Lead and cadmium in red deer and wild boar from different hunting grounds in Croatia

Cadmium in Selected Organs of Game Animals from Areas with Different Degrees of Industrialisation and Its Intake by Human Consumers

The aim of this study was to determine the concentration of cadmium (Cd) in the organs of game animals from areas with different degrees of industrialisation and to assess its intake following the consumption of the livers of these animals. The material for this study consisted of liver and kidney samples taken from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and wild boar (Sus scrofa) from five regions differing in land use and industrialisation. Compared to the kidneys, the liver was an indicator of the current state of the environment and Cd intake, while the kidney was used to assess the long-term accumulation of Cd in the body. The cadmium concentration in the samples was determined by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. The cadmium concentrations of the organs were found to vary according to geographical location, with the highest levels being observed in Southern Poland, i.e., areas characterised by the highest degree of industrialisation and the presence of heavy industry. However, high Cd concentrations were also reported in the northeastern region. Examples of excessive cadmium levels in the kidneys were noted in all tested regions. Cd intake by humans was evaluated by calculating the estimated daily cadmium intake, and this was compared with the tolerable weekly intake (TWI). The TWI was only exceeded by children frequently consuming wild boar liver from the southwest region.

Monitoring of metal content in the tissues of wild boar (Sus scrofa) and its food safety aspect

The study was performed on 10 female and 10 male wild boars (Sus scrofa) after shooting during the regular hunting season to investigate the concentration of metals in the muscle and fat tissue. The concentrations of essential and non-essential elements were determined (arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), lead (Pb), manganese (Mn), mercury (Hg), and zinc (Zn)) using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry. The concentrations of As, Hg, and Cd were below the limit of detection (As, Hg: < 0.5 mg/kg, Cd: < 0.05 mg/kg) in every tissue sample of both sexes. The lead was detected as 0.36 ± 0.16 mg/kg and 0.22 ± 0.06 mg/kg in the muscle of females and males, respectively, showing a significant difference between the sexes (p = 0.0184). The measured concentration of Cr was 0.14 ± 0.08 mg/kg and 0.13 ± 0.06 mg/kg, and that of copper was 1.22 ± 0.14 mg/kg and 1.06 ± 0.16 mg/kg in the muscle of females and males, respectively. The same tendency was observed in the case of copper content of fat tissues (female: 0.13 ± 0.10 mg/kg; male: 0.13 ± 0.04 mg/kg; p = 0.2707). Manganese concentration of muscle was 0.45 ± 0.30 mg/kg (female) and 1.36 ± 0.96 mg/kg (male), and that of fat tissue was 0.32 ± 0.22 mg/kg (female) and 0.74 ± 0.75 mg/kg (male). The Zn was detected as 56.75 ± 7.86 mg/kg and 1.83 ± 0.76 mg/kg in the muscle and fat of females and 52.12 ± 11.51 mg/kg and 1.94 ± 0.57 mg/kg in males, respectively. Based on data, the consumption of fat and muscle tissues of the wild boars tested can be food toxicologically objectionable, mainly due to the lead content, and thus pose a risk to frequent consumers of this type of game meat.

Blood biomarkers in white stork (Ciconia ciconia) nestlings show different responses in several areas of Croatia

White stork nestlings can provide quantitative data on the quality of the environment, as they are dependent on their parents that provide locally foraged food. Blood was sampled from the brachial vein (n = 109) and the sampling was performed in parallel with ringing during breeding season 2020 from five areas in eastern Croatia: Lonjsko polje, Jelas polje, Slavonski Brod-east, Podunavlje, and Donje Podravlje. In the present study, for the first time in Croatia, the following enzymatic biomarkers were assessed in white stork nestlings: activities of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), carboxylesterase (CES), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and glutathione reductase (GR), as well as nonenzymatic biomarkers: levels of glutathione (GSH) and reactive oxygen species (ROS). All endpoints were measured in two blood fractions: plasma and a postmitochondrial fraction (S9). Nestlings from Podunavlje and Donje Podravlje, areas known for intensive agriculture, showed lower AChE and CES activity when compared to the other investigated areas, indicating the presence of inhibitory xenobiotics. Higher oxidative stress was observed in Slavonski Brod-east, an area surrounded by metal and engineering industry, and Podunavlje compared to the other sampling areas. Hence, this study shows the impact of pollutants from the surrounding metal, petroleum, and agricultural industry might have on the biomarkers in white stork nestlings, which are often seen as early-warning signals.

Cadmium and wild boar: environmental exposure and immunological impact on macrophages

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Wild boar represents useful bioindicator for Cadmium environmental exposure.

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Cadmium can be absorbed by wild boar moMФ with subsequent cell viability decrease.

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Moderate cadmium concentration down-regulated IL-12p40, TNF-α expression in moMФ.

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Moderate cadmium concentration decreased antimicrobial molecules expression in moMФ.

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Moderate cadmium concentration down-regulated expression of several TLRs in moMФ.

Cadmium (Cd²⁺) is regarded as one of the most toxic heavy metals, which can enter the food chain through environmental contamination and be bioaccumulated. Its exposure in Ligurian wild boars was monitored between 2016–2020 and revealed high level of this heavy metal in different provinces. In one of these polluted area, 21 wild boars were additionally sampled and the relationship between hepatic and renal Cd²⁺ concentration suggested that majority of these animals presented chronic intoxication. Cd²⁺ exposure of wild boar might lead to an immunosuppression status, thus in vitro experiments on wild boar monocyte-derived macrophages (moMФ) were carried out. Effects of Cd²⁺ scalar doses were evaluated through viability and adsorption assays, ELISA, qPCR. Moderate doses of this environmental pollutant (20 μM) were absorbed by moMФ, with subsequent reduction of their viability. This heavy metal did not trigger release of either IFN- β, anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory cytokines by moMФ, instead 24 h treatment with 20 μM of Cd²⁺ resulted in down-regulated expression of TNF-α, IL-12p40, several TLRs, CD14, MD2, BD2, MyD88, p65, and NOS2. The results of our monitoring activity suggested that wild boar can be useful to monitor environmental exposure of this heavy metal and can help in understanding the type of contamination. In addition, in vitro experiments on wild boar moMФ revealed that Cd²⁺ exposure negatively affected the immune function of these cells, likely leading to increased susceptibility to infection.

Risk Assessment of Cd, Cu, and Pb from the consumption of hunted meat: red-legged partridge and wild rabbit

The objective was to assess that potential health risk from Cd, Cu, and Pb, through the consumption of hunted red-legged partridge and wild rabbit meat, with special focus on the population of hunters and their relatives. Mineral content was analyzed by atomic absorption methods (F-AAS for Cu and GF-AAS for Cd and Pb) after microwave digestion of lyophilized samples. The average concentrations of these elements were 0.008 and 0.01 mg/kg for Cd; 1.41 and 1.63 mg/kg for Cu and 0.98 and 1.28 mg/kg for Pb in wild rabbit and red-legged partridge meat respectively. The dietary, risk assessment was performed by assuming two intake scenarios based on the obtained results of the survey on game meat consumption and the current maximum recommended intakes of Cd, Cu, and Pb, and then, the hazard quotients (THQ and TTHQ) were calculated. The data show that exposure to these metals from eating red-legged partridge and wild rabbit meat from a hunting provenance is relatively low and generally greater in the hunter population. The risk assessment revealed that moderate or low consumption of meat of these species does not offer a significant public health risk. Moreover, hazard quotients values for these metals of red-legged partridge and rabbit meat consumption in hunters and nonhunters are below 1. However, a high Pb content in the meat of these species and a high consumption may pose a greater health risk to hunters.

