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Sjöström Y, Tao F, Ricklund N, de Wit CA, Hagström K, Hagberg J. Children's exposure to halogenated flame retardants and organophosphate esters through dermal absorption and hand-to-mouth ingestion in Swedish preschools. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 943:173635. [PMID: 38821289 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/02/2024]
Abstract
Children are exposed to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) through inhalation and ingestion, as well as through dermal contact in their everyday indoor environments. The dermal loadings of EDCs may contribute significantly to children's total EDC exposure due to dermal absorption as well as hand-to-mouth behaviors. The aim of this study was to measure potential EDCs, specifically halogenated flame retardants (HFRs) and organophosphate esters (OPEs), on children's hands during preschool attendance and to assess possible determinants of exposure in preschool indoor environments in Sweden. For this, 115 handwipe samples were collected in winter and spring from 60 participating children (arithmetic mean age 4.5 years, standard deviation 1.0) and analyzed for 50 compounds. Out of these, 31 compounds were identified in the majority of samples. Levels were generally several orders of magnitude higher for OPEs than HFRs, and 2-ethylhexyl diphenyl phosphate (EHDPP) and tris(2-butoxyethyl) phosphate (TBOEP) were detected in the highest median masses, 61 and 56 ng/wipe, respectively. Of the HFRs, bis(2-ethyl-1-hexyl)-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (BEH-TEBP) and 2,2',3,3',4,4',5,5',6,6'-decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) were detected in the highest median masses, 2.8 and 1.8 ng/wipe, respectively. HFR and/or OPE levels were found to be affected by the number of plastic toys, and electrical and electronic devices, season, municipality, as well as building and/or renovation before/after 2004. Yet, the calculated health risks for single compounds were below available reference dose values for exposure through dermal uptake as well as for ingestion using mean hand-to-mouth contact rate. However, assuming a high hand-to-mouth contact rate, at the 95th percentile, the calculated hazard quotient was above 1 for the maximum handwipe mass of TBOEP found in this study, suggesting a risk of negative health effects. Furthermore, considering additive effects from similar compounds, the results of this study indicate potential concern if additional exposure from other routes is as high.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ylva Sjöström
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Faculty of Business, Science and Engineering, Örebro University, SE 70182 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Fang Tao
- College of Quality and Safety Engineering, China Jiliang University, Hangzhou 310018, People's Republic of China; Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Niklas Ricklund
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Faculty of Business, Science and Engineering, Örebro University, SE 70182 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Cynthia A de Wit
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, SE-10691 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Katja Hagström
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Faculty of Business, Science and Engineering, Örebro University, SE 70182 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Jessika Hagberg
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, Faculty of Business, Science and Engineering, Örebro University, SE 70182 Örebro, Sweden
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Shi S, Feng Q, Zhang J, Wang X, Zhao L, Fan Y, Hu P, Wei P, Bu Q, Cao Z. Global patterns of human exposure to flame retardants indoors. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:169393. [PMID: 38104845 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/12/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
To fill the knowledge gaps regarding the global patterns of human exposure to flame retardants (FRs) (i.e., brominated flame retardants (BFRs) and organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs)), data on the levels and distributions of FRs in external and internal exposure mediums, including indoor dust, indoor air, skin wipe, serum and urine, were summarized and analysed. Comparatively, FR levels were relatively higher in developed regions in all mediums, and significant positive correlations between FR contamination and economic development level were observed in indoor dust and air. Over time, the concentration of BFRs showed a slightly decreasing trend in all mediums worldwide, whereas OPFRs represented an upward tendency in some regions (e.g., the USA and China). The occurrence levels of FRs and their metabolites in all external and internal media were generally correlated, implying a mutual indicative role among them. Dermal absorption generally contributed >60% of the total exposure of most FR monomers, and dust ingestion was dominant for several low volatile compounds, while inhalation was found to be negligible. The high-risk FR monomers (BDE-47, BDE-99 and TCIPP) identified by external exposure assessment showed similarity to the major FRs or metabolites observed in internal exposure mediums, suggesting the feasibility of using these methods to characterize human exposure and the contribution of indoor exposure to the human burden of FRs. This review highlights the significant importance of exposure assessment based on multiple mediums for future studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shiyu Shi
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Qian Feng
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Jiayi Zhang
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Xiaoyu Wang
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Leicheng Zhao
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Yujuan Fan
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Pengtuan Hu
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Pengkun Wei
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Qingwei Bu
- School of Chemical & Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining & Technology-Beijing, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Zhiguo Cao
- School of Environment, Key Laboratory for Yellow River and Huai River Water Environment and Pollution Control, Ministry of Education, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China.
