in the intervention group than those in the control group (p < 0.05). Furthermore, sociability and ‘being left out’ score, a sub-variable of sociability, was significantly lower (p < 0.05) after the intervention, while sociability score was significantly higher (p < 0.05). Conclusions: Our findings suggest that participation in regular TKD training can be effective for balanced improvements in variables of basic fitness and that it exerts a positive effect on the mood and development of sociability.

Evaluating the evidence for motor-based interventions in developmental coordination disorder: A systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

As part of the process of creating an update of the clinical practice guidelines for developmental coordination disorder (DCD) (Blank, Smits-Engelsman, Polatajko, & Wilson, 2012), a systematic review of intervention studies, published since the last guidelines statement was conducted.

AIM

The aim of this study was to 1) systematically review the evidence published from January 2012 to February 2017 regarding the effectiveness of motor based interventions in individuals with DCD, 2) quantify treatment effects using a meta-analysis, 3) examine the available information on different aspects of delivery including use of group intervention, duration and frequency of therapy, and 4) identify gaps in the literature and make recommendations for future intervention research.

METHOD

An electronic search of 5 databases (PubMed, Embase, Pedro, Scopus and Cochrane) was conducted for studies that evaluated motor-based interventions to improve performance for individuals with DCD.

RESULTS

Thirty studies covering 25 datasets were included, 19 of which provided outcomes on standardized measures of motor performance. The overall effect size (Cohen's d) across intervention studies was large (1.06), but the range was wide: for 11 interventions, the observed effect was large (>0.80), in eight studies moderate (>0.50), and in five it was small or negligible (<0.50). Positive benefits were evident for activity-oriented approaches, body function-oriented combined with activities, active video games, and small group programs.

CONCLUSION

Results showed that activity-oriented and body function oriented interventions can have a positive effect on motor function and skills. However, given the varied methodological quality and the large confidence intervals of some studies, the results should be interpreted with caution.

Effects of Muay Thai training frequency on body composition and physical fitness in healthy untrained women

BACKGROUND

The purpose of the study was to compare the effects of different frequencies of Muay Thai training on body composition, and physical fitness in healthy untrained women.

METHODS

Twenty women were randomly assigned to one of two training groups: G2X (N.=9) performed Muay Thai twice a week, while G3X (N.=11) performed the same program three times a week, both for 13 weeks. Anthropometric dimensions, fat-free mass, fat mass, resting metabolic rate, VO2max, upper-body and abdominal muscle endurance, explosive leg power, agility, flexibility, and dietary intake were measured at pre and post-training. Training intensity was estimated every training session by rating of perceived exertion with a Borg 10-point scale.

RESULTS

Both groups significantly improved in all measured physical fitness variables, without any significant changes in body composition. G2X was not significantly different from G3X on any variable. Average relative changes for all performance variables in G2X and G3X were 28.5% and 27.5%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Thirteen-weeks of Muay Thai practice can improve physical fitness in women, regardless of weekly frequency (two or three times a week). This suggests that instructors and coaches can structure a Muay Thai training program based on a twice or three-times per week protocol in order to promote positive changes in several important outcomes related to health for healthy untrained women. Moreover, practitioners are able to choose their training frequency preference, since both frequencies provided similar adaptations.

Interventions to improve gross motor performance in children with neurodevelopmental disorders: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Gross motor skills are fundamental to childhood development. The effectiveness of current physical therapy options for children with mild to moderate gross motor disorders is unknown. The aim of this study was to systematically review the literature to investigate the effectiveness of conservative interventions to improve gross motor performance in children with a range of neurodevelopmental disorders.

METHODS

A systematic review with meta-analysis was conducted. MEDLINE, EMBASE, AMED, CINAHL, PsycINFO, PEDro, Cochrane Collaboration, Google Scholar databases and clinical trial registries were searched. Published randomised controlled trials including children 3 to ≤18 years with (i) Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) or Cerebral Palsy (CP) (Gross Motor Function Classification System Level 1) or Developmental Delay or Minimal Acquired Brain Injury or Prematurity (<30 weeks gestational age) or Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders; and (ii) receiving non-pharmacological or non-surgical interventions from a health professional and (iii) gross motor outcomes obtained using a standardised assessment tool. Meta-analysis was performed to determine the pooled effect of intervention on gross motor function. Methodological quality and strength of meta-analysis recommendations were evaluated using PEDro and the GRADE approach respectively.