Potentially toxic element accumulation in badgers (Meles meles): a compositional approach

Potentially Toxic Elements (PTEs) in Badgers (Meles meles), otherwise known as heavy metals, are unique amongst environmental pollutants occurring, both naturally and anthropogenically. PTEs have a broad range of negative health and environmental effects, therefore identifying their sources and pathways through the environment is imperative for public health policy. This is difficult in terrestrial systems due to the compositional nature of soil geochemistry. In this study, a compositional statistical approach was used to identify how PTEs accumulate in a terrestrial carnivorous mammal, Eurasian Badgers (Meles meles). Compositional principal component analysis (PCA) was used on geochemical data from the Tellus survey, the soil baseline and badger tissue data to map geo-spatial patterns of PTEs and show accumulative trends measured in time. Mapping PCs identified distinct regions of PTE presence in soil and PTE accumulation in badger tissues in Northern Ireland. PTEs were most elevated in liver, kidney and then muscle tissues. Liver and kidney showed the most distinct geo-spatial patterns of accumulation and muscle was the most depleted. PC1 and 2 for each type were modelled using generalised additive mixed models (GAMM) to identify trends through time. PC1 for the liver and muscle were associated with rainfall and ∂N15 in the liver, showing a link to diet and a bioaccumulation pathway, whilst PC2 for both tissues was associated with mean temperature, showing a link to seasonal activity and a bioaccessibility pathway. However, in kidney tissue these trends are reversed and PC1 was associated with bioaccessibility and PC2 with bioaccumulation. Combined these techniques can elucidate both geo-spatial trends in PTEs and the mechanisms by which they move in environment and in future may be an effective tool for assessing PTE bioavailability in environmental health surveys.

Concentrations of cadmium, lead, arsenic, and some essential metals in wild boar from Sweden

The wild boar (Sus scrofa) is becoming more common in Europe and has potential to be used as sentinel species for local contamination of heavy metals. Concentrations of nine trace elements (arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), selenium (Se), and zinc (Zn)) were examined in kidney tissue of 104 female wild boars hunted at three sites in Sweden. The interrelationships between the trace elements and age dependency were investigated. Reproductive health was previously known to differ among animals at the different study sites, but could not be explained by heavy metal concentrations and no associations were found between heavy metals and reproductive parameters. Kidney concentrations of Cd (mean 4.16 mg/kg wet weight (w.w.), range 0.16–12.8) were higher than the permissible level for human consumption in 99.9% of the samples. Pb concentrations were generally intermediate or low (mean 0.14 mg/kg w.w., range 0.03–1.01) and exceeded the levels accepted for human consumption in 0.02% of the samples. Age class was significantly associated with the concentrations of Cd, Mg, and Mn. Concentrations of As were low (mean 0.02 mg/kg w.w., range <0.0001–0.08) and Cu and Se concentrations were within the ranges of suspected deficiency for 10% and 4% of the wild boars, respectively.

Cognitive decline prevention in offspring of Pb+2 exposed mice by maternal aerobic training and Cur/CaCO3@Cur supplementations: In vitro and in vivo studies

Heavy metals are considered contaminants that hazardously influence the healthy life of humans and animals as they are widely used in industry. Contact of youngsters and women at ages of parturition with lead (Pb⁺²) is a main related concern, which passes through the placental barricade and its better absorption in the intestine leads to flaws in the fetal developfment. However, the metals threaten animal and human life, in particular throughout developmental stages. Products existing in the nature have a major contribution to innovating chemo-preventives. As a naturally available polyphenol and necessary curcuminoid, curcumin (Cur) is a derivative of the herb Curcuma longa (L.) rhizome, which globally recognized as "wonder drug of life"; however, Cur has a limited clinical use as it is poorly dissolved in water. Therefore, to enhance its clinically relevant parameters, curcumin-loaded calcium carbonate (CaCO₃@Cur) was synthesized by one step coprecipitation method as a newly introduced in this research. Initially, its structure was physio chemically characterized using FT-IR, FESEM and DLS equipment and then the cytotoxicity of lead when it was pretreated with Cur/CaCO₃@Cur were assessed by MTT assay. Both Cur and CaCO₃@Cur diminished the toxic effects of Pb⁺² while the most protective effect on the Pb⁺² cytotoxicity was achieved by pre-incubation of cells with CaCO₃@Cur. Besides, the morphological changes of Pb⁺²-treated cells that were pre-incubated with or without Cur/CaCO₃@Cur were observed by normal and florescent microscopes. A non-pharmacologic method that lowers the hazard of brain damage is exercise training that is capable of both improving and alleviating memory. In the current study, the role of regular aerobic training and CaCO₃@Cur was assessed in reducing the risk of brain damage induced by lead nitrate contact. To achieve the mentioned goal, pregnant Balb/C mice were assigned to five groups (six mice/group) at random: negative and positive controls, aerobic training group and Cur and CaCO₃@Cur treated (50 mg/kg/b.wt) trained groups that exposed to Pb⁺² (2 mg/kg) by drinking water during breeding and pregnancy. With the completion of study, offspring were subjected to the behavioral tasks that was tested by step-through ORT, DLB, MWM and YM tests. As a result, having regular aerobic training and CaCO₃@Cur co-administration with lead nitrate could reverse the most defected behavioral indicators; yet, this was not visible for both sexes and it seems that gender can also be a source of different effects in the animal's body. In fact, having regular aerobic training along with CaCO₃@Cur supplementation during pregnancy may be encouraging protecting potential agents towards the toxicity of Pb⁺² that could be recommended in the areas with high pollution of heavy metals.

Levels of Metals and Organochlorine Pesticides in Kidney, Liver, and Muscle Tissues of Wild Boars (Sus scrofa) from Hatay Province, Eastern Mediterranean Region, Turkey

Increases in the levels of environmental contaminants are reflected in wild animals, which are early indicators of pollution. Hatay is an ecologically important region with a high intensity of industrial and agricultural activities. This study aimed to investigate the contamination levels of metals and organochlorine pesticides associated with environmental pollution in tissues of wild boars from Turkey. The highest mean levels (mg kg^-1) of metals were 0.05 for As, 0.51 for Cd, 6.30 for Cu, 0.07 for Hg, 0.54 for Ni, and 0.57 for Pb in kidney tissues and 0.22 for Cr, 353.38 for Fe, 2.86 for Mn, and 46.76 for Zn in liver tissues. The Cd and Pb levels exceeded the maximum residue limits (MRLs) in some tissues. Among the studied pesticides, only p,p'-DDE contamination was quantified, and the mean levels were 3.6, 0.1, and 0.5 µg kg^-1 in liver, kidney, and muscle tissues respectively. In conclusion, Hatay Province requires monitoring in terms of environmentally important contaminants, mainly Cd, Pb, and DDT isomers.