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Chen Z, Gao Y, Xia F, Bi C, Mo J. Formation kinetics of SVOC organic films and their impact on child exposure in indoor environments. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:168970. [PMID: 38043806 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.168970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 12/05/2023]
Abstract
We conducted an SVOC mass transfer and child-exposure modeling analysis considering the combined sorption of multiple SVOCs containing DnBP, BBP, DEHP, DINP and DINCH in indoor environments. A mechanistic model was applied to describe the organic film formation, and a partition-coefficient-prediction model was originally developed for the realistic organic films. The characteristics of film formation on impermeable surfaces were examined based on three different assumptions: the widely-used constant Kns,im assumption, Koa assumption, and the proposed Kom assumption (predicted specifically for the realistic organic films in this study). After long-term SVOC sorption, the organic film reached increasing equilibrium gradually under constant Kns,im assumption. While under Koa and Kom assumption, organic films exhibited nearly linear increases on surfaces, the trends of which agreed well with field studies. However, the film thicknesses calculated under Kom assumption with larger film partition coefficients were approximately twice larger than those under Koa assumption. Meanwhile, Horizontal surfaces with higher deposition rates of particle-phase SVOCs exhibited larger velocities of film growth compared to vertical surfaces. Under the Kom assumption, exposures of hazardous SVOCs for a 3-year-old child increased by 87.5 %-198.7 % even with the weekly cleaning of indoor impermeable surfaces, carpet and cloth. This study is anticipated to provide valuable insights into the film-forming characteristics of multiple SVOCs and the accompanying significant health risks to human beings in indoor environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhuo Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Yilun Gao
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Fanxuan Xia
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Chenyang Bi
- Aerodyne Research Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts, 01821, USA
| | - Jinhan Mo
- College of Civil and Transportation Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen 518060, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Indoor Air Quality Evaluation and Control, Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China; Key Laboratory of Coastal Urban Resilient Infrastructures (Shenzhen University), Ministry of Education, Shenzhen 518060, China; Key Laboratory of Eco Planning & Green Building (Tsinghua University), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100084, China; State Key Laboratory of Subtropical Building and Urban Science, Guangzhou 510641, China.
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Hashemi S, Kang YS, Kim KW, Yang J. Dietary exposure and risk assessment of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in the Republic of Korea: A nationwide study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 880:163325. [PMID: 37030376 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.163325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 03/08/2023] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the dietary exposure to seven polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) congener groups, including 22 types of PBDEs compounds, through consumption of 80 food items in Korean diets along with their risk assessment has been investigated. To process this, the concentrations of the target PBDEs in samples of food items were measured. The consumption amounts of the target food items were derived from the results of the 24 h food recall interview of subjects who participated in the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES) from 2015 to 2019. Thereafter, the estimated daily intake and risk of exposure for each PBDEs congener group were assessed. Results indicate that although exposure to the target PBDEs was not significant enough to cause a potential health risk, deca-BDE (BDE-209) was the dominant congener in terms of both exposure and risk for consumers in all age groups. Furthermore, while eating seafood was the dominant path for dietary exposure to PBDEs, exposure to octa-BDEs was mostly through livestock products. Accordingly, to protect all consumers, especially those aged below 2 years and over 65 years, more accurate food quality management is required for controlling the dietary intake of PBDEs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shervin Hashemi
- Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea; Honorary Research Associate, Faculty of Management Science, Durban University of Technology, P O Box 1334, Durban 4000, South Africa
| | - Youn-Seok Kang
- Eurofins Korea, 13, Sanbon-ro 101beon-gil, Gunpo-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Kun-Won Kim
- Eurofins Korea, 13, Sanbon-ro 101beon-gil, Gunpo-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Jiyeon Yang
- Institute for Environmental Research, Yonsei University College of Medicine, 50-1 Yonsei-ro, Seodaemun-gu, Seoul 03722, Republic of Korea.
