Relationship of neuromotor disturbances to psychosis symptoms in first-episode neuroleptic-naive schizophrenia patients

Motion energy analysis during speech tasks in medication-naïve individuals with at-risk mental states for psychosis

Movement abnormalities are commonly observed in schizophrenia and at-risk mental states (ARMS) for psychosis. They are usually detected with clinical interviews, such that automated analysis would enhance assessment. Our aim was to use motion energy analysis (MEA) to assess movement during free-speech videos in ARMS and control individuals, and to investigate associations between movement metrics and negative and positive symptoms. Thirty-two medication-naïve ARMS and forty-six healthy control individuals were filmed during speech tasks. Footages were analyzed using MEA software, which assesses movement by differences in pixels frame-by-frame. Two regions of interest were defined—head and torso—and mean amplitude, frequency, and coefficient of variability of movements for them were obtained. These metrics were correlated with the Structured Interview for Prodromal Syndromes (SIPS) symptoms, and with the risk of conversion to psychosis—inferred with the SIPS risk calculator. ARMS individuals had significantly lower mean amplitude of head movement and higher coefficients of movement variability for both head and torso, compared to controls. Higher coefficient of variability was related to higher risk of conversion. Negative correlations were seen between frequency of movement and most SIPS negative symptoms. All positive symptoms were correlated with at least one movement variable. Movement abnormalities could be automatically detected in medication-naïve ARMS subjects by means of a motion energy analysis software. Significant associations of movement metrics with symptoms were found, supporting the importance of movement analysis in ARMS. This could be a potentially important tool for early diagnosis, intervention, and outcome prediction.

Depression and Psychosis Risk Shared Vulnerability for Motor Signs Across Development, Symptom Dimensions, and Familial Risk

BACKGROUND

Motor abnormalities are strong transdiagnostic indicators of psychopathology risk that reflect emerging neural network abnormalities. Indeed, motor signs, such as motor slowing and agitation, are widely recognized as core features of both psychosis and depression. However, it is unclear whether these reflect shared or distinct etiology.

METHODS

A sample of 11 878 adolescents completed self-reported clinical measures of rated psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) and depression. Familial risk for psychopathology and the presence of motor signs were drawn from parental reports, including developmental motor delays (eg, sitting, walking), and adolescent motor signs (eg, dyscoordination, psychomotor retardation, and psychomotor agitation). Finally, motor network connectivity in theoretically relevant networks (cortico-striatal, cortico-thalamic, and cortico-cerebellar) were related to symptoms and familial risk for psychopathology.

RESULTS

Developmental motor delays related to increased PLEs, increased depression symptoms, and greater familial risk. Familial risk for both PLEs and depression showed higher rates of developmental motor delays than all other groups. Adolescent motor signs, however, showed unique patterns of relationships to symptoms and familial risk such that dyscoordination reflected risk for PLEs, both psychomotor agitation and retardation reflected depression risk, and psychomotor agitation reflected transdiagnostic risk. Cortico-striatal connectivity was related to depression and PLEs, but cortico-cerebellar connectivity was linked to PLEs only.

CONCLUSIONS

Motor signs may be a transdiagnostic marker of vulnerability for psychopathology. Early developmental motor delays could belie pluripotent, familial risk features. Unique items, eg, dyscoordination specifically related to PLEs, possibly reflecting processes inherent in distinct emerging forms of psychopathology.

An Instrumental Measure of Hand and Facial Movement Abnormalities in Patients With Schizophrenia

INTRODUCTION

Movement disorders have been suggested to be a cardinal component of schizophrenia. With increased research interests in this area, instrumental measures are needed. This study was to examine if the motion capture system was reliable in measuring hand and facial bradykinesia and dyskinesia and more sensitive to detecting movement differences between schizophrenia patients and healthy people than traditional rating scales.

METHODS

Sixteen schizophrenia patients and 20 control subjects were recruited. Hand and facial bradykinesia and dyskinesia were measured using the motion capture system and rated using the Extrapyramidal Symptom Rating Scale and the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale.

RESULTS

The system showed strong test-retest reliability and generated larger effect sizes of group differences than did the rating scales.

CONCLUSIONS

The results may support researchers and clinical practitioners to apply the system to sensitively measuring the hand and facial movement symptoms in schizophrenia patients, which contributes to gaining a deep understanding of movement issues in schizophrenia.

Handwriting Kinematics in Patients with Schizophrenia Treated with Long-Acting Injectable Atypical Antipsychotics: Results From the ALPINE Study

Handwriting kinematics (HWKs) were assessed in the randomized controlled ALPINE study of 2 long-acting injectable antipsychotics started during an acute exacerbation of schizophrenia. This exploratory analysis examined the relationship between baseline HWKs and response to acute antipsychotic treatment. Adults with acute schizophrenia were assigned to aripiprazole lauroxil or paliperidone palmitate (groups combined for this analysis). Treatment response was defined as ≥20% reduction from baseline in Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) total score at week 4. Two HWK measures, peak velocity (decreases with greater dysfunction) and percentage of nonballistic movements (%NBM; increases with greater dysfunction), were captured in 4 handwriting tasks (complex loops, maximum speed circles, overlay circles, and left-right loops). Peak velocity and %NBM at baseline were compared between responders and nonresponders. The analysis included 143 patients (mean baseline PANSS total score, 94.5). PANSS responders (n = 67 [46.9%]) had a lower mean peak velocity (i.e., slower pen movements) on all HWK tasks at baseline compared with nonresponders (n = 76): complex loops, 8.8 versus 12.1 cm/s; maximum speed circles, 18.0 versus 23.7 cm/s; overlay circles, 12.6 versus 17.2 cm/s; and left-right loops, 11.2 versus 14.6 cm/s. PANSS responders had a greater %NBM on 3 tasks compared with nonresponders: complex loops, 57.1% versus 47.4%; overlay circles, 30.6% versus 24.3%; and left-right loops, 58.7% versus 47.0%. In this exploratory analysis, PANSS responders to aripiprazole lauroxil or paliperidone palmitate treatment at week 4 had lower baseline HWK movement velocities and greater baseline %NBM versus nonresponders, suggesting that baseline HWKs might predict response to these antipsychotic drugs.

Motor abnormalities, depression risk, and clinical course in adolescence

Background

Motor abnormalities, such as psychomotor agitation and retardation, are widely recognized as core features of depression. However, it is not currently known if motor abnormalities connote risk for depression.

Methods

Using data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, a nationally representative sample of youth (n=10,835, 9-11 years old), the present paper examines whether motor abnormalities are associated with (a) depression symptoms in early adolescence, (b) familial risk for depression (familial risk loading), and (c) future depression symptoms. Motor abnormalities measures included traditional (DSM) motor signs such as psychomotor agitation and retardation as well as other motor domains such as developmental motor delays and dyscoordination.