RESULTS

Of 2513 papers, 9 met inclusion criteria including children with CP (n = 2) or DCD (n = 7) receiving 11 different interventions. Only two of 9 trials showed an effect for treatment. Using the least conservative trial outcomes a large beneficial effect of intervention was shown (SMD:-0.8; 95% CI:-1.1 to -0.5) with "very low quality" GRADE ratings. Using the most conservative trial outcomes there is no treatment effect (SMD:-0.1; 95% CI:-0.3 to 0.2) with "low quality" GRADE ratings. Study limitations included the small number and poor quality of the available trials.

CONCLUSION

Although we found that some interventions with a task-orientated framework can improve gross motor outcomes in children with DCD or CP, these findings are limited by the very low quality of the available evidence. High quality intervention trials are urgently needed.

A systematic review of high quality randomized controlled trials investigating motor skill programmes for children with developmental coordination disorder

OBJECTIVE

To identify effective motor training interventions for children with developmental coordination disorder from research graded as high quality (using objective criteria) for the purpose of informing evidence-based clinical practice.

DATA SOURCES

We followed the guidance for conducting systematic reviews issued by the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination. Six OvidSP electronic databases (AMED, All EBM reviews (including Cochrane), Embase, Ovid MEDLINE, PsychARTICLES Full Text, PsycINFO) were searched systematically. We aimed to retain only randomized control trials and systematic reviews of randomized control trials, defined as the highest level of evidence by the Oxford Centre for Evidence-Based Medicine. We searched reference lists of retained articles to identify further appropriate articles.

REVIEW METHODS

Two reviewers critically appraised and categorized articles by effect size (including confidence intervals), inclusion of power calculations and quality using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. Only studies scoring seven or more on the PEDro scale (classed by the PEDro as high reliability) were retained.

RESULTS

No systematic reviews met our criteria for inclusion from 846 articles yielded by the systematic search. Nine randomized control trials investigating 15 interventions to improve motor skills met our inclusion criteria for 'high quality'. Nevertheless, not all included studies were adequately powered for determining an effect.

CONCLUSION

Large effect sizes associated with 95 % confidence intervals suggest that 'Neuromotor Task Training', 'Task-oriented Motor Training' and 'Motor Imagery + Task Practice Training' are the most effective reported interventions for improving motor skills in children with developmental coordination disorder.

Does a physiotherapy programme of gross motor training influence motor function and activities of daily living in children presenting with developmental coordination disorder?

BACKGROUND

Children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) lack motor coordination and have difficulty performing motor skills and activities of daily living. Research shows these children do not outgrow their motor difficulties and without intervention do not improve. Physiotherapy is relevant for these children, but due to limited clinical protocols for DCD the aim of this study was to determine the effect of a gross motor training programme for 6-12-year-old children with DCD.

METHODS

This randomised pre-test, post-test study recruited 64 children with scores of 15th percentile or below using the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (M-ABC). The children were divided equally into an intervention group receiving 8 weeks of gross motor training for core stability, strengthening exercises, balance and coordination with task-specific activities for 30 min per week, while the control group continued with general therapy and activities of daily living. The M-ABC and Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ) were used to assess each child before and after 8 weeks.

RESULTS

Sixty children completed the study, with 43 males and 17 females (mean age 10.02 years, SD = 2.10). There were no adverse reactions to the programme and M-ABC scores for the intervention programme improved by 6.46%, ball skills (3.54%) and balance (4.80%) compared with the control (0.17%) and (0.15%), respectively. There were significant (p < 0.05) improvements in DCDQ scores, but teachers allocated lower scores than parents.

CONCLUSION

This study supports 8 weeks of gross motor training which can be a beneficial intervention for physiotherapists to improve gross motor function for DCD.