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Besis A, Avgenikou A, Pantelaki I, Serafeim E, Georgiadou E, Voutsa D, Samara C. Hazardous organic pollutants in indoor dust from elementary schools and kindergartens in Greece: Implications for children's health. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 310:136750. [PMID: 36241110 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.136750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 09/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Children spend a significant portion of their day in school, where they may be exposed to hazardous organic compounds accumulated in indoor dust. The aim of this study was to evaluate the concentrations of major hazardous organic contaminants in dust collected from kindergartens and elementary schools in Northern Greece (n = 20). The sum concentrations of 20 targeted polybrominated diphenyl ether congeners (∑20PBDEs) in dust varied from 58 ng g-1 to 1480 ng g-1, while the sum of 4 novel brominated fire retardants (∑4NBFRs) ranged from 28 ng g-1 to 555 ng g-1. Correspondingly, the sum concentrations of phthalate esters (∑9PAEs) ranged between 265 μg g-1 and 2120 μg g-1, while the sum of organophosphate esters (∑11OPEs) was found between 2890 ng g-1 and 16,100 ng g-1. Finally, the sum concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (∑16PAHs) were found within in the range 212 ng g-1 and 6960 ng g-1. Exposure to indoor dust contaminant via inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption was investigated for children and adults (teachers). Carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic risks were also estimated. Children's estimated intakes of individual hazardous chemicals via the three exposure routes, were lower than the available health-based reference values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Athanasios Besis
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece.
| | - Anna Avgenikou
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Ioanna Pantelaki
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Eleni Serafeim
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Eleni Georgiadou
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Dimitra Voutsa
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Constantini Samara
- Environmental Pollution Control Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, GR-54124, Thessaloniki, Greece
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Rezania S, Talaiekhozani A, Oryani B, Cho J, Barghi M, Rupani PF, Kamali M. Occurrence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in the atmosphere of South Korea: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 307:119586. [PMID: 35680069 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies found the presence of persistent organic pollutants (POPs) in various environmental compartments, including air, water, and soil. POPs have been discovered in various industrial and agricultural products with severe environmental and human health consequences. According to the data, South Korea is a hotspot for POP pollution in the southern part of Asia; hence, South Korea has implemented the Stockholm Convention's National Implementation Plan (NIP) to address this worldwide issue. The purpose of this review is to assess the distribution pattern of POPs pollution in South Korea's atmosphere. According to findings, PAHs, PCBs, BFRs, and PBDEs significantly polluted the atmosphere of South Korea; however, assessing their exposure nationwide is difficult due to a shortage of data. The POPs temporal trend and meta-analysis disclosed no proof of a decrease in PAHs and BFRs residues in the atmosphere. However, POP pollution in South Korea tends to decrease compared to contamination levels in neighboring countries like Japan and China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahabaldin Rezania
- Department of Environment and Energy, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, South Korea.