Results

Traditional motor abnormalities were less prevalent (agitation=3.2%, retardation=0.3%) than non-traditional domains (delays=13.79%, coordination=35.5%) among adolescents. Motor dysfunction was associated with depression symptoms (Cohen's ds=0.02 to 0.12). Familial risk for depression was related to motor abnormalities (Cohen's ds=0.08 to 0.27), with the exception of motor retardation. Family vulnerability varied in sensitivity to depression risk (e.g., retardation: .53%; dyscoordination: 32.05%). Baseline endorsement of motor abnormalities predicted future depression symptoms at one-year follow-up.

Conclusions

These findings suggest that motor signs reflect a novel, promising future direction for examining vulnerability to depression risk in early adolescence.

A systematic review of the prognostic value of motor abnormalities on clinical outcome in psychosis

Schizophrenia spectrum disorders have heterogeneous outcomes and currently no marker predicts the course of illness. Motor abnormalities (MAs) are inherent to psychosis, the risk of psychosis, symptom severity, and brain alterations. However, the prognostic value of MAs is still unresolved. Here, we provide a systematic review of longitudinal studies on the prognostic role of MAs spanning individuals at clinical high risk for psychosis (CHR), patients with first-episode psychosis (FEP), and chronic schizophrenia. We included 68 studies for a total of 23,630 subjects that assessed neurological soft signs (NSS), hypo- or hyperkinetic movement disorders and/or catatonia as a prognostic factor on clinical and functional outcomes. We found increased levels of MAs, in particular NSS, parkinsonism, and dyskinesia, were related to deteriorating symptomatic and poor functional outcome over time. Collectively, the findings emphasize the clinical, prognostic and scientific relevance of MA assessment and detection in individuals with or at risk of psychosis. In the future, instrumental measures of MA are expected to further augment detection, early intervention and treatment strategies in psychosis.

The psychosis human connectome project: An overview

Investigations within the Human Connectome Project have expanded to include studies focusing on brain disorders. This paper describes one of the investigations focused on psychotic psychopathology: The psychosis Human Connectome Project (P-HCP). The data collected as part of this project were multimodal and derived from clinical assessments of psychopathology, cognitive assessments, instrument-based motor assessments, blood specimens, and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data. The dataset will be made publicly available through the NIMH Data Archive. In this report we provide specific information on how the sample of participants was obtained and characterized and describe the experimental tasks and procedures used to probe neural functions involved in psychotic disorders that may also mark genetic liability for psychotic psychopathology. Our goal in this paper is to outline the data acquisition process so that researchers intending to use these publicly available data can plan their analyses. MRI data described in this paper are limited to data acquired at 3 Tesla. A companion paper describes the study's 7 Tesla image acquisition protocol in detail, which is focused on visual perceptual functions in psychotic psychopathology.

A Network of Psychopathological, Cognitive, and Motor Symptoms in Schizophrenia Spectrum Disorders

Schizophrenia spectrum disorders (SSDs) are complex syndromes involving psychopathological, cognitive, and also motor symptoms as core features. A better understanding of how these symptoms mutually impact each other could translate into diagnostic, prognostic, and, eventually, treatment advancements. The present study aimed to: (1) estimate a network model of psychopathological, cognitive, and motor symptoms in SSD; (2) detect communities and explore the connectivity and relative importance of variables within the network; and (3) explore differences in subsample networks according to remission status. A sample of 1007 patients from a multisite cohort study was included in the analysis. We estimated a network of 43 nodes, including all the items from the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale, a cognitive assessment battery and clinical ratings of extrapyramidal symptoms. Methodologies specific to network analysis were employed to address the study's aims. The estimated network for the total sample was densely interconnected and organized into 7 communities. Nodes related to insight, abstraction capacity, attention, and suspiciousness were the main bridges between network communities. The estimated network for the subgroup of patients in remission showed a sparser density and a different structure compared to the network of nonremitted patients. In conclusion, the present study conveys a detailed characterization of the interrelations between a set of core clinical elements of SSD. These results provide potential novel clues for clinical assessment and intervention.

Emerging concepts on bradykinesia in non-parkinsonian conditions

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Bradykinesia is one of the cardinal motor symptoms of Parkinson's disease. However, clinical and experimental studies indicate that bradykinesia may also be observed in various neurological diseases not primarily characterized by parkinsonism. These conditions include hyperkinetic movement disorders, such as dystonia, chorea, and essential tremor. Bradykinesia may also be observed in patients with neurological conditions that are not seen as "movement disorders," including those characterized by the involvement of the cerebellum and corticospinal system, dementia, multiple sclerosis, and psychiatric disorders.

METHODS

We reviewed clinical reports and experimental studies on bradykinesia in non-parkinsonian conditions and discussed the major findings.

RESULTS

Bradykinesia is a common motor abnormality in non-parkinsonian conditions. From a pathophysiological standpoint, bradykinesia in neurological conditions not primarily characterized by parkinsonism may be explained by brain network dysfunction.

CONCLUSION

In addition to the pathophysiological implications, the present paper highlights important terminological issues and the need for a new, more accurate, and more widely used definition of bradykinesia in the context of movement disorders and other neurological conditions.

Sensorimotor and Activity Psychosis-Risk (SMAP-R) Scale: An Exploration of Scale Structure With Replication and Validation

BACKGROUND

Sensorimotor abnormalities precede and predict the onset of psychosis. Despite the practical utility of sensorimotor abnormalities for early identification, prediction, and individualized medicine applications, there is currently no dedicated self-report instrument designed to capture these important behaviors. The current study assessed and validated a questionnaire designed for use in individuals at clinical high-risk for psychosis (CHR).

METHODS

The current study included both exploratory (n = 3009) and validation (n = 439) analytic datasets-that included individuals identified as meeting criteria for a CHR syndrome (n = 84)-who completed the novel Sensorimotor Abnormalities and Psychosis-Risk (SMAP-R) Scale, clinical interviews and a finger-tapping task. The structure of the scale and reliability of items were consistent across 2 analytic datasets. The resulting scales were assessed for discriminant validity across CHR, community sample non-psychiatric volunteer, and clinical groups.

RESULTS

The scale showed a consistent structure across 2 analytic datasets subscale structure. The resultant subscale structure was consistent with conceptual models of sensorimotor pathology in psychosis (coordination and dyskinesia) in both the exploratory and the validation analytic dataset. Further, these subscales showed discriminant, predictive, and convergent validity. The sensorimotor abnormality scales discriminated CHR from community sample non-psychiatric controls and clinical samples. Finally, these subscales predicted to risk calculator scores and showed convergent validity with sensorimotor performance on a finger-tapping task.

CONCLUSION

The SMAP-R scale demonstrated good internal, discriminant, predictive, and convergent validity, and subscales mapped on to conceptually relevant sensorimotor circuits. Features of the scale may facilitate widespread incorporation of sensorimotor screening into psychosis-risk research and practice.