Content of Selected Macro- and Microelements in the Liver of Free-Living Wild Boars (Sus Scrofa L.) from Agricultural Areas and Health Risks Associated with Consumption of Liver

Simple Summary

Liver is a traditional dish and a basic ingredient of traditional dishes consumed in many countries worldwide. The analysis of trace elements and macro- and microelements in the liver of wild boars is important due to the insufficient amount of available scientific information in this field. The material comprised liver samples taken from 70 wild boars (Sus scrofa L.). The animals represented the following ranges of age: Up to one year (group I), from one to three years (group II), and over three to five years (group III). It was shown that the wild boar liver is a rich source of mineral compounds. The age was found to exert an effect on the concentration of most minerals. The sex significantly determined the content of iron, calcium, and cadmium. The results obtained in our study indicate that children should avoid a frequent intake of wild boar liver. In turn, this type of liver can be a valuable source of such elements as Fe, Zn, and Cu for adults. The permissible concentration of Cd in the liver was exceeded in five samples. We suggest that regular control of the content of trace elements in wild boar liver is extremely important and advisable for assessment of the level of consumer exposure. The toxic metal content can be determined to assess the degree of environmental pollution and for biomonitoring of contamination. The information included in this article may be useful for environment protection agencies and policy makers that design strategies for environmental protection and human health and safety regulations.

Abstract

The aim of the study was to determine the levels of selected toxic and non-toxic elements in the liver of free-living wild boars from agricultural areas and to assess health risks associated with liver consumption. Samples were collected from 70 wild boars. The animals were divided into three age groups (group I up to one year, group II from one to three years, group III over three to five years). It was shown that wild boar liver is a rich source of mineral compounds (K, Fe, Mg, Ca, Zn, and Cu). The age was found to exert an effect on the concentration of most minerals. The sex significantly determined the content of Fe, Ca, and Cd. The maximum allowable level of Cd in the liver was exceeded in two and three samples from groups I and III, respectively. Therefore, regular monitoring of the content of this element in tissues of game animals is extremely important and advisable to assess the consumer exposure to this metal. From the point of view of human health, the estimation of the non-carcinogenic risk indicated that the intake of individual trace elements through the consumption of the liver was safe, whereas consumption of combined trace elements (only in the case of the consumption of the wild boar liver twice a week) suggested a potential health risk to children.

Content of essential and non-essential elements in wild animals from western Ukraine and the health risks associated with meat and liver consumption

The meat and offal from game animals may act as sources of both essential and non-essential elements and the presence of high levels of toxic elements in their tissues can pose a serious threat to human health. The purpose of the work was to determine the levels of selected toxic and non-toxic elements in the tissues of free-living animals from western Ukraine and to assess the health risks associated with meat and liver consumption. The test material comprised muscle, liver and kidney samples taken from 12 wild boar (Sus scrofa), 10 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 8 hares (Lepus europaeus L.). All material was obtained from the Lviv region, western Ukraine. The obtained results indicate the presence of a relatively high Pb content in free-living animals in western Ukraine. The permissible concentration of this element was exceeded in all meat and offal samples. In the case of Cd, exceeded permissible values were observed in the muscle of wild boar (30% of samples) and kidney of wild boar (8% of samples), roe deer (20% of samples) and brown hare (12% of samples). The highest HQ values were observed for Fe, Cd, Zn and Mn in the consumed liver and meat of the tested animals. However, in neither case was the HQ or HI found to be greater than 1, which indicates a low probability of the development of adverse health effects associated with the consumption of game.

Serum and Seminal Plasma Element Concentrations in Relation to Semen Quality in Duroc Boars

Element concentrations in serum and seminal plasma were studied in Duroc boars with different semen quality characteristics. Based on the utilization rate of 2174 ejaculates from June to August in 2016, a total of 166 Duroc boars were allocated into three groups: low utilization rate group (LG, 0 to 60% utilization rate), medium utilization rate group (MG, 60 to 80%), and high utilization rate group (HG, 80 to 100%). Serum and seminal plasma samples were collected, and element levels were analyzed using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The results showed that LG boars had higher concentrations of serum copper and seminal plasma cadmium compared with MG and HG boars (P < 0.05), and serum copper and seminal plasma cadmium were negatively correlated with sperm motility, while positively correlated with the abnormal sperm rate. We observed the abnormal sperm rate increased by approximately 4.53% with serum copper increasing from 1.63 to 2.44 mg/L, while sperm motility decreased by approximately 2.85% with seminal plasma cadmium increasing from 0 to 0.82 μg/L. Moreover, serum iron and manganese levels in the LG group were significantly reduced compared with the HG boars (P < 0.05), and the two elements were negatively correlated with the abnormal sperm rate (P < 0.05). In conclusion, excessive copper and absence of iron and manganese in serum as well as higher seminal plasma cadmium may reduce the utilization rate of semen by impairing sperm motility and morphology, indicating the importance of adding and monitoring microelements in boar diet.

Comparison of lead levels in edible parts of red deer hunted with lead or non-lead ammunition

Game meat may contain elevated concentrations of lead especially if lead-containing ammunition is used for hunting. Then a health risk is possible for consumer groups with high game meat intake. The lead concentrations in three edible parts (marketable meat from the area close to the wound channel, saddle and haunch) of meat from red deer (Cervus elaphus) between animals hunted either with lead or non‑lead ammunition were compared. Furthermore, lead levels in game meat of lead-shot red deer were compared with those of lead-shot roe deer and lead-shot wild boar. Ninety red deer were shot and killed in the context of this study (64 with lead and 26 with non‑lead ammunition). Since the lead concentration for a number of the samples was below the limit of detection or the limit of quantification, statistical methods for left-censored data were applied. The median concentrations of lead in game meat did not differ significantly between lead shot and non‑lead shot animals. However, when we analyzed the more elevated lead concentrations, they were significantly higher in edible parts of animals shot with lead ammunition than non-lead ammunition. The highest concentrations were found in samples from edible meat from the area close to the wound channel (max 3442 mg Pb/kg), followed by the saddle (max 1.14 mg Pb/kg) and with the lowest levels in the haunch (max 0.09 mg Pb/kg). A comparison of game species revealed that the lead concentration in haunch and saddle of lead shot red deer was higher than in the corresponding samples of lead shot roe deer. Our results have shown that by the use of non-lead ammunition, a significant reduction of the lead concentration especially in edible parts near the wound channel is possible.