Pre-pubertal males practising Taekwondo exhibit favourable postural and neuromuscular performance

Background

The postural and neuromuscular performances in healthy children taekwondo (TKD) practitioners in comparison with control children were examined.

Methods

Seventeen healthy pre-pubertal males undertaking only physical education at school (age: 11.88 ± 0.33 years) and 12 pre-pubertal male TKD practitioners (>3 years, 4 sessions a week) (age 11.66 ± 0.49 years) were recruited. Performances in the dynamic postural control (Star Excursion Balance Test -SEBT), vertical jump [squat jump (SJ) and countermovement jump (CMJ)] and sprint running (distances: 5, 10, 20 and 30 m) tests were compared between the two groups.

Results

The performances of the TKD practitioners were better than those of the non-TKD active for the SEBT (for 14 of 16 conditions, p < 0.05), SJ (p < 0.01), CMJ (p < 0.03) sprint running (5 m, p < 0.01; 10 m, p < 0.04; the performances for the 20 and 30 m sprints were not significant, p > 0.05).

Conclusions

TKD practice would stimulate sensory input and motor output of the postural system that would enhance its efficiency. In addition, the dynamic nature of TKD would develop the muscle power of the lower limbs. In our sample of healthy pre-pubertal males, TKD appears to improve postural and neuromuscular functions, but further research is required.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13102-016-0040-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A Novel Balance Training Program for Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Randomized Controlled Trial

This study aimed to compare the effectiveness of a specific functional movement-power training (FMPT) program, a functional movement training (FMT) program and no training in the improvement of balance strategies, and neuromuscular performance in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). It was a randomized, single-blinded, parallel group controlled trial.

METHODS

161 children with DCD (age: 6-10 years) were randomly assigned to the FMPT, FMT, or control groups. The 2 intervention groups received FMPT or FMT twice a week for 3 months. Measurements were taken before, after, and 3 months after the end of the intervention period. The primary outcomes were the composite score and strategy scores on the sensory organization test as measured by a computerized dynamic posturography machine. Secondary outcomes included the knee muscle peak force and the time taken to reach the peak force. The balance strategies adopted in sensory challenging environments of the FMPT participants showed greater improvement from baseline to posttest than those of the FMT participants (7.10 points; 95% confidence interval, 1.51-12.69; P = 0.008) and the control participants (7.59 points; 95% confidence interval, 1.81-13.38; P = 0.005). The FMPT participants also exhibited greater improvement from baseline to the posttest in the knee extensor peak force and time to peak force in the knee flexors. The FMPT program was more effective than the conventional FMT program in the enhancement of balance strategies and neuromuscular performance in children with DCD.

Task-Specific Balance Training Improves the Sensory Organisation of Balance Control in Children with Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Randomised Controlled Trial

Sensory organisation of balance control is compromised in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). A randomised controlled trial involving 88 children with DCD was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of a task-specific balance training (functional-movement training, FMT) programme in improving balance deficits in a DCD population. The DCD participants were randomly assigned to either a FMT group or a control group. The FMT group received two training sessions/ week for 3 months. Measurements of the participants' sensory organisation (somatosensory, vestibular and visual ratios), balance and motor proficiency (Movement Assessment Battery for Children, MABC scores) and center of pressure sway velocity (Unilateral Stance Test, UST scores) were taken at baseline, immediately after FMT and 3 months after FMT. The FMT group showed greater improvements than the controls in somatosensory ratio at 3 and 6 months (all P < 0.001), but the within-group changes were not significant (P > 0.05). The results of both the MABC and the UST also indicated that the balance performance of the FMT group was significantly better than that of the control group at 3 and 6 months (all P < 0.05). Task-specific balance training was found to marginally improve the somatosensory function and somewhat improve the balance performance of children with DCD.