Longitudinal Assessment and Functional Neuroimaging of Movement Variability Reveal Novel Insights Into Motor Dysfunction in Clinical High Risk for Psychosis

Motor dysfunction in youth at clinical high risk (CHR) for psychosis is thought to reflect abnormal neurodevelopment within cortical-subcortical motor circuits and may be important for understanding clinical trajectories of CHR individuals. However, to date, our perspective of brain-behavior relationships has been informed solely by cross-sectional correlational studies linking behavior in the lab to brain structure or respective resting-state network connectivity. Here, we assess movement dysfunction from 2 perspectives: study 1 investigates the longitudinal progression of handwriting variability and positive symptoms in a sample of 91 CHR and healthy controls during a 12-month follow-up and study 2 involves a multiband functional magnetic resonance imaging task exploring the relationship between power grip force stability and motor network brain activation in a subset of participants. In study 1, we found that greater handwriting variability was a stable feature of CHR participants who experienced worse symptom progression. Study 2 results showed that CHR individuals had greater variability in their grip force and greater variability was related to decreased activation in the associative cortico-striatal network compared to controls. Motor variability may be a stable marker of vulnerability for psychosis risk and possible indicator of a vulnerable cortico-striatal brain network functioning in CHR participants, although the effects of antipsychotic medication should be considered.

An Examination of Psychomotor Disturbance in Current and Remitted MDD: An RDoC Study

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a serious public health problem that has, at best, modest treatment response—potentially due to its heterogeneous clinical presentation. One way to parse the heterogeneity is to investigate the role of particular features of MDD, an endeavor that can also help identify novel and focal targets for treatment and prevention efforts. Our R01 focuses on the feature of psychomotor disturbance (e.g., psychomotor agitation (PmA) and retardation (PmR)), a particularly pernicious feature of MDD, that has not been examined extensively in MDD. Aim 1 is comparing three groups of individuals—those with current MDD (n = 100), remitted MDD (n = 100), and controls (n = 50)—on multiple measures of PmR and PmA (assessed both in the lab and in the subjects’ natural environment). Aim 2 is examining the structural (diffusion MRI) and functional (resting state fMRI) connectivity of motor circuitry of the three groups as well as the relation between motor circuitry and the proposed indicators of PmR and PmA. Aim 3 is following up with subjects three times over 18 months to evaluate whether motor symptoms change in tandem with overall depressive symptoms and functioning over time and/or whether baseline PmR/PmA predicts course of depression and functioning. Aim 3 is particularly clinically significant. Finding that motor functioning and overall depression severity co-vary over time, or that motor variables predict subsequent change in overall depression severity, would support the potential clinical utility of these novel, reliable, and easily administered motor assessments.

Instrument-based assessment of motor function yields no evidence of dyskinesia in adult first-degree biological relatives of individuals with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder

There is accruing evidence of spontaneous dyskinesia in individuals with schizophrenia that is independent of medication exposure. Dyskinetic motor behavior is also present in individuals who are at high risk of schizophrenia and appears to have prognostic value for the development of psychosis. Nonetheless, it remains unclear whether dyskinesia is present in first-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia and thus associated with genetic liability for schizophrenia (i.e., an endophenotype), or whether the motor abnormality is a biomarker specific to the disease state spectrum. There is also limited information about links between dyskinesia and clinically relevant phenomena such as symptoms and cognition. Because dyskinesia marking genetic liability is likely to be subtle, we used sensitive instrument-based measurement of handwriting fluency to quantify dyskinesia in medicated individuals with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder, unaffected first-degree biological relatives of individuals with schizophrenia and schizoaffective disorder, and control participants. Results indicated that medicated individuals with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder exhibited more dyskinesia than both relatives and controls, with no difference between relatives and controls. Dyskinesia in individuals with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder was unrelated to current antipsychotic medication dosage, but associated with worse working memory function and greater positive formal thought disorder. These results provide evidence that dyskinesia is not associated with unexpressed genetic liability for schizophrenia.

Aberrant Middle Prefrontal-Motor Cortex Connectivity Mediates Motor Inhibitory Biomarker in Schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

Inhibitory deficits in motor cortex in schizophrenia have been well demonstrated using short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) by transcranial magnetic stimulation. However, it remains unknown whether these deficits originate from dysfunction of motor cortex itself or reflect abnormal modulations of motor cortex by other schizophrenia-related brain areas.

METHODS

The study was completed by 24 patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders and 30 healthy control subjects. SICI was obtained by delivering transcranial magnetic stimulation over the left motor cortex. Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging and diffusion tensor imaging fractional anisotropy were used to measure functional connectivity (FC) and white matter microstructures, respectively. Stimulation sites for SICI at motor cortex were used as the seeds to obtain whole-brain FC maps. Clinical symptoms were assessed with the Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale.

RESULTS

In schizophrenia, left prefrontal cortex-motor cortex FC was inversely associated with SICI but positively associated with the underlying white matter microstructure at the left corona radiata and also associated with overall symptoms (all corrected p < .05). Mediation analysis showed that the prefrontal-motor cortex FC significantly mediated the corona radiata white matter effects on SICI (p = .007).

CONCLUSIONS

Higher resting-state left prefrontal-motor cortex FC, accompanied by a higher fractional anisotropy of left corona radiata, predicted fewer inhibitory deficits, suggesting that the inhibitory deficits in motor cortex in schizophrenia may in part be mediated by a top-down prefrontal influence. SICI may serve as a robust biomarker indexing inhibitory dysfunction at anatomic as well as circuitry levels in schizophrenia.

The utility of an RDoC motor domain to understand psychomotor symptoms in depression

Despite the clinical impact of motor symptoms such as agitation or retardation on the course of depression, these symptoms are poorly understood. Novel developments in the field of instrumentation and mobile devices allow for dimensional and continuous recording of motor behavior in various settings, particularly outside the laboratory. Likewise, the use of novel assessments enables to combine multimodal neuroimaging with behavioral measures in order to investigate the neural correlates of motor dysfunction in depression. The research domain criteria (RDoC) framework will soon include a motor domain that will provide a framework for studying motor dysfunction in mood disorders. In addition, new studies within this framework will allow investigators to study motor symptoms across different stages of depression as well as other psychiatric diagnoses. Finally, the introduction of the RDoC motor domain will help test how motor symptoms integrate with the original five RDoC domains (negative valence, positive valence, cognitive, social processes, and arousal/regulation).

Motion energy analysis reveals altered body movement in youth at risk for psychosis

BACKGROUND

Growing evidence suggests that movement abnormalities occur prior to the onset of psychosis. Innovations in technology and software provide the opportunity for a fine-tuned and sensitive measurement of observable behavior that may be particularly useful to detecting the subtle movement aberrations present during the prodromal period.