Heavy metals in organs of stray dogs and cats from the city of Naples and its surroundings (Southern Italy)

The aim of the present study was to assess the concentrations of lead (Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in the liver and kidney from stray dogs (Canis lupus familiaris) and cats (Felis catus) found dead between 2014 and 2017 in the city of Naples and its surrounding areas. These organs from 290 dogs and 88 cats were collected after ordinary necropsy of stray animals. Heavy metal concentrations were determined by using atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). Concentrations of Pb (up to 5.93 mg/kg) and Cd (ranging from 0.005 to 6.13 mg/kg) were detected in both livers and kidneys analyzed. Differences in concentration were found based on age class, gender, and kind of tissue for both elements, with a trend similar to those already reported in the literature for comparable studies from different countries. Cadmium levels in the kidney were significantly higher (p < 0.05) in females than those in males for both species. As regards to Pb, the highest concentrations were detected in the liver (3.45 mg/kg in dog and 5.93 in cat, respectively) followed by the renal tissue, with no significant difference depending on the animal gender. This study can be considered the first one in Italy regarding stray dogs and cats as bio-indicators of environmental contamination due to lead and cadmium, suggesting that pets could be sentinel animals to evaluate human exposure to these heavy metals.

Lead content in wild game shot with lead or non-lead ammunition - Does "state of the art consumer health protection" require non-lead ammunition?

The toxicity of lead has been known for a long time, and no safe uptake level can be derived for humans. Consumers’ intake via food should therefore be kept as low as possible. Game meat can contain elevated levels of lead due to the use of lead ammunition for hunting. A risk assessment conducted in 2010 by the German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment including various consumption scenarios revealed a possible health risk for extreme consumers of game meat hunted with lead ammunition (i.e. hunters and members of hunters’ households). Babies, infants, children and women of childbearing age were identified as vulnerable group with regards to the developmental neurotoxicity of lead. It was noted, that a sound data base was required in order to refine the assessment. Therefore, the research project “Safety of game meat obtained through hunting” (LEMISI) has been conducted in Germany, with the aims of determining the concentrations of lead (as well as of copper and zinc) brought into the edible parts of game meat (roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and wild boar (Sus scrofa)) due to using either lead or non-lead hunting ammunition, whilst concurrently taking geogenic (i.e. “background”) levels of lead into account. Compared to non-lead ammunition, lead ammunition significantly increased lead concentrations in the game meat. The use of both lead and non-lead ammunition deposited copper and zinc in the edible parts of game meat, and the concentrations were in the range of those detected regularly in meat of farm animals. For the average consumer of game meat in Germany the additional uptake of lead only makes a minor contribution to the average alimentary lead exposure. However, for consumers from hunters’ households the resulting uptake of lead–due to lead ammunition—can be several times higher than the average alimentary lead exposure. Non-lead bullets in combination with suitable game meat hygienic measures are therefore recommended in order to ensure “state of the art consumer health protection”.

Game meat consumption by hunters and their relatives: a probabilistic approach

This study aimed to estimate the consumption of meat and products derived from hunting by the consumer population and, specifically, by hunters and their relatives. For this purpose, a survey was conducted on the frequency of consuming meat from the four most representative game species in Spain, two of big game, wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus), and two of small game, rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and red partridge (Alectoris rufa), as well as of processed meat products (salami-type sausage) made from those big game species. The survey was carried out on 337 habitual consumers of these types of products (hunters and their relatives). The total mean game meat consumption, per capita in this population group, is 6.87 kg/person/year of meat and 8.57 kg/person/year if the processed meat products are also considered. Consumption of rabbit, red partridge, red deer and wild boar, individually, was 1.85, 0.82, 2.28 and 1.92 kg/person/year, respectively. It was observed that hunters generally registered a larger intake of game meat, this being statistically significant in the case of rabbit meat consumption. Using probabilistic methods, the meat consumption frequency distributions for each hunting species studied were estimated, as well as the products made from big game species and the total consumption both of meat by itself and that including the products made from it. The consumption frequency distributions were adjusted to exponential ones, verified by the test suitable for it according to Akaike Information Criterion (AIC), Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC), the Chi-squared and Kolmogorov-Smirnov statistics. In addition, the consumption percentiles of the different distributions were obtained. The latter could be a good tool when making nutrition or contaminant studies since they permit the assessment of exposure to the compound in question.

The effect of dietary selenium addition on the concentrations of heavy metals in the tissues of fallow deer (Dama dama L.) in Croatia

The aim of this research was to determine the concentrations of cadmium, lead, mercury, and arsenic and the essential elements iron and selenium in the tissues (muscle, kidney, liver, spleen, and fat) of fallow deer (Dama dama L.) without and with supplemental selenium addition. Another aim was to determine the effect of selenium addition on the indicators of oxidative stress, namely, the levels of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione, and vitamin E. The research was carried out with 40 fallow deer during two research periods. Supplemental feed without selenium addition was provided during the first research period, and supplemental feed with added selenium (3 mg/kg) was provided for 60 days during the second research period. The concentration of selenium in tissues was higher in the second research period than in the first research period (in kidney tissue, 0.957 vs. 0.688 mg/kg, P < 0.05). The dietary addition of selenium decreased (P < 0.05) the concentrations of some heavy metals (lead in the spleen = 0.06 vs. 0.27 mg/kg and in the fatty tissue = 0.17 vs. 0.69 mg/kg; arsenic in the muscle tissue = 0.005 vs. 0.014 mg/kg, liver = 0.003 vs. 0.009 mg/kg, spleen = 0.004 vs. 0.013 mg/kg, and fat = 0.008 vs. 0.016 mg/kg). The activity of glutathione peroxidase was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the second research period than in the first research period (1375.36 vs. 933.23 U/L).

Bioaccumulation of selected heavy metals and histopathological and hematobiochemical alterations in backyard chickens reared in an industrial area, India

This study was carried out to determine the concentrations of four heavy metals, cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), and cobalt (Co), and histopathological lesions in tissues of chickens reared in an industrial area of West Bengal, India. In particular, Mejhia Block was selected as a heavy metal-exposed area and Vatar Block (120 km away from industrially polluted areas) as a reference site. Samples were collected from the backyard chickens in these areas. Concentrations of heavy metals in soil, water, feedstuffs, tissues (liver, kidney, spleen, lung, and muscle), and droppings were greater (p < 0.05) in the polluted site than in the reference site. The greatest tissue concentrations of Cd and Pb were noted in the kidney, followed by the liver, lung, spleen, and muscle, whereas Cu and Co concentrations accumulated in these tissues resulted in the following: liver > kidney > lung > spleen > muscle. Heavy metal concentrations were greater in older chickens (> 1 year) than in young chickens (< 1 year). Packed cell volume, total erythrocyte counts, hemoglobin, total protein, and total leucocyte counts were significantly (p < 0.01) lower in the blood picture of chickens in the exposed area. Different serum enzymes and biochemical profiles were altered due to heavy metal exposure. Histological changes revealed necrotic lesions and tubulitis in the kidney, degeneration and necrosis in liver parenchyma, and periarteriolitis, peribronchiolitis, and presence of hemosiderin pigment in the lung of chickens in the exposed site. Results indicated that backyard chickens in heavy metal-exposed site may show pathological lesions in different tissues due to accumulation of heavy metals, and thus, the consumption of chicken meat from the industrially exposed site may pose a potential health risk to local residents of polluted sites.