| | - Amirreza Talaiekhozani
- Department of Civil Engineering, Jami Institute of Technology, Isfahan, 84919-63395, Iran
| | - Bahareh Oryani
- Technology Management, Economics and Policy Program, College of Engineering, Seoul National University, 1 Gwanak-ro, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Jinwoo Cho
- Department of Environment and Energy, Sejong University, Seoul, 05006, South Korea
| | | | - Parveen Fatemeh Rupani
- KU Leuven, Department of Chemical Engineering, Process and Environmental Technology Lab, J. De Nayerlaan 5, 2860 Sint-Katelijne-Waver, Belgium
| | - Mohammadreza Kamali
- KU Leuven, Department of Chemical Engineering, Process and Environmental Technology Lab, J. De Nayerlaan 5, 2860 Sint-Katelijne-Waver, Belgium
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Al-Harbi M, Al-Enzi E, Al-Mutairi H, Whalen JK. Human health risks from brominated flame retardants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in indoor dust. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 282:131005. [PMID: 34087561 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2021] [Revised: 05/15/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to dust particles containing toxic compounds is linked to serious health outcomes, including cancer. The purpose of this study was to determine if indoor dust from houses and cars contained harmful levels of brominated flame retardants (polybrominated diphenyl ethers, PBDEs) and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and to assess their potential toxicity to adults and children. In Kuwait, the median concentration of total PBDEs (Ʃ14- PBDEs) was 408.55 μg PBDEs/kg dust in houses and twice as high in cars (838.52 μg PBDEs/kg dust), while total PAHs (Ʃ16-PAHs) were similar in houses (992.81 μg PAHs/kg) and cars (900.42 μg PAHs/kg). The PBDEs and PAHs concentrations in indoor dust were related to house age and square footage, car model year, and natural ventilation. Furthermore, a higher PBDEs concentration was associated with electronic devices that operate continuously, furniture containing foam treated with PBDEs, and cars that are parked outdoors, since PBDEs tend to be volatilized under these conditions. The PAHs concentration in indoor dust increased with smoking and proximity to major roads and industrial facilities, which are major PAHs sources. The hazard quotient and total cancer risk for PBDEs in indoor dust were within safe limits, but indoor dust with higher PAHs concentrations had hazard quotients from 5.51 to 11.23 and total cancer risk of 10-3 for adults and children. We conclude that exposure to PAHs-contaminated indoor dust from houses and cars where smoking occurs can increase the cancer risk of adults and children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meshari Al-Harbi
- Department of Environmental Technology Management, College of Life Sciences, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5969, 13060, Safat, Kuwait.
| | - Eman Al-Enzi
- Department of Environmental Technology Management, College of Life Sciences, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5969, 13060, Safat, Kuwait
| | - Hessa Al-Mutairi
- Department of Environmental Technology Management, College of Life Sciences, Kuwait University, P.O. Box 5969, 13060, Safat, Kuwait
| | - Joann K Whalen
- Department of Natural Resource Sciences, McGill University, 21111 Lakeshore Road, Ste-Anne-de-Bellevue, Quebec, H9X 3V9, Canada
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Langer S, de Wit CA, Giovanoulis G, Fäldt J, Karlson L. The effect of reduction measures on concentrations of hazardous semivolatile organic compounds in indoor air and dust of Swedish preschools. INDOOR AIR 2021; 31:1673-1682. [PMID: 33876839 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Young children spend a substantial part of their waking time in preschools. It is therefore important to reduce the load of hazardous semivolatile organic compounds (SVOCs) in the preschools' indoor environment. The presence and levels of five SVOC groups were evaluated (1) in a newly built preschool, (2) before and after renovation of a preschool, and (3) in a preschool where SVOC-containing articles were removed. The new building and the renovation were performed using construction materials that were approved with respect to content of restricted chemicals. SVOC substance groups were measured in indoor air and settled dust and included phthalates and alternative plasticizers, organophosphate esters (OPEs), brominated flame retardants, and bisphenols. The most abundant substance groups in both indoor air and dust were phthalates and alternative plasticizers and OPEs. SVOC concentrations were lower or of the same order of magnitude as those reported in comparable studies. The relative Cumulative Hazard Quotient (HQcum ) was used to assess the effects of the different reduction measures on children's SVOC exposure from indoor air and dust in the preschools. HQcum values were low (1.0-6.1%) in all three preschools and decreased further after renovation and article substitution. The SVOCs concentrations decreased significantly more in the preschool renovated with the approved building materials than in the preschool where the SVOC-containing articles were removed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarka Langer
- IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute, Göteborg, Sweden
| | - Cynthia A de Wit
- Department of Environmental Science, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Jenny Fäldt
- City of Stockholm Environment and Health Administration, Environmental Analysis, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Linnéa Karlson
- City of Stockholm Environment and Health Administration, Environmental Analysis, Stockholm, Sweden
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Jin M, Zhang S, He J, Lu Z, Zhou S, Ye N. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers from automobile microenvironment: Occurrence, sources, and exposure assessment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 781:146658. [PMID: 33798881 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146658] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2021] [Revised: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 03/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the level of polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) contamination in the automobile microenvironment, air and dust samples were collected from 15 family automobiles in Hangzhou City, China. The PBDE concentrations, distribution of congeners, and human exposure were determined; and the content and distribution of PBDEs in automotive interior materials were analyzed. The results revealed that the average and median concentrations of ∑14PBDEs in the air in automobiles were 732 and 695 pg/m3, respectively, whereas those in automotive dust were 4913 and 5094 ng/g, respectively. Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209) had the highest proportion, accounting for 61.3% and 88.8% of the ∑14PBDEs in the air and dust, respectively. The potential primary sources of PBDEs in automobile air and dust were volatile polyurethanes in seat covers and foot pads, respectively. Human exposure calculations revealed that infants and toddlers in cars were most exposed to air and dust, respectively. BDE-47 and -99 were the primary sources of health risks related to air and dust in cars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mantong Jin
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China.
| | - Shunfei Zhang
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Jiaqi He
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Zhuhao Lu
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Shanshan Zhou
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Nanxi Ye
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
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10
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Brominated Flame Retardants in Children's Room: Concentration, Composition, and Health Risk Assessment. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph18126421. [PMID: 34198502 PMCID: PMC8296256 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18126421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2021] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Children spend most of their daily time indoors. Many of the items used indoors, such as furniture, electronics, textile, and children toys, are treated with chemicals to provide longevity and fulfil the safety standards. However, many chemicals added to these products are released into the environment during leaching out from the treated products. Many studies have reported brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in indoor environments; however, few have focused on environments specified for young children. In this study, paired air (PM10) and dust samples were collected from the rooms (n = 30) of Saudi children. These samples were analyzed for different congeners of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and three important alternative flame retardants using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE 209) was the most important analyzed BFR in dust and PM10 samples with a median value of 3150 ng/g of dust and 75 pg/m3. This indicates the wider application of BDE 209 has implications for its occurrence, although its use has been regulated for specified uses since 2014. Among alternative BFRs, 2-Ethylhexyl-2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (TBB), Bis(2-ethylhexyl)-3,4,5,6-tetrabromophthalate (TBPH), and 1,2-Bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE) were found with a median levels of 10, 15 and 8 ng/g of dust, respectively. However, alternative BFRs were present in <50% of the PM10 samples. The calculated long term and daily exposures via indoor dust and PM10 of Saudi children from their rooms were well below the respective reference dose (RfD) values. Nonetheless, the study highlights BDE 209 at higher levels than previously reported from household dust in Saudi Arabia. The study warrants further extensive research to estimate the different classes of chemical exposure to children from their rooms.