METHODS

In the present study, 54 youth at ultrahigh risk (UHR) for psychosis and 62 healthy controls participated in structured clinical interviews to assess for an UHR syndrome. The initial 15min of the baseline clinical interview was assessed using Motion Energy Analysis (MEA) providing frame-by-frame measures of total movement, amplitude, speed, and variability of both head and body movement separately.

RESULTS

Result showed region-specific group differences such that there were no differences in head movement but significant differences in body movement. Specifically, the UHR group showed greater total body movement and speed of body movements, and lower variation in body movement compared to healthy controls. However, there were no significant associations with positive, negative or disorganized symptom domains.

CONCLUSION

This study represents an innovative perspective on gross motor function in the UHR group. Importantly, the automated approach used in this study provides a sensitive and objective measure of body movement abnormalities, potentially guiding novel assessment and prevention of symptom development in those at risk for psychosis.

Covariation between motor signs and negative symptoms in drug-naive subjects with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders before and after antipsychotic treatment

OBJECTIVE

To examine the covariation between negative symptoms and motor signs in a broad sample of drug-naïve subjects with schizophrenia-spectrum psychoses before and after inception of antipsychotic medication.

METHODS

One-hundred and eighty-nine antipsychotic-naïve subjects with DSM-IV schizophrenia-spectrum psychoses were assessed for negative symptoms including affective flattening, alogia, avolition/apathy and anhedonia/associality, and motor signs including catatonia, parkinsonism and dyskinesia. We examined the association between negative and motor features at baseline, 4-weeks after inception of antipsychotic treatment and that of their mean change over the treatment period, such as their trajectories and treatment response pattern.

RESULTS

At the drug-naïve state, motor signs were strongly related to affective flattening and alogia (p<0.01); at 4-weeks, most negative and motor features were significantly interrelated (p<0.01); mean change of motor signs and negative symptoms tended to be unrelated. This association pattern was irrespective of levels of positive symptoms. Ratings of negative symptoms, excepting affective flattening, improved after treatment (p<0.001) while motor ratings showed divergent trajectories with catatonia improving (p<0.001), parkinsonism worsening (p<0.001) and dyskinesia remaining unchanged (p>0.01). Although to a different extent, motor and negative features showed drug-responsive, drug-worsening, of drug-unchanged patterns of response to antipsychotic medication. The main predictors of negative and motor features in treated subjects were their corresponding baseline ratings (p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

Negative and motor features are differentiated, but to some extent, overlapping domains that are meaningfully influenced by antipsychotic medication. At the drug-naïve state, motor signs and the diminished expression domain of negative symptoms may share underlying neurobiological mechanisms.

Gesture impairments in schizophrenia are linked to increased movement and prolonged motor planning and execution

Schizophrenia patients present with a variety of impaired nonverbal communication skills. Performance of hand gestures is frequently impaired and associated with ratings of motor abnormalities. However, the impact of motor abnormalities to gesture performance remains unclear. To test the association between quantitative measures of motor behavior and qualitative ratings of gesture performance, we quantified movement parameters semi-automatically in videotaped recordings of gesture assessment. Thirty-one patients with schizophrenia (77.4%), schizophreniform (19.4%) or schizoaffective disorder (3.2%) and 32 healthy controls matched for age, gender and education underwent clinical assessment. Performance of the test of upper limb apraxia (TULIA) was video-taped in all subjects. The videos were analyzed with motion energy analysis software (MEA) to determine motion and time parameters. Patients and controls differed significantly in quantitative gesture performance: patients required more movement and more time to complete the tasks. Differences increased in patients with qualitatively impaired gesture production ratings (p<0.01). Group differences were most pronounced in the pantomime domain, when gestures are performed following verbal instruction. In patients, ratings of motor abnormalities correlated with duration of movement, while behavioral disorganization correlated with the amount of movements during gesture performance. Disorder related motor symptoms, aberrant action observation, planning and monitoring as well as internal clock abnormalities may explain the poor performance of hand gestures in schizophrenia. Quantitative video analysis offers a unique possibility to analyze movement patterns as a direct functional output of the motor system. In the future, it may assist monitoring, staging and prognosis in schizophrenia.

Motor System Pathology in Psychosis

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Motor abnormalities are an intrinsic feature of psychosis. Neurological soft signs, Parkinsonism, dyskinesia, and other motor phenomena are frequently observed in subjects at clinical or genetic risk for psychosis as well as first-episode patients, chronic patients. Here, we review the most recent literature on motor assessments and pathophysiology in psychosis.

RECENT FINDINGS

Instrumental measures of fine motor performance, balance, spontaneous motor activity, and gesture indicated motor abnormalities in subjects at risk and across stages of schizophrenia. Motor phenomena are associated with distinct symptom dimensions and may indicate poor outcomes. Neuroimaging studies demonstrated altered neural maturation within critical motor networks in subjects at risk. Furthermore, specific categories of motor dysfunction were associated with distinct structural and functional alterations in the motor system in schizophrenia. Motor abnormalities provide a unique window into the pathobiology of psychosis and have the potential to guide screening, staging, and outcome prediction.

What Can Different Motor Circuits Tell Us About Psychosis? An RDoC Perspective

Signs of motor dysfunction are evidenced across a range of psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia. Historically, these features have been neglected but emerging theoretical and methodological advancements have shed new light on the utility of considering movement abnormalities. Indeed, the National Institute of Mental Health Research Domain Criteria initiative has recently met to develop a Motor Systems Domain. This reflects a growing appreciation for the enhanced reliability and validity that can come along with evaluating disturbances relevant to psychiatric illnesses from multiple levels of analysis, and conceptualizing these domains with respect to the complexity of their role in a broader integrated system (ie, weighing contributions and interactions between the cognitive, affective, and motor domains). This article discusses motor behaviors and seeks to explain how research into basal ganglia, cerebellar, and cortico-motor circuit function/dysfunction, grounded in brain circuit-motor behavior relationships, can elucidate our understanding of pathophysiology, provide vital links to other key systems of interest, significantly improve identification and classification, and drive development of targeted individualized treatments.

The clinical and prognostic value of motor abnormalities in psychosis, and the importance of instrumental assessment

Motor abnormalities comprise several clinical signs intrinsic to psychosis. Critically, these features are of prognostic value in individuals at-risk for psychosis, and for those in early stages of psychotic disorders. Motor abnormalities such as tremor, rigidity, and neurological soft signs often go unrecognized. Currently, advances in this area are limited by a paucity of theoretical conceptions categorizing or linking these behaviours to underlying neurobiology affected in psychosis. However, emerging technological advances have significantly improved the ability to detect and assess motor abnormalities with objective instruments in a timely and reliable manner. Further, converging evidence has laid the groundwork for theoretically and empirically derived categorization and conceptualization. This review summarizes these advances, stressing the importance of motor abnormalities for understanding vulnerability across different stages of psychosis and introducing these innovative instrumental approaches. Patients, researchers and clinicians will benefit from these new developments, as better assessment aids the development of targeted interventions to ultimately improve the care for individuals experiencing psychosis.