Age-Related Patterns in Trace Element Content Vary Between Bone and Teeth of the European Roe Deer (Capreolus capreolus)

Game animals, such as the roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), have long been used as bioindicators of environmental contamination. Most ecotoxicological research on ungulates has focused on trace element content in soft tissues and antlers. Also, only fragmentary information exists about whether and how trace element concentrations vary with the age of wild-living animals and whether these age-related patterns are similar for different types of tissues. The purpose of this study was to measure concentrations of seven trace metals (barium, copper, iron, lead, manganese, strontium, zinc) and fluoride in bone and teeth of roe deer and to determine whether significant variation is evident with individual age. For this purpose, we collected permanent molars and fragments of mandible bone from more than 130 female roe deer in Central Poland. We found that concentrations of four trace elements (barium, manganese, zinc, and fluoride) in teeth of deer showed positive linear relationships with individual age. No such trends were recorded for trace element content in bone. We suggest that these striking differences in age-related patterns of trace element bioaccumulation between bone and permanent teeth of roe deer might be explained by higher turnover rate and constant remodelling of bone tissue. The results suggest that analysis of permanent teeth may be useful for assessing throughout-life intoxication by environmental pollution in the roe deer and possibly in other mammal species. Our study reinforces the need to carefully account for age-related variation in ecotoxicological research on wild-living animals.

Geochemical landscapes as drivers of trace and toxic element profiles in wild red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Tissue concentrations of essential trace and toxic elements in red deer (Cervus elaphus) are associated with the plants, soil and water they ingest. As such, variation in tissue concentrations is associated with variation in local geochemistry and bioavailability of elements. Physiological factors such as liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) infection, breeding status, and in-tissue element interactions may also affect tissue concentrations, though their effects in red deer are not well understood. The primary objective of this study was therefore to survey wild red deer liver element concentrations across a range of geographically distinct populations during the Scottish red deer stalking season; and, in so doing, establishes element reference ranges while also exploring geographic and temporal variation and physiological factors. Livers were sampled from carcasses intended for human consumption on nine hunting estates during two seasons (2012-13, 2013-14). Samples were digested and analysed by ICP-OES for essential trace elements (Co, Cu, Fe, Mn, Mo, Se, Zn) and for Cd. Data (n=787) were modelled against cull location, date, and F. hepatica diagnosis. Interactions between elements within liver, and differences in element profiles between estates, were explored by principal component analysis. Our results revealed marked geographic variation in Cd, Cu and Se, where up to four-fold differences in median element concentrations occurred between estates, and, in males, Mn, Mo and Zn declined as the breeding season approached. In both sexes, within-liver associations (Cd-Cu-Se and Mn-Mo-Zn) were found. In females, liver Zn was greater on average in individuals that were not infected with F. hepatica. This study is the first to quantify geographic variation in Scottish red deer liver element concentrations; the drivers of which remain to be explored (and may be management related), and, the consequence of which may affect sub-clinical health.

Food safety aspects of primary environmental contaminants in the edible tissues of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus)

The muscle, liver, kidney and fat samples of 20 roe deer of both sexes originating from a hunting area in central Hungary were investigated for the presence of heavy metals such as As, Cd, Hg and Pb, and their contents were evaluated for possible health risk to consumers. Both As and Hg were found at a level below the limit of detection (< 0.5 mg/kg wet weight) in all samples. The median of the measured Cd concentrations was significantly higher in both the kidney and the liver (p = 0.0011) of bucks than of does. In bucks, Cd levels exceeded the respective maximum limits laid down in the European legislation in four kidney and three muscle samples, whereas in does, the measured concentrations were below the respective limits in all samples. The detected amounts of Pb exceeded the maximum limits in the kidney of one buck and eight does, in the liver of two bucks and six does, in the muscle of six bucks and nine does, whereas in all fat tissues of both bucks and does. The concentration of Pb (p = 0.02) was significantly greater in the kidney of does compared to roebucks. Based on data obtained from the present study, the consumption of organs and tissues of the investigated roe deer could be objectionable from food-toxicological point of view and may pose risk to the high consumers of wild game due to their cadmium and lead contents.

Determination of ochratoxin A in tissues of wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) by enzymatic digestion (ED) coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD)

Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a secondary toxic metabolite synthesized by Aspergillus or Penicillium species, which can contaminate various crops. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classified OTA as a group 2B possible human carcinogen. The aim of the present study was to assess OTA concentrations in tissues of wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) from Tuscany (Italy). Over a period of 2 years, samples of muscle, liver, and kidney from 48 wild boars were collected and concentrations of OTA were determined by enzymatic digestion (ED) coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography with a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD). The highest concentrations of OTA were found in the kidneys of the 48 wild boars analyzed. No difference in concentrations was found based on years of collection and sex while a significantly higher OTA concentration was found in the kidney of the young wild boars with respect to the adult one. Monitoring the quality of meat destined for transformation is a priority in order to decrease the possibility of toxin carry-over to humans. The present study showed that contamination of wild boar meat products by OTA represents a potential emerging source of OTA.

Does gender influence the levels of heavy metals in liver of wild boar?

The aim of this study was to determine heavy metal reference levels for risk assessment studies. For this purpose, the levels of lead, cadmium, copper and zinc were determined in liver tissues of wild boars sampled in NW Spain. The mean values were 0.383, 0.326, 23.50 and 56.86mg/kg dried weight, respectively. In general, the levels detected were similar to or lower than the levels reported in literature. This study not only provides a useful baseline for biomonitoring the levels of the analyzed contaminants in wildlife in NW Spain, it also helps to understand the effects of gender on the levels of these elements. Similar to studies performed in other geographical regions, no significant gender-related differences could be detected. Although differences were not significant, the levels of zinc, cadmium and lead were modestly higher in males (55.78, 0.346 and 0.424mg/kg, respectively) compared to females (45.25, 0.305 and 0.341mg/kg). Our results indicate that, although gender did not significantly affect heavy metal uptake and toxicokinetics of contaminants in wild boars, these effects could vary between species, populations, organs, and elements. It is therefore essential to investigate gender-related differences for each species.

Levels of Metals in Kidney, Liver, and Muscle Tissue and their Influence on the Fitness for the Consumption of Wild Boar from Western Slovakia

Due to environmental pollution, wild animals are exposed to various pollutants. Some game animals, such as wild boars are used by people for food, but their meat is not evaluated regarding pollution transfer, since they are unavailable on the official market. The aim of this paper is to present the concentrations of chosen metals (Cd, Co, Cu, Hg, Pb, and Zn) in the kidneys, liver, and muscles of wild boars (n = 40) hunted in eastern Slovakia, as derivatives of physiological distribution and anthropogenic pollution. We found that sex was not a statistically significant factor for metal concentrations. Tissue differences were observed for all the metals studied except for Co. Cd, Cu, and Hg showed the highest median concentrations in kidney tissue with the lowest in muscle tissue (2.73, 3.78, and 0.061 μg/g w.w., respectively). The highest Zn median concentration was noted in the liver tissue with the lowest in muscle tissue. Co and Cu concentrations varied according to the age groups. Correlations between metal concentrations in muscle and kidney tissue were not especially strong; such relationships were not found in liver tissue. Among all the potential relationships of the given metal concentrations between tissues, the only significant relationship, albeit weak, was noted for Pb in muscle and liver tissue. The concentrations found seem not to be extremely high, but according to EU maximum permitted residue levels for Cd and Pb concentrations in meat, none of the samples studied was fully fit for human consumption. TWI and risk was also excessive for both metals.