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Lee YA, Yun HR, Lee J, Moon H, Shin CH, Kim SG, Park YJ. Trends in Pediatric Thyroid Cancer Incidence, Treatment, and Clinical Course in Korea During 2004-2016: A Nationwide Population-Based Study. Thyroid 2021; 31:902-911. [PMID: 33107409 DOI: 10.1089/thy.2020.0155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Background: The incidence of thyroid cancer has increased worldwide. We investigated nationwide trends in the incidence and treatment course of pediatric thyroid cancer in South Korea. Methods: Using the National Health Information Database, we analyzed 1580 patients (324 males) <20 years of age diagnosed with thyroid cancer during 2004-2016 in South Korea. The annual percentage change (APC) in the age-standardized incidence rate (ASR) was calculated by joinpoint regression analysis. The initial treatment modality was categorized as either surgery only or surgery with radioactive-iodine treatment (surgery+RAIT), and we defined new treatment events as reoperations or additional RAITs among 1464 patients followed up for ≥12 months. Results: During 2004-2016, the mean ASR per 100,000 person-years increased from 0.6 [confidence interval; CI 0.5-0.8] to 0.9 [CI 0.8-1.1], with a mean APC of 4.0% [CI 1.8-6.2]. The ASRs (APCs) among 0-9-, 10-14-, 15-17-, and 18-19-year olds were 0.07 (9.9% [CI 0.08-20.7]), 0.6 (4.6% [CI 0.2-9.2]), 2.2 (3.9 [CI 1.7-6.0]), and 4.2 (3.5% [CI 0.9-6.2]), respectively. The lobectomy and lymph-node-dissection rates increased (from 18.5% to 33.6%, p = 0.0014; and from 29.6% to 84.5%, p < 0.001; respectively), but the RAIT rate decreased (67.9-39.7%, p < 0.001) during the study period. During a median 6.3-year follow-up, two patients died. New treatment events occurred in 56 (10.7%) of patients in the initial surgery-only group (n = 523). In the initial surgery+RAIT group (n = 941), 316 patients received two or more RAITs within 2 years, and 80 (12.8%) of the remaining 625 patients underwent new treatment events. In the surgery+RAIT subgroup, the event-free survival rate was lower in 0-14-year olds than in 18-19-year olds (hazard ratio 2.5 [CI 1.4-4.4]). Conclusions: The pediatric thyroid cancer incidence increased from 2004 to 2012 in South Korea. The lobectomy and lymph-node-dissection rates increased, but the RAIT rate decreased. The higher risk for new treatment events in patients younger than 15 years requiring initial RAIT may be linked to advanced stage at diagnosis, and it needs to be further evaluated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young Ah Lee
- Department of Pediatrics, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyo Ri Yun
- Department of Biostatistics, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Juneyoung Lee
- Department of Biostatistics, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
- BK21FOUR Program in Learning Health Systems, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Hyemi Moon
- Department of Biostatistics, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Choong Ho Shin
- Department of Pediatrics, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Sin Gon Kim
- Department of Internal Medicine, College of Medicine, Korea University, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Young Joo Park
- Department of Internal Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
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12
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Śmiełowska M, Zabiegała B. Polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) concentrations in dust from various indoor environments in Gdańsk, Poland: Prediction of concentrations in indoor air and assessment of exposure of adults. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 734:139437. [PMID: 32450403 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.139437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/12/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Monika Śmiełowska
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology (GUT), Narutowicza 11/12 St., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland
| | - Bożena Zabiegała
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology (GUT), Narutowicza 11/12 St., 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland.
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13
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Sugeng EJ, de Cock M, Leonards PEG, van de Bor M. Toddler behavior, the home environment, and flame retardant exposure. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 252:126588. [PMID: 32229360 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2019] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/21/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Toddlers are at increased risk of dust ingestion and subsequently flame retardant (FR) exposure because they often play close to the floor and mouth hands and objects. Exposure to some FRs have been associated to endocrine disruption and neurodevelopmental disorders. Previous research has shown higher FR concentrations in toddlers' serum and urine, but which toddler-behaviors influence exposure levels remains to be determined. We investigated how toddler-behaviors are associated to FRs in hand wipes (HWs) and saliva. Fifty 8-18 month-old children from the Linking EDCs in maternal Nutrition to Child health study, were visited at home. The child's behavior was observed and assessed using a questionnaire. Hand-to-object behavior frequency was associated with HW tris(chloroethyl) phosphate (TCEP), tris(1,3-dichloroisopropyl) phosphate (TDCIPP), tris(phenyl) phosphate, tris(methylphenyl) phosphate, and resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) levels above the detection limit. Children playing with electronics multiple times per week had higher TDCIPP HW levels compared to children playing with electronics once per month or never (p = 0.032 and p = 0.046). Frequent mouth-to-object and frequent mouthing a pacifier were associated with lower TDCIPP (p = 0.019) and tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP) HW levels, respectively (p = 0.002-0.019). Exposure estimates based on hand-to-mouth behavior did not exceed the available reference doses. This is the first study investigating toddler-behavior in relation to FR hand loadings. Although a range of behaviors was investigated, only a few showed a relation with FR HW levels, suggesting that toddler-behavior might not alone be responsible for the elevated FR levels in children. It is therefore important to explore other pathways including dermal absorption and inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva J Sugeng
- Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands.
| | - Marijke de Cock
- Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Pim E G Leonards
- Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Margot van de Bor
- Environment and Health, Faculty of Sciences, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1085, 1081, HV, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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14
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Başaran B, Soylu GN, Yılmaz Civan M. Concentration of phthalate esters in indoor and outdoor dust in Kocaeli, Turkey: implications for human exposure and risk. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:1808-1824. [PMID: 31758479 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-06815-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Accepted: 10/17/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The interest in phthalate esters (PAEs) has increased in recent years because elevated phthalate levels have been detected in environmental matrices and they have certain adverse effects on human health. Indoor dust from 90 homes and outdoor (street) dust from outside these homes were collected in Kocaeli province between February and April 2016 and analyzed for eight PAEs. The total indoor dust concentrations of eight PAEs (Σ8PAEs) ranged from 21.33 μg g-1 to 1802 μg g-1 (median, 387.67 μg g-1), significantly higher than outdoor dust concentrations (0.16-36.85 μg g-1 with median 4.84 μg g-1). Di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) was the most dominant pollutant in both indoor and outdoor environments with a median value of 316.02 μg g-1 and 3.89 μg g-1, respectively, followed by di-n-butyl phthalate and butylbenzyl phthalate (BBP). DEHP was measured within the range of 198.54-816.92 μg g-1 and BBP within the range of 15.52-495.33 μg g-1 in homes with PVC coating, significantly higher than the levels in homes with parquet and tiled floor (p<0.05). Monte Carlo simulation was applied to probabilistically estimate exposure to PAEs and associated carcinogenic risk. The Σ5PAE median values of non-dietary ingestion and dermal absorption exposure were estimated as 1.57 μg kg day-1 and 0.007 μg kg day-1 for children and 0.09 μg kg day-1 and 0.04 μg kg day-1 for adults while inhalation route exposure to PAE in dust was at a negligible level for both groups. Children were more exposed to PAEs through ingestion route (92.74% to 99.54% of the total exposure) while adult exposure through ingestion routes (62-68.4%) and dermal absorption (29.74% and 31.87% of the total exposure) were comparable. The mean cancer risk level via non-dietary ingestion of DEHP for children was 2.33×10-6, about eight times higher than the levels for adults. The risk levels of about 16% of adults and 95% of children are greater than the threshold value of 10-6 when the population is exposed to DEHP in indoor dust. Looking from the viewpoint of child health, the most effective method to reduce exposure among the measured PAEs is to keep the release of DEHP under control, especially in indoor environment, and to take precautions to reduce exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bilgehan Başaran
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kocaeli University, Umuttepe Campus, 41380, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Gizem Nur Soylu
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kocaeli University, Umuttepe Campus, 41380, Kocaeli, Turkey
| | - Mihriban Yılmaz Civan
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kocaeli University, Umuttepe Campus, 41380, Kocaeli, Turkey.
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15
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Effect of Taurine on