Parkinsonian motor impairment predicts personality domains related to genetic risk and treatment outcomes in schizophrenia

Identifying endophenotypes of schizophrenia is of critical importance and has profound implications on clinical practice. Here we propose an innovative approach to clarify the mechanims through which temperament and character deviance relates to risk for schizophrenia and predict long-term treatment outcomes. We recruited 61 antipsychotic naïve subjects with chronic schizophrenia, 99 unaffected relatives, and 68 healthy controls from rural communities in the Central Andes. Diagnosis was ascertained with the Schedules of Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry; parkinsonian motor impairment was measured with the Unified Parkinson’s Disease Rating Scale; mesencephalic parenchyma was evaluated with transcranial ultrasound; and personality traits were assessed using the Temperament and Character Inventory. Ten-year outcome data was available for ~40% of the index cases. Patients with schizophrenia had higher harm avoidance and self-transcendence (ST), and lower reward dependence (RD), cooperativeness (CO), and self-directedness (SD). Unaffected relatives had higher ST and lower CO and SD. Parkinsonism reliably predicted RD, CO, and SD after correcting for age and sex. The average duration of untreated psychosis (DUP) was over 5 years. Further, SD was anticorrelated with DUP and antipsychotic dosing at follow-up. Baseline DUP was related to antipsychotic dose-years. Further, ‘explosive/borderline’, ‘methodical/obsessive’, and ‘disorganized/schizotypal’ personality profiles were associated with increased risk of schizophrenia. Parkinsonism predicts core personality features and treatment outcomes in schizophrenia. Our study suggests that RD, CO, and SD are endophenotypes of the disease that may, in part, be mediated by dopaminergic function. Further, SD is an important determinant of treatment course and outcome.

Instrumental measurements of spontaneous dyskinesia and schizotypy in subjects with auditory verbal hallucinations and healthy controls

Spontaneous dyskinesia is associated with non-affective psychosis. Few studies investigated dyskinesia in individuals with subclinical psychotic experiences. We examined dyskinesia using instrumental measurements of force variability in 34 individuals with frequent auditory verbal hallucinations but without a clinical psychotic disorder and 31 matched healthy controls. Schizotypy was assessed using the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire. We found a positive correlation between dyskinesia and schizotypy in the total group. In addition, when using a cut-off point based on the 95th percentile of force variability in the control group, we found a greater proportion of subjects with dyskinesia in the group with auditory verbal hallucinations than in the control subjects. Current findings are in agreement with the concept of psychosis as a continuous phenomenon and with movement disorders being an integral part of psychosis.

Impaired motor performance in adolescents at familial high-risk for schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

The Harvard Adolescent Family High Risk (FHR) Study examined multiple domains of function in young relatives of individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia to identify precursors of the illness. One such area is motor performance, which is deviant in people with schizophrenia and in children at risk for schizophrenia, usually offspring. The present study assessed accuracy of motor performance and degree of lateralization in FHR adolescents and young adults.

METHODS

Subjects were 33 non-psychotic, first-degree relatives of individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia, and 30 non-psychotic comparison subjects (NpC), ranging in age from 13 to 25 who were compared using a line-drawing task.

RESULTS

FHR individuals exhibited less precise and coordinated line drawing but greater degree of lateralization than controls. Performance on the linedrawing task was correlated with degree of genetic loading, a possible predictor of higher risk for schizophrenia in the pedigree.

CONCLUSIONS

The observation of increased motor deviance and increased lateralization in FHR can be utilized in identification and initiation of the treatment in those at high risk in order to prevent or delay the full manifestation of this devastating condition. The use of a rigorously quantified measure is likely to add to the sensitivity of measuring motor performance, especially when impairments may be subtle.

Abnormal movements in first-episode, nonaffective psychosis: dyskinesias, stereotypies, and catatonic-like signs

Motor abnormalities represent a neurobehavioral domain of signs intrinsic to schizophrenia-spectrum disorders, though they are commonly attributed to medication side effects and remain understudied. Individuals with first-episode psychosis represent an ideal group to study innate movement disorders due to minimal prior antipsychotic exposure. We measured dyskinesias, stereotypies, and catatonic-like signs and examined their associations with: (1) age at onset of psychotic symptoms and duration of untreated psychosis; (2) positive, negative, and disorganized symptoms; (3) neurocognition; and (4) neurological soft signs. Among 47 predominantly African American first-episode psychosis patients in a public-sector hospital, the presence and severity of dyskinesias, stereotypies, and catatonic-like features were assessed using approximately 30-min video recordings. Movement abnormalities were rated utilizing three scales (Dyskinesia Identification System Condensed User Scale, Stereotypy Checklist, and Catatonia Rating Scale). Correlational analyses were conducted. Scores for each of three movement abnormality types were modestly inter-correlated (r=0.29-0.40). Stereotypy score was significantly associated with age at onset of psychotic symptoms (r=0.32) and positive symptom severity scores (r=0.29-0.41). There were no meaningful or consistent associations with negative symptom severity, neurocognition, or neurological soft signs. Abnormal movements appear to represent a relatively distinct phenotypic domain deserving of further research.

Spontaneous parkinsonisms and striatal impairment in neuroleptic free youth at ultrahigh risk for psychosis

Background:

Spontaneous movement abnormalities, occurring independent of medication status, are thought to reflect basal ganglia pathology in patients at ultrahigh risk (UHR) for psychosis. To date, the research literature has primarily focused on movements associated with elevated striatal dopamine (i.e., hyperkinesia) while little is known about motor symptoms associated with low levels of subcortical dopamine (i.e., spontaneous parkinsonisms; SPs). As SPs (e.g., bradykinesia) may be governed by distinct neural mechanisms, this line of research can provide a clearer picture of the etiological processes in the prodrome.

Aims:

To examine SPs and striatal structural correlates in youth at risk for psychosis.

Methods:

A total of 81 (35 UHR, 46 healthy controls) adolescents were administered a structured clinical interview, structural MRI scan, and handwriting kinematic analysis capable of assessing SPs that are not detectable by traditional observer-based inventories.

Results:

The UHR group exhibited significant decreased velocity scaling (indicative of SPs), t(79)=−2.65, P⩽0.01, as well as decreased ipsilateral t(68)=−3.16, P⩽0.001 and contralateral t(68)=−3.32, P⩽0.001 putamen volume compared with the healthy control group. Further, decreased velocity scaling was significantly associated with smaller ipsilateral putamen r(68)=0.23, P⩽0.05, 95% confidence interval (CI) (−0.005, 0.44), left r(68)=0.23, P⩽0.05, 95% CI (−0.005, 0.44) and right r(68)=0.21, P⩽0.05, 95% CI (−0.03, 0.42) caudate volume, as well as increased positive r(79)=−0.20, P=0.05, 95% CI (−0.40, −0.02) and negative r(79)=−0.27, P⩽0.05, 95% CI (−0.46, −0.06) symptoms across the sample.