Deficits in Lower Limb Muscle Reflex Contraction Latency and Peak Force Are Associated With Impairments in Postural Control and Gross Motor Skills of Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder: A Cross-Sectional Study

This cross-sectional, exploratory study aimed to compare neuromuscular performance, balance and motor skills proficiencies of typically developing children and those with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and to determine associations of these neuromuscular factors with balance and motor skills performances in children with DCD.One hundred thirty children with DCD and 117 typically developing children participated in the study. Medial hamstring and gastrocnemius muscle activation onset latencies in response to an unexpected posterior-to-anterior trunk perturbation were assessed by electromyography and accelerometer. Hamstring and gastrocnemius muscle peak force and time to peak force were quantified by dynamometer, and balance and motor skills performances were evaluated with the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC).Independent t tests revealed that children with DCD had longer hamstring and gastrocnemius muscle activation onset latencies (P < 0.001) and lower isometric peak forces (P < 0.001), but not times to peak forces (P > 0.025), than the controls. Multiple regression analysis accounting for basic demographics showed that gastrocnemius peak force was independently associated with the MABC balance subscore and ball skills subscore, accounting for 5.7% (P = 0.003) and 8.5% (P = 0.001) of the variance, respectively. Gastrocnemius muscle activation onset latency also explained 11.4% (P < 0.001) of the variance in the MABC ball skills subscore.Children with DCD had delayed leg muscle activation onset times and lower isometric peak forces. Gastrocnemius peak force was associated with balance and ball skills performances, whereas timing of gastrocnemius muscle activation was a determinant of ball skill performance in the DCD population.

Sedentary time is not independently related to postural stability or leg strength in women 50-67 years old

Most research on sedentary behaviour has focused on cardiometabolic outcomes and markers of metabolic dysfunction, while neuromuscular outcomes have received less attention. The objective of the present study was to determine whether sedentary time is negatively associated with laboratory-based measures of lower body muscular strength and postural stability in middle-aged women. Forty-nine women (56.6 ± 4.1 years) participated in the study. Participants wore an ActiGraph GT3X accelerometer for 7 days to quantify sedentary time and physical activity. Following a familiarization session, assessments of lower body muscular strength and postural stability were performed. Peak torque of knee extensors and flexors was assessed using an isokinetic dynamometer. Postural stability was assessed using computerized dynamic posturography and a composite equilibrium score (CES) was calculated. Participants spent 9.4 ± 1.3 h per day (65% of wear time) sedentary and 28.2 ± 17.3 min per day (3.3% of wear time) in moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Postural stability and relative peak torque of the knee flexors were significantly associated with time spent sedentary (r = -0.35, p = 0.01 and r = -0.31, p = 0.03, respectively). Multiple linear regression analyses showed that after adjusting for MVPA, sedentary time was not significantly related to either CES or peak torque of the knee extensors or flexors. In contrast to our hypothesis, postural stability and leg strength were not independently related to sedentary time. While sedentary behaviour may be an important risk factor for cardiometabolic disease, the present results suggest MVPA may be more important to neuromuscular outcomes.

The Effects of Taekwondo Training on Brain Connectivity and Body Intelligence

OBJECTIVE

Many studies have reported that Taekwondo training could improve body perception, control and brain activity, as assessed with an electroencephalogram. This study aimed to assess body intelligence and brain connectivity in children with Taekwondo training as compared to children without Taekwondo training.

METHODS

Fifteen children with Taekwondo training (TKD) and 13 age- and sex-matched children who had no previous experience of Taekwondo training (controls) were recruited. Body intelligence, clinical characteristics and brain connectivity in all children were assessed with the Body Intelligence Scale (BIS), self-report, and resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging.

RESULTS

The mean BIS score in the TKD group was higher than that in the control group. The TKD group showed increased low-frequency fluctuations in the right frontal precentral gyrus and the right parietal precuneus, compared to the control group. The TKD group showed positive cerebellum vermis (lobe VII) seed to the right frontal, left frontal, and left parietal lobe. The control group showed positive cerebellum seed to the left frontal, parietal, and occipital cortex. Relative to the control group, the TKD group showed increased functional connectivity from cerebellum seed to the right inferior frontal gyrus.

CONCLUSION

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to assess the effect of Taekwondo training on brain connectivity in children. Taekwondo training improved body intelligence and brain connectivity from the cerebellum to the parietal and frontal cortex.