Can red deer antlers be used as an indicator of environmental and edible tissues' trace element contamination?

Venison is an attractive product for consumers concerned with healthy lifestyle; however, it can contain high levels of toxic elements, and therefore, it is a possible source of hazardous contaminants in human diet. Antlers are suitable bioindicators of environmental metal contamination, and herein, we assessed the ability of trace element levels in antlers to indicate levels in edible soft tissues. We determined the concentrations of lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), arsenic (As), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and iron (Fe) in the liver, kidney, muscle, and antlers of 14 free-ranging red deer (Cervus elaphus) from northeastern Poland using atomic absorption spectrometry. We found the highest concentrations of Pb (0.321 ± 0.165 mg/kg), As (0.045 ± 0.074 mg/kg), Zn (105.31 ± 16.33 mg/kg), and Fe (220.92 ± 117.18 mg/kg) in antlers; of Cd (4.974 ± 1.90 mg/kg) and Hg (0.048 ± 0.102 mg/kg) in kidney; and of Cu (7.29 ± 7.02 mg/kg) in the liver. A positive relationship between concentrations in antlers and muscle was found only for Cu (p = 0.001), and it therefore appears that red deer antlers cannot be used as an index for element concentrations in soft tissues. While our results confirm that the Mazury region is little polluted, consumption of red deer offal from this area should be limited according to extant legal limits set for livestock consumption.

Relationship between Cd and Zn concentration in the kidneys, liver, and muscles of moose (Alces alces) from north-eastern Poland

The aim of the study was to evaluate the cadmium and zinc content in the kidneys and liver of moose from north-eastern Poland. Animals were divided with respect to their age. The mean concentration of cadmium in the kidneys of moose studied was 11.31 mg kg^-1, while in the liver it amounted to 2.68 mg kg^-1. Age had a significant effect on the content of cadmium in both organs. In the muscles of most animals studied, the cadmium concentrations were below the detection limit. Elevated concentrations were found in three individuals only. Older animals had over six times higher concentrations of cadmium in both kidneys and liver than younger individuals. The cadmium content in kidneys increased with animals' age while no such relationship was found for zinc. Although older animals had higher mean concentrations of zinc in kidneys, liver, and muscles, the two age groups did not differ significantly. The mean concentration of zinc in the kidneys of moose studied was 38.83 mg kg^-1, while in the liver it amounted to 29.03 mg kg^-1. The cadmium concentration in the kidneys was significantly correlated with the cadmium concentration in the liver (r = 0.53, p ≤ 0.01) and with the zinc concentration in the kidneys (r = 0.52, p ≤ 0.01). The data obtained within study correspond with analyses results of the organs of healthy moose in Sweden.

Long-Term Survey of Cadmium and Lead Contamination in Japanese Black Bears Captured in Iwate Prefecture, Japan

Cadmium and lead were measured in liver and kidney samples of 242 Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus) captured from 1999 to 2014 from two local populations in Japan. The median concentration of cadmium was 0.54 (mean: 0.80) mg/kg-w.w. in liver and 7.7 (mean: 11.8) mg/kg-w.w. in kidney. The median concentration of lead was 0.24 (mean: 0.40) and 0.21 (mean: 0.32) mg/kg-w.w. in liver and kidney, respectively. Bears in the Kita-ou local population had higher concentrations of cadmium and lead than those in the Kitakami Highlands local population. No chronological change was observed in cadmium levels in tissues, but the percentage of bears whose lead levels exceeded 0.5 mg/kg-w.w. has been decreasing in recent years. Countermeasures against lead poisoning in wildlife, which were instituted in 2002, may have contributed to the decrease in lead contamination of the Japanese black bear.

Alleviation of Lead-Induced Apoptosis by Puerarin via Inhibiting Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore Opening in Primary Cultures of Rat Proximal Tubular Cells

Previous study has demonstrated that mitochondrial-dependent apoptotic pathway is involved in the nephroprotective effect of puerarin (PU) against lead-induced cytotoxicity in primary cultures of rat proximal tubular (rPT) cells. To further clarify how PU exerts its antiapoptotic effects, this study was designed to investigate the role of mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and subsequent apoptotic events in the process of PU against Pb-induced cytotoxicity in rPT cells. The results showed that Pb-mediated mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP) opening together with mitochondrial cytochrome c release, activations of caspase-9 and caspase-3, and subsequent poly-ADP-ribose polymerase (PARP) cleavage can be effectively blocked by the addition of PU. Simultaneously, upregulation and downregulation of Bcl-2 and Bax with increased Bcl-2/Bax ratio due to PU administration further alleviated Pb-induced mitochondrial apoptosis. Moreover, PU can reverse Pb-induced ATP depletion by restoring mitochondrial fragmentation to affect ATP production and by regulating expression levels of ANT-1 and ANT-2 to improve ATP transport. In summary, PU produced a significant protection against Pb-induced mitochondrial apoptosis in rPT cells by inhibiting MPTP opening to ameliorate the mitochondrial dysfunction.

Lead and cadmium in wild boar (Sus scrofa) in the Sierra Nevada Natural Space (southern Spain)

The aims of the present study were to investigate Pb and Cd levels in tissues of wild boar (Sus scrofa) from the Sierra Nevada Natural Space (SNNS) (southern Spain). Heavy metal concentrations in livers, kidneys and bones from 111 animals were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES). Bones and kidneys were the most Pb- and Cd-contaminated tissues, respectively; Cd concentrations were 5.6 times higher in kidneys than in livers. This is the first biomonitoring study of these pollutants in wild boar tissues in the SNNS, and findings indicate that this population is chronically exposed to these heavy metals. The detected Pb and Cd concentrations were lower than those found in many studies performed in Europe on the same species.

The bioaccumulation of lead in the organs of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.), red deer (Cervus elaphus L.), and wild boar (Sus scrofa L.) from Poland

The aim of this study was to evaluate the level of lead (Pb) in the livers and kidneys of free-living animals from Poland, with regard to the differences in tissue Pb content between the species. The research material consisted of liver and kidney samples collected from roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), red deer (Cervus elaphus), and wild boar (Sus scrofa) that had been hunted in 16 voivodeships of Poland. The concentration of lead had been measured using inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-OES) method. The results show that differences in lead concentration in the organs depended on the geographic location. In roe deer and red deer, the highest mean lead concentrations in the livers and kidneys, observed in the central region of Poland, were twice as high as the lowest concentration of Pb in these animals from the northeastern region of the country. In wild boar, the highest mean concentration of Pb was noted in the livers of animals from the central region of Poland and in the kidneys of animals from the northwestern region, while the lowest lead concentrations in both organs were typical for wild boar from the southeast part of the country. Our results show that areas located in the center and in the north of Poland carry most of the burden of lead bioaccumulation.