Conclusions:

These findings represent the first evidence for hypokinetic movement abnormalities in the UHR period, indicating that pathophysiological processes in UHR patients may also involve hypodopaminergia. The results implicate a dopamine-induced imbalance contributing to frontal–subcortical circuit dysfunction in the psychosis prodrome.

Movement disorders in neuroleptic-naïve patients with schizophrenia spectrum disorders

BACKGROUND

Spontaneous Movements Disorders (SMDs) or dyskinetic movements are often seen in patients with schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders, and are widely considered to be adverse consequences of the use of antipsychotic medications. Nevertheless, SMDs are also observed in the pre-neuroleptic ear and among patients who were never exposed to antipsychotic medications. The aim of this study was to determine the extent of SMDs among antipsychotic-naïve patients in a low income setting, and to evaluate contextually relevant risk factors.

METHODS

The study was a cross-sectional facility-based survey conducted at a specialist psychiatric hospital in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Consecutive consenting treatment-naïve patients with a diagnosis of schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder and schizophreniform disorder contacting services for the first time were assessed using the Simpson-Angus Rating Scale (SAS) and the Abnormal Involuntary Movement Scale (AIMS) to evaluate the presence of SMDS. Scale for the Assessment of Negative Symptoms (SANS) and Scale for the Assessment of Positive Symptoms (SAPS) were administered to evaluate negative and positive symptom profiles respectively. Body mass index (BMI) was used as a proxy measure for nutritional status.

RESULT

Sixty-four patients, 67.2% male (n = 43), with first contact psychosis who met the DSM-IV-TR criteria for schizophrenia (n = 47), schizophreniform disorder (n= 5), and schizoaffective disorder (n = 12) were assessed over a two month study period. Seven patients (10.9%) had SMDs. BMI (OR = 0.6, 95% CI = 0.40, 0.89; p = 0.011) and increasing age (OR = 1.10; 95% CI = 1.02, 1.20; p = 0.017) were associated with SMD.

CONCLUSIONS

This finding supports previous suggestions that abnormal involuntary movements in schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders may be related to the pathophysiology of psychotic disorders and therefore cannot be attributed entirely to the adverse effects of neuroleptic medication.

Differential effects and potential adverse outcomes of ionic silver and silver nanoparticles in vivo and in vitro

Nanoparticles are of concern because of widespread use, but it is unclear if metal nanoparticles cause effects directly or indirectly. We explored whether polyvinylpyrrolidone-coated silver nanoparticles (PVP-AgNPs) cause effects through intact nanoparticles or dissolved silver. Females of the model species fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas) were exposed to either 4.8 μg/L of AgNO3 or 61.4 μg/L of PVP-AgNPs for 96h. Microarray analyses were used to identify impacted receptors and toxicity pathways in liver and brain tissues that were confirmed using in vitro mammalian assays. AgNO3 and PVP-AgNP exposed fish had common and distinct effects consistent with both intact nanoparticles and dissolved silver causing effects. PVP-AgNPs and AgNO3 both affected pathways involved in Na(+), K(+), and H(+) homeostasis and oxidative stress but different neurotoxicity pathways. In vivo effects were supported by PVP-AgNP activation of five in vitro nuclear receptor assays and inhibition of ligand binding to the dopamine receptor. AgNO3 inhibited ligand binding to adrenergic receptors α1 and α2 and cannabinoid receptor CB1, but had no effect in nuclear receptor assays. PVP-AgNPs have the potential to cause effects both through intact nanoparticles and metal ions, each interacting with different initiating events. Since the in vitro and in vivo assays examined here are commonly used in human and ecological hazard screening, this work suggests that environmental health assessments should consider effects of intact nanoparticles in addition to dissolved metals.

Effects of object size on unimanual and bimanual movements in patients with schizophrenia

Schizophrenia affects not only mental function but also movement. We compared the movement of patients with mild schizophrenia and healthy control participants during a bimanual assembly task and examined whether changes in object size affected unimanual and bimanual movements. Fifteen patients with schizophrenia and 15 age- and gender-matched control participants were instructed to bimanually reach for and assemble objects. We manipulated the object size for the left hand (large vs. small) and measured movement time, peak velocity, and bimanual synchronization to represent movement speed, forcefulness, and bimanual coordination. Patients with schizophrenia showed slower and less forceful unimanual movements and less coordinated bimanual movements than control participants. Increasing the object size elicited faster and more forceful unimanual movements and more coordinated bimanual movements in patients. The results suggest the need for movement rehabilitation in patients with schizophrenia and the possibility of manipulating object size to optimize patients' movements. These results benefit the practice of evidence-based therapy.

Striatal abnormalities and spontaneous dyskinesias in non-clinical psychosis

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence suggests that individuals experiencing non-clinical psychosis (NCP) represent a critical group for improving understanding of etiological factors underlying the broader psychosis continuum. Although a wealth of evidence supports widespread neural dysfunction in formal psychosis, there has been little empirical evidence to inform our understanding of putative vulnerability markers or brain structure in NCP. In this study, we examined the neural correlates of spontaneous movement abnormalities, a biomarker previously detected in NCP that is linked to abnormalities in the striatal dopamine.

METHODS

We screened a total of 1285 adolescents/young adults, and those scoring in the upper 15th percentile on a NCP scale were invited to participate; 20 of those invited agreed and these individuals were matched with healthy controls. Participants were administered a structural scan, clinical interviews, and an instrumental motor assessment.

RESULTS

The NCP group showed elevated force variability and smaller putamen (but not caudate), and there was a significant relationship between motor dysfunction and striatal abnormalities for the sample. Elevated force variability was associated with both higher positive and negative symptoms, and there was a strong trend (p=.06) to suggest that smaller left putamen volumes were associated with elevated positive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

The results are among the first to suggest an association between neural structure and a risk marker in NCP. Findings indicate that vulnerabilities seen in schizophrenia also characterize the lower end of the psychosis spectrum.

Altered cortico-basal ganglia motor pathways reflect reduced volitional motor activity in schizophrenia

Little is known about the neurobiology of hypokinesia in schizophrenia. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate alterations of white matter motor pathways in schizophrenia and to relate our findings to objectively measured motor activity. We examined 21 schizophrenia patients and 21 healthy controls using diffusion tensor imaging and actigraphy. We applied a probabilistic fibre tracking approach to investigate pathways connecting the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), the rostral anterior cingulate cortex (rACC), the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA), the supplementary motor area proper (SMA-proper), the primary motor cortex (M1), the caudate nucleus, the striatum, the pallidum and the thalamus. Schizophrenia patients had lower activity levels than controls. In schizophrenia we found higher probability indices forming part of a bundle of interest (PIBI) in pathways connecting rACC, pre-SMA and SMA-proper as well as in pathways connecting M1 and pre-SMA with caudate nucleus, putamen, pallidum and thalamus and a reduced spatial extension of motor pathways in schizophrenia. There was a positive correlation between PIBI and activity level in the right pre-SMA-pallidum and the left M1-thalamus connection in healthy controls, and in the left pre-SMA-SMA-proper pathway in schizophrenia. Our results point to reduced volitional motor activity and altered motor pathway organisation in schizophrenia. The identified associations between the amount of movement and structural connectivity of motor pathways suggest dysfunction of cortico-basal ganglia pathways in the pathophysiology of hypokinesia in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia patients may use cortical pathways involving the supplementary motor area to compensate for basal ganglia dysfunction.