A crossover randomised and controlled trial of the impact of active video games on motor coordination and perceptions of physical ability in children at risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder

BACKGROUND

Impaired motor development can significantly affect a child's life and may result in an increased risk of a range of physical and psychological disorders. Active video game (AVG) interventions have been demonstrated to enhance motor skills in children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD); however a home-based intervention has not been assessed.

OBJECTIVES

The primary aim of this study was to compare the changes in motor coordination between a 16 week period of AVG use, with 16 weeks of normal activities (NAG). The secondary aim was to compare the child and parent perceptions of their physical performance between the AVG and NAG conditions.

METHODS

Twenty-one 9-12 year olds (10 males) were confirmed to be at risk of DCD (⩽ 16th percentile Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2nd edition (MABC-2) and ⩽ 15th percentile Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire (DCDQ)) and participated in this crossover randomised and controlled trial. Data was collected at study entry, after the first 16 week condition and following the final 16 week condition, including; (1) the MABC-2, (2) three-dimensional motion analysis of single leg balance and finger-nose tasks, and (3) parent perception of physical skills. Participant perception of physical skills was collected only after the first and second conditions.

RESULTS

There was no significant difference between AVG and NAG for any of the primary variables including the MABC-2, balance centre-of-mass path distance and finger-nose path distance. There was no significant intervention effect for secondary measures of motor coordination; however the children perceived their motor skills to be significantly enhanced as a result of the AVG intervention in comparison to the period of no intervention.

CONCLUSION

A 16 week home based AVG intervention did not enhance motor skills in children with DCD, although they perceived their physical skills to be significantly improved.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Australia and New Zealand Clinical trials Registry (ACTRN 12611000400965).

Can balance trampoline training promote motor coordination and balance performance in children with developmental coordination disorder?

The present study aimed to examine movement difficulties among typically developing 8- to 9-year-old elementary students in Greece and to investigate the possible effects of a balance training program to those children assessed with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The Body Coordination Test for Children (BCTC; Körperkoordinationstest fur Kinder, KTK, Kiphard & Schilling, 1974) was chosen for the purposes of this study and 20 children out of the total number of 200, exhibited motor difficulties indicating a probable DCD disorder. The 20 students diagnosed with DCD were equally separated into two groups where each individual of the experimental group was paired with an individual of the control group. The intervention group attended a 12-week balance training program while students of the second - control group followed the regular school schedule. All participants were tested prior to the start and after the end of the 12-week period by performing static balance control tasks while standing on an EPS pressure platform and structured observation of trampoline exercises while videotaping. The results indicated that after a 12-week balance training circuit including a trampoline station program, the intervention group improved both factors that were examined. In conclusion, balance training with the use of attractive equipment such as trampoline can be an effective intervention for improving functional outcomes and can be recommended as an alternative mode of physical activity.

The Healthy for Life Taekwondo Pilot Study: A Preliminary Evaluation of Effects on Executive Function and BMI, Feasibility, and Acceptability

There is growing consensus that exercise improves cognitive functioning, but research is needed to identify exercise interventions that optimize effects on cognition. The objective of this pilot study was to evaluate Taekwondo implemented in public middle school physical education (PE). Two classes were randomly assigned to either: five sessions per week of PE or three sessions of PE and two sessions of Taekwondo. In PE sessions, evidence-based curriculum to address the Presidential Core Fitness Guidelines and California Physical Fitness Tests was implemented. Taekwondo sessions included traditional techniques and forms taught in an environment emphasizing respect and self-control. Sixty students were evaluated at baseline and during the last week of the intervention (nine months later). Differences in mean residualized change scores for parent-rated inhibitory behavioral control yielded a significant, large effect size (d =.95, p =.00), reflecting greater improvement among Taekwondo students. Results from an executive function computer-administered task revealed greater accuracy on the congruent trial (d = 2.00, p = .02) for Taekwondo students. Differences in mean residualized change scores for BMI z scores yielded a moderate, non-significant effect size (d = - .51, p = .16). The majority of Taekwondo students reported positive perceptions of Taekwondo and perceived self-improvement in self-control and physical fitness. Results suggest that Taekwondo is an exercise program that improves cognitive functioning and is both feasible and acceptable to implement in a public school setting.