Elemental composition of game meat from Austria

Concentrations of 26 elements (B, Na, Mg, P, S, K, Ca, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Rb, Sr, Mo, Cd, Sb, Ba, Hg, Pb, U) in wild game meat from Austria were analysed using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. All investigated animals were culled during the hunting season 2012/2013, including 10 chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra), 9 hare (Lepus europaeus), 10 pheasant (Phasianus colchicus), 10 red deer (Cervus elaphus), 12 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and 10 wild boar (Sus scrofa). In 19 out of 61 meat samples lead concentrations were higher than 0.1 mg/kg, the maximum limit in meat as set by the European Commission (Regulation EC No 1881/2006), which is most likely caused by ammunition residues. Especially, pellet shot animals and chamois show a high risk for lead contamination. Despite ammunition residues all investigated muscle samples show no further health risk with respect to metal contamination.

The content of selected metals in muscles of the red deer (Cervus elaphus) from Poland

The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of Pb, Cu, Zn, Rb, Cs, Sr and Ba in the muscles of red deer that were hunted in two regions of Poland (south-western and north-eastern). The data obtained were evaluated with regards to benefits and potential risk to consumers' health. Samples for the investigations were collected in 2008 and 2009 from 50 female red deer, and the metal concentrations were determined by using the inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometric (ICP-MS) method. The mean concentrations of Pb did not differ statistically between regions and were equal to that permitted for farm animals. The results of this study support the conclusion that the meat of the analysed animals does not pose a risk of lead intoxication. Statistically higher mean concentrations of Cu and Zn were found in the muscles of red deer from the south-western region (namely, 2.99 and 25.78 mg kg(-1)) than those in animals from north-eastern Poland (namely, 2.61 and 23.39 mg kg(-1) wet weight). In terms of human nutritional needs, the meat of red deer can be considered as a good source of Cu and Zn. Furthermore, Rb, Cs, Sr and Ba concentrations did not differ statistically between regions. Their mean concentrations were 4.50, 0.09, 0.16 and 0.31 mg kg(-1) wet weight, respectively. Although high Cs, Sr and Ba concentrations were found, the meat of red deer does not pose a risk for adult consumers. Only high Ba content may potentially result in negative health effects for children.

Selenium in brown bears (Ursus arctos) from Croatia: Relation to cadmium and mercury

Muscle (n = 111), liver (n = 111), and kidney cortex (n = 101) samples from brown bears (Ursus arctos) were collected in the 2009 and 2010 hunting seasons in Croatia and analysed for selenium (Se), cadmium (Cd), and total mercury (Hg). The aim was to assess the levels of these elements according to age, sex, and season of collection, and to investigate possible Se/Cd and Se/Hg interactions. Median Se concentrations were 0.139 μg/g in muscle, 0.409 μg/g in liver and 1.75 μg/g wet mass in kidney cortex. Median Cd and Hg were 0.0078 and 0.0018 μg/g in muscle, 1.09 and 0.031 μg/g in liver, and 16.5 and 0.206 μg/g wet mass in the renal cortex, respectively. Se/Cd molar ratios were less than 1 in the kidney cortex, and close to or above 1 in liver and muscle, respectively. Toxic Cd and Hg correlated with Se in all of the studied tissues. Sex differences were found for all three elements (except Se in liver), with females having higher tissue concentration than males. Only Cd showed age-dependence. Bear samples collected in fall had higher Se in muscles, and Hg in muscles and liver compared to samples collected in spring. Element concentrations in brown bear tissues were within the range of previously reported studies. Bear meat is considered a rich source of Se, safe for consumption with regard to its Cd and Hg content. According to the molar ratio and correlation results, we assume that Se binding is not the primary detoxification pathway for Cd and Hg in brown bears.

Cadmium, lead, and chromium in large game: a local-scale exposure assessment for hunters consuming meat and liver of wild boar

Heavy metals are ubiquitous in soil, water, and air. Their entrance into the food chain is an important environmental issue that entails risks to humans. Several reports indicate that game meat can be an important source of heavy metals, particularly because of the increasing consumption of game meat, mainly by hunters. We performed an exposure assessment of hunters and members of their households, both adults and children, who consumed wild boar (WB) meat and offal. We estimated the amount of cadmium, lead, and chromium in the tissues of WB hunted in six areas within Viterbo Province (Italy) and gathered data on WB meat and offal consumption by conducting specific diet surveys in the same areas. The exposure to cadmium, lead, and chromium was simulated with specifically developed Monte Carlo simulation models. Cadmium and lead levels in WB liver and meat harvested in Viterbo Province (Italy) were similar to or lower than the values reported in other studies. However, some samples contained these metals at levels greater then the EU limits set for domestic animals. The chromium content of meat or liver cannot be evaluated against any regulatory limit, but our results suggest that the amounts of this metal found in WB products may reflect a moderate environmental load. Our survey of the hunter population confirmed that their consumption of WB meat and liver was greater than that of the general Italian population. This level of consumption was comparable with other European studies. Consumption of WB products contributes significantly to cadmium and lead exposure of both adults and children. More specifically, consumption of the WB liver contributed significantly to total cadmium and lead exposure of members of the households of WB hunters. As a general rule, liver consumption should be kept to a minimum, especially for children living in these hunter households. The exposure to chromium estimated for this population of hunters may be considered to be safe. However, a specific and complete assessment of chromium speciation in relevant dietary and environmental situations should be conducted.

Concentration of cadmium, mercury, zinc, copper and cobalt in the tissues of wild boar (Sus scrofa) hunted in the western Slovakia

The aim of this study was to monitor accumulation of cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu) and cobalt (Co) in the muscle, liver and kidney of wild boar (Sus scrofa scrofa) from hunting place of western Slovakia and the correlations among the observed elements. A total of 120 samples were involved for analyses by atomic absorption spectrophotometry (AAS). The significantly highest accumulation of Cd in the kidney followed by the liver and muscles was found. Zn accumulated mainly in the liver. Significantly lower values were found in the kidney followed by the muscle. The concentration of Cu was significantly lowest in the muscle when compared to the liver and kidney. Hg and Co accumulated mainly in the kidney, followed by the liver and muscle of wild boars, but without significant differences. In the muscle of wild boar moderately positive correlation between Zn and Cu (r = 0.59), Cd and Co (r = 0.51), Cu and Co (r = 0.33), and Zn and Hg (r = 0.36) were found. In the liver moderately positive correlation between Cd and Hg (r = 0.39) was detected. Moderately positive correlation between Zn and Cu (r = 0.40) was noted for the kidney.