Cognitive and neuroplasticity mechanisms by which congenital or early blindness may confer a protective effect against schizophrenia

Several authors have noted that there are no reported cases of people with schizophrenia who were born blind or who developed blindness shortly after birth, suggesting that congenital or early (C/E) blindness may serve as a protective factor against schizophrenia. By what mechanisms might this effect operate? Here, we hypothesize that C/E blindness offers protection by strengthening cognitive functions whose impairment characterizes schizophrenia, and by constraining cognitive processes that exhibit excessive flexibility in schizophrenia. After briefly summarizing evidence that schizophrenia is fundamentally a cognitive disorder, we review areas of perceptual and cognitive function that are both impaired in the illness and augmented in C/E blindness, as compared to healthy sighted individuals. We next discuss: (1) the role of neuroplasticity in driving these cognitive changes in C/E blindness; (2) evidence that C/E blindness does not confer protective effects against other mental disorders; and (3) evidence that other forms of C/E sensory loss (e.g., deafness) do not reduce the risk of schizophrenia. We conclude by discussing implications of these data for designing cognitive training interventions to reduce schizophrenia-related cognitive impairment, and perhaps to reduce the likelihood of the development of the disorder itself.

A fast-moving target in the Valpar assembly task improved unimanual and bimanual movements in patients with schizophrenia

PURPOSE

To investigate the effects of target speed on unimanual and bimanual movements during a bimanual prehension and assembly task in patients with mild schizophrenia and healthy controls.

METHOD

Fifteen patients with schizophrenia and 15 age- and gender-matched healthy controls were instructed to reach and assemble spacers with both hands for a target that moved at two speeds: fast or slow. Dependent variables were movement kinematics: movement time, number of movement units and timing intervals between both hands.

RESULTS

A fast-moving target induced shorter movement times, fewer movement units and shorter timing intervals than did a slow-moving target for patients. Under the slow-target condition, patients had longer movement times and a longer timing interval during prehension, as well as longer movement times, more movement units and a longer timing interval during assembly than did controls. Under the fast-target condition, patients still had slower and less-synchronized prehension than did controls, but their assembly improved to a level similar to that of controls.

CONCLUSIONS

A fast-moving target induced faster, smoother and more synchronized movements than did a slow-moving target for patients with schizophrenia, especially during assembly.

IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATION

A fast-moving target might elicit faster, smoother, and more synchronized movements than might a slow-moving target during a bimanual assembly task for patients with mild schizophrenia. The findings of impaired movement kinematics under the slow-target condition suggest that patients with schizophrenia need movement training.

Acute administration of dopaminergic drugs has differential effects on locomotion in larval zebrafish

Altered dopaminergic signaling causes behavioral changes in mammals. In general, dopaminergic receptor agonists increase locomotor activity, while antagonists decrease locomotor activity. In order to determine if zebrafish (a model organism becoming popular in pharmacology and toxicology) respond similarly, the acute effects of drugs known to target dopaminergic receptors in mammals were assessed in zebrafish larvae. Larvae were maintained in 96-well microtiter plates (1 larva/well). Non-lethal concentrations (0.2-50 μM) of dopaminergic agonists (apomorphine, SKF-38393, and quinpirole) and antagonists (butaclamol, SCH-23390, and haloperidol) were administered at 6 days post-fertilization (dpf). An initial experiment identified the time of peak effect of each drug (20-260 min post-dosing, depending on the drug). Locomotor activity was then assessed for 70 min in alternating light and dark at the time of peak effect for each drug to delineate dose-dependent effects. All drugs altered larval locomotion in a dose-dependent manner. Both the D1- and D2-like selective agonists (SKF-38393 and quinpirole, respectively) increased activity, while the selective antagonists (SCH-23390 and haloperidol, respectively) decreased activity. Both selective antagonists also blunted the response of the larvae to changes in lighting conditions at higher doses. The nonselective drugs had biphasic effects on locomotor activity: apomorphine increased activity at the low dose and at high doses, while butaclamol increased activity at low to intermediate doses, and decreased activity at high doses. This study demonstrates that (1) larval zebrafish locomotion can be altered by dopamine receptor agonists and antagonists, (2) receptor agonists and antagonists generally have opposite effects, and (3) drugs that target dopaminergic receptors in mammals appear, in general, to elicit similar locomotor responses in zebrafish larvae.

BDNF Val66Met and spontaneous dyskinesias in non-clinical psychosis

BACKGROUND

Evidence indicating that symptoms of non-clinical psychosis (NCP) occur in 6-8% of the general population suggests that psychosis may occur across a continuum. Although a number of studies have examined environmental contributors, to date there have been few investigations of biological/genetic factors in this integral population. A recent study observed spontaneous dyskinetic movements (reflecting an innervated striatal system) in individuals reporting NCP. The present investigation is designed to replicate this finding and determine if brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) (implicated in striatal dopamine function) is associated with dyskinesias.

METHOD

A total of 68 young-adult participants reporting High and Low-NCP were assessed for dyskinetic movements using a sensitive instrumental measure of force variability. Saliva from the participants was genotyped for val66met (rs6265), a common functional polymorphism of the BDNF gene (the Met allele is associated with lower activity-dependent release of BDNF).

RESULTS

Participants in the High-NCP group showed significantly elevated levels of force variability. Met allele carriers exhibited significantly higher levels of force variability when compared with the Val homozygotes. Logistic regression indicated that the odds of membership in the High-NCP group were significantly higher given the presence of dyskinesias (OR=2.32; CI: 1.25-4.28).

CONCLUSION

Findings of elevated force variability suggest that individuals with NCP exhibit subtle signs of striatal vulnerability, reflected more dramatically as jerking and hyperkinetic movements in patients with formal psychosis. The results are consistent with a larger literature implicating BDNF as a critical factor underlying abnormal movements, and suggest that specific candidate genes underlie putative markers across a psychosis continuum.