Slowed muscle force production and sensory organization deficits contribute to altered postural control strategies in children with developmental coordination disorder

This study aimed to (1) compare the postural control strategies, sensory organization of balance control, and lower limb muscle performance of children with and without developmental coordination disorder (DCD) and (2) determine the association between postural control strategies, sensory organization parameters and knee muscle performance indices among children with DCD. Fifty-eight DCD-affected children and 46 typically developing children participated in the study. Postural control strategies and sensory organization were evaluated with the sensory organization test (SOT). Knee muscle strength and time to produce maximum muscle torque (at 180°/s) were assessed using an isokinetic machine. Analysis of variance was used to compare the outcome variables between groups, and multiple regression analysis was used to examine the relationships between postural control strategies, sensory organization parameters, and isokinetic indices in children with DCD. The DCD group had significantly lower strategy scores (SOT conditions 5 and 6), lower visual and vestibular ratios, and took a longer time to reach peak torque in the knee flexor muscles than the control group (p>0.05). After accounting for age, sex, and body mass index, the vestibular ratio explained 35.8% of the variance in the strategy score of SOT condition 5 (p<0.05). Moreover, the visual ratio, vestibular ratio, and time to peak torque of the knee flexors were all significant predictors (p<0.05) of the strategy score during SOT condition 6, accounting for 14, 19.7, and 19.8% of its variance, respectively. The children with DCD demonstrated deficits in postural control strategy, sensory organization and prolonged duration of muscle force development. Slowed knee muscle force production combined with poor visual and vestibular functioning may result in greater use of hip strategy by children with DCD in sensory challenging environments.

Sarcopenia: the gliogenic perspective

It has been approximately 25 years since Dr. Rosenberg first brought attention to sarcopenia. To date, this aging-associated condition is recognized as a chronic loss of muscle mass and is usually accompanied by dynapenia. Despite its poly-etiological factors, sarcopenia has a strong neurogenic component underlying this chrono-degeneration of muscle mass, as shown in recent studies. As it seems plausible to explain the origin of sarcopenia through a motor neuron degeneration model, the focus of sarcopenia research should combine neuroscience with the study of the original myocyte and satellite cells. Although a complete mechanism underlying the development of sarcopenia has yet to be elucidated, we propose that the primary trigger of sarcopenia could be gliogenic in origin based on the close relationship between the glia, neurons and non-neural cells, for example, the motor unit and its associated glia in both the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). In addition to muscle cells, both of the neural cells are affected by aging.

Differential effect of Taekwondo training on knee muscle strength and reactive and static balance control in children with developmental coordination disorder: a randomized controlled trial

This randomized controlled trial aimed to investigate the effect of short-term intensive TKD training on the isokinetic knee muscle strength and reactive and static balance control of children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Among the 44 children with DCD (mean age: 7.6 ± 1.3 years) recruited, 21 were randomly assigned to undergo daily TKD training for 1h over three consecutive months, with the remaining 23 children being assigned to the DCD control group. Eighteen typically developing children (mean age: 7.2 ± 1.0 years) received no training as normal controls. Knee extensor and flexor muscle strength and reactive and static balance control were assessed using an isokinetic machine (with low, moderate and high movement velocities), a motor control test (MCT) and a unilateral stance test (UST), respectively. A repeated measures MANCOVA revealed a significant group through time interaction effect in isokinetic outcomes at 180°/s and in the UST outcome. Post hoc analysis demonstrated that DCD-TKD children's isokinetic knee muscle strength, specifically at 180°/s, was as high as that of the normal control children (p>0.0083) after TKD training. Moreover, UST body sway velocity was slower in the DCD-TKD group than in the DCD control group (p<0.001), and was comparable to that of the normal control group (p>0.05) after TKD training. However, no such improvement in balance was observed in the MCT (p>0.025). The results show that children with DCD who undergo a 3-month program of intensive TKD training experience improvements in isokinetic knee muscle strength at 180°/s and static single-leg standing balance control, but do not benefit from improved reactive balance control.