Selenium and 17 other largely essential and toxic metals in muscle and organ meats of Red Deer (Cervus elaphus)--consequences to human health

Concentrations, composition and interrelationships of selenium and metallic elements (Ag, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cs, Cu, Ga, Mn, Mo, Pb, Rb, Sb, Sr, Tl, V and Zn) have been examined in muscle and organ meats of Red Deer hunted in Poland. The analytical data obtained were also discussed in terms of Se supplementation and deficit to Deer as well as the benefits and risk to humans associated with the essential and toxic metals intake resulting from consumption of Deer meat and products. These elements were determined in 20 adult animals of both sexes that were obtained in the 2000/2001 hunting season from Warmia and Mazury in the north-eastern part of Poland. The whole kidneys contained Ba, Cd, Cr, Ga, Pb, Se, Sr and Tl at statistically greater concentrations than liver or muscle tissue from the same animal. Liver showed statistically greater concentrations of Ag, Co, Cu, Mn and Mo than kidneys or muscle tissue, and muscle tissue was richer in Zn, when compared to the kidneys or liver. Cs and Rb were similarly distributed between all three tissue types, while V was less abundant in liver than kidneys or muscle tissue. There were significant associations between some metallic elements retained in Red Deer demonstrated by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) of the data set. In organ and muscle meats (kidneys, liver and muscle tissue considered together) the first principal component (PC1) was strongly influenced by positively correlated variables describing Se, Ba and Cd and negatively correlated variables describing Ag, Co, Cs, Mn, Pb, Tl and V; PC2, respectively, by Cu, Mn and Mo (+) and Zn (-); PC3 by Ga (+) and PC4 by Sb (+). Selenium occurred in muscle tissue, liver and kidneys at median concentrations of 0.13, 0.19 and 4.0mg/g dry weight, respectively. These values can be defined as marginally deficient (< 0.6mg Se/kg liver dw) or satisfactory (≤ 3.0mg Se/kg kidneys dw) for the amount required to maintain the Deer's body condition and health, depending on the criterion for supplementation used. In terms of human nutritional needs, a relatively high selenium content of kidneys can be beneficial. The muscle meat, liver and kidneys of Red Deer can be considered as a very good source of essential Co, Cr, Cu, Mo, Mn, Se and Zn in the human diet. Lead is generally considered as toxic, and the concentrations found in Red Deer (via the food chain intake) were well below the European Union tolerance limit. Pb from the lead bullets can always create food hygienic problem, if not well recognized during sanitary inspection, and this was noted for one muscle meat sample in this study (5% surveyed). There is no tolerance limit of Cd in game animal meats. The median values of Cd noted in fresh muscle tissue, liver and whole kidneys were 0.07, 0.18, and 3.3mg/kg wet weight, respectively. Cd exists as a chemical element present at trace levels in plants and mushrooms in Deer's food chain in background (uncontaminated) areas. When these are consumed by the Deer, the amount of Cd sequestered with metallothioneins and retained in the organ and muscle meat in this study is low enough to be considered safe for human consumption.

Interactions between endogenous and dietary antioxidants against Pb-induced oxidative stress in wild ungulates from a Pb polluted mining area

Certain physiologic disorders, attributed to lead (Pb) exposure are related to the generation of oxidative stress. Organisms rely on a complex antioxidant system, composed of endogenously produced compounds such as glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and GSH peroxidase (GPX); and dietary antioxidants such as vitamins A and E. The aim of this work was to study the interactions between both groups of antioxidants and to evaluate their role in fighting Pb-induced oxidative stress in wild ungulates living in a Pb mining area. We studied red deer (n=54) and wild boar (n=60) from mining and control sites. Liver Pb, copper (Cu) and selenium (Se) levels were measured in liver and bone. Levels of GSH, oxidized GSH (GSSG), lipid peroxidation (TBARS), α-tocopherol, free retinol and retinyl esters, and the activities of SOD and GPX were measured in liver. Wild boar and red deer from the mining sites had higher bone (geometric means: 7.36 vs. 1.23μg/g dw for boar; and 0.46 vs. 0.11μg/g dw for deer) and liver Pb levels (0.81 vs. 0.24μg/g dw for boar; and 0.35 vs. 0.11μg/g dw for deer) than the controls. Pb exposure in deer was associated with lower GSH, α-tocopherol and retinyl esters, and higher free retinol and TBARS. A similar effect on vitamin A balance was observed in wild boar, but this was accompanied with an increase in GSH and α-tocopherol. GPX activity and Se levels were higher in wild boar (mean in controls: 670IU/mg protein and 1.3μg/g dw, respectively) than in red deer (150IU/mg protein and 0.3μg/g). These differences may indicate that red deer is more sensitive to Pb-induced oxidative stress than wild boar. Both endogenous and nutritional antioxidants may be negatively affected by Pb exposure, and their interactions are essential to fight against Pb-mediated oxidative damage.

Effects of lead and/or cadmium on the distribution patterns of some essential trace elements in immature female rats

Lead acetate (300 mg/L) and/or cadmium chloride (50 mg/L) were administered as drinking water to Sprague-Dawley rats for 9 weeks to investigate the effects of concurrent exposure to lead and cadmium on the distribution patterns of five essential trace elements. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry was used to determine the concentrations of zinc, copper, manganese, selenium and iron in the urine at different exposure times, as well as their levels in the renal cortex and serum at the end of treatment. Compared with the control group, exposure to lead and/or cadmium resulted in a significant increase in the urinary excretion of these five elements during the experiment, whereas significant decreased levels of these elements were found in kidney and serum. In conclusion, increased urinary loss of antioxidant trace elements due to lead and/or cadmium exposure induced the deficiency of antioxidants in the body, which could result in further oxidative damage. Moreover, there was an obvious synergistic effect of lead combined with cadmium on the distribution patterns of these essential trace elements, which may be related to the severity of co-exposure to these two metals.

Concentrations of trace elements in tissues of red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and stone marten (Martes foina) from suburban and rural areas in Croatia

Trace elements concentrations (As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Hg) were determined in the liver, kidney and muscle of 28 red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and 16 stone marten (Martes foina) from suburban and rural habitats from Croatia. Rural and suburban habitats affected Cd and Hg levels in the muscle, liver and kidney of red fox. Significant differences in metal concentrations in the muscle, liver and kidney were detected among species. Suburban stone marten accumulated the highest levels of trace elements (mg/kg w.w.): in muscle 0.019 for Hg; in liver 0.161 for Cd, 36.1 for Cu and 0.349 for Pb; in kidney 1.34 for Cd and 0.318 for Pb. Values observed were higher than those found in suburban red fox and therefore, may represent an important bioindicator for the accumulation of toxic metals in urbanized habitats.

Wild boar tissue levels of cadmium, lead and mercury in seven regions of continental Croatia

Concentrations of cadmium, mercury and lead were analysed by atomic absorption spectrometry in the kidney and muscle of free-living wild boar (n = 169) from hunting grounds in seven counties of continental Croatia. Mean levels of metals (mg/kg) in muscle and kidney of boars ranged as follows: Cd: 0.005-0.016 and 0.866-4.58, Pb: 0.033-0.15 and 0.036-0.441, Hg: 0.004-0.012 and 0.04-0.152. In all seven regions, concentrations exceeded the permitted values (muscle and kidney mg/kg: cadmium 0.05/1; lead 0.1/0.5; mercury 0.03/0.1) in 13.6% and 71.6% of samples (muscle and kidney, respectively) for cadmium; 13.6% and 8.9% for lead; 19.5% and 2.4% for mercury. There were significant differences among the regions. Vukovar-Srijem and Virovitica-Podravina Counties were highly contaminated with cadmium, Sisak-Moslavina and Virovitica-Podravina Counties with lead and Brod-Posavina County had highest mercury concentrations. These results suggest a detailed investigation of physiological and environmental factors contributing to accumulation of metals in boars.