Characterization of spontaneous Parkinsonism in drug-naive patients with nonaffective psychotic disorders

Spontaneous Parkinsonism (SP) in schizophrenia-related disorders is poorly characterized. The objective of this study was to examine the concordance and clinical validity of alternative definitions of SP in patients with nonaffective psychotic disorders. Two-hundred drug-naive patients with nonaffective psychotic disorders were examined for core parkinsonian signs, including bradykinesia, rigidity, and tremor, and diagnosed of SP according to the Simpson-Angus Scale (SAS) cutoff criterion, the UK Parkinson's disease brain bank (UKPDBB) criteria, the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke (NINDS) criteria, and criteria requiring the presence of all three core features (full syndrome criteria). Parkinsonian signs and criteria were examined in relation to a number of relevant clinical variables. The most frequent sign was rigidity (33.5%) followed by bradykinesia (16%) and tremor (12%). The prevalence rate of SP according to the SAS cutoff criterion, the UKPDBB criteria, the NINDS criteria for possible and probable SP, and the full syndrome criteria were 20.5, 13, 25.5, 18.5, and 4%, respectively. Bradykinesia was specifically related to negative symptoms, rigidity to neurological soft signs, and tremor to dyskinetic movements. The set of criteria showing more associations with clinical variables were the NINDS criteria for probable SP. Patients fulfilling these criteria had higher ratings for poor premorbid adjustment, negative symptoms, dyskinesia, neurological soft signs, and poor global treatment response than those without that diagnosis. The NINDS criteria for probable SP, i.e., presence of any two of the three core parkinsonian signs, seem to be the most suitable for clinical and research purposes.

Associations between spontaneous movement abnormalities and psychotic-like experiences in the general population

An accumulating body of literature supports the notion that psychotic-like experiences (PLEs) may occur as a continuous phenotype. However, researchers are still working to determine if these events accompany an underlying continuum of neurobiological vulnerability as well. Within this context, it is notable that spontaneous dyskinetic movements are linked to specific pathogenic factors underlying schizophrenia, but to date there has been little research directed towards determining whether these events are associated with PLEs. In this study, 119 individuals were assessed for PLEs and administered with a sensitive instrumental test of upper extremity dyskinesia. Present findings suggest a relationship between subtle dyskinesia and PLEs in the general population, and provide a new perspective of the psychosis continuum by indicating that basal ganglia pathology may also underlie PLEs at the non-clinical end of this spectrum.

Movement disorders in nonpsychotic siblings of patients with nonaffective psychosis

Movement disorders such as dyskinesia and Parkinsonism have frequently been reported in (drug-naïve) patients with nonaffective psychosis. Therefore movement disorders may be related to schizophrenia. Siblings of patients with nonaffective psychosis also appear to have subtle forms of movement disorders. This suggests that motor abnormalities may also be related to the risk of developing the disease. Subtle forms are not always detected with the use of the standard observation-based clinical rating scales, which are less sensitive than mechanical instrument measurement. This study compared the presence and severity of dyskinesia and Parkinsonism in 42 non-psychotic siblings of patients with nonaffective psychosis and in 38 controls as measured by mechanical instruments and clinical rating scales. There were no significant differences in movement disorders between siblings and controls on the basis of clinical assessments. However, mechanical measurements indicated that siblings compared to controls displayed significantly more dyskinesia and Parkinsonism signs. These results suggest that motor signs could be markers of vulnerability for psychosis or schizophrenia. In addition this study shows that mechanical instrument measurement of movement disorders is more sensitive than assessment with clinical rating scales. Therefore, it may be used in screening programs for populations at risk for psychosis.

Neuromotor abnormalities in neuroleptic-naive psychotic patients: antecedents, clinical correlates, and prediction of treatment response

BACKGROUND

Primary neuromotor abnormalities are thought to be a manifestation of the brain pathology underlying the psychotic illness; however, their causes and consequences are poorly understood. The study's aim was to examine the prevalence and correlates of neuromotor abnormalities in a sample of neuroleptic-naive psychotic patients.

METHOD

One hundred psychotic inpatients were rated for parkinsonism, catatonia, dyskinesia, and akathisia at the neuroleptic-naive state; and their association with demographic, antecedent, clinical, and treatment response variables was examined.

RESULTS

Neurological syndromes tended to co-vary, and 34 of the patients had at least one categorically defined neurological syndrome. Higher ratings of parkinsonism, catatonia, and dyskinesia were associated with obstetric complications, poorer premorbid adjustment, more severe negative symptoms, higher prevalence of the deficit syndrome, and poorer response to antipsychotic drugs. Patients with schizophrenia had higher parkinsonism and dyskinesia ratings than those with other psychotic disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Neuromotor abnormalities represent both an integral part of the disease process not influenced by chronicity or antipsychotic drugs and a severity marker of the psychotic illness.

Alterations of white matter integrity related to motor activity in schizophrenia

Altered structural connectivity is a key finding in schizophrenia, but the meaning of white matter alterations for behavior is rarely studied. In healthy subjects, motor activity correlated with white matter integrity in motor tracts. To explore the relation of motor activity and fractional anisotropy (FA) in schizophrenia, we investigated 19 schizophrenia patients and 24 healthy control subjects using Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) and actigraphy on the same day. Schizophrenia patients had lower activity levels (AL). In both groups linear relations of AL and FA were detected in several brain regions. Schizophrenia patients had lower FA values in prefrontal and left temporal clusters. Furthermore, using a general linear model, we found linear negative associations of FA and AL underneath the right supplemental motor area (SMA), the right precentral gyrus and posterior cingulum in patients. This effect within the SMA was not seen in controls. This association in schizophrenia patients may contribute to the well known dysfunctions of motor control. Thus, structural disconnectivity could lead to disturbed motor behavior in schizophrenia.

Dyskinesia and parkinsonism in antipsychotic-naive patients with schizophrenia, first-degree relatives and healthy controls: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Several studies have reported the presence of dyskinesia and parkinsonism in antipsychotic-naive patients with schizophrenia as well as in their first-degree relatives. These movement disorders may therefore form an integral part of the illness and its (genetic) liability.

METHOD

A systematic search was conducted in the Medline, EMBASE, and PsychINFO databases to identify studies reporting on dyskinesia and parkinsonism assessed in antipsychotic-naive patients with schizophrenia (n = 213) and controls (n = 242) and separately in nonill first-degree relatives (n = 395) and controls (n = 379). Effect sizes were pooled using random-effect models to calculate odds ratios (ORs) to compare the risk of these movement disorders among patients and healthy relatives each with matched controls.

RESULTS

Antipsychotic-naive schizophrenia was found to be strongly associated with dyskinesia (OR: 3.59, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.53-8.41) and parkinsonism (OR: 5.32, 95% CI: 1.75-16.23) compared with controls. Dyskinesia and parkinsonism were also significantly more prevalent in healthy first-degree relatives of patients with schizophrenia as compared with healthy controls (OR: 1.38, 95% CI: 1.06-1.81, and OR: 1.37, 95% CI: 1.05-1.79, respectively).

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that movement disorders, and by inference abnormalities in the nigrostriatal pathway, are not only associated with schizophrenia itself but may also be related to the (genetic) risk of developing the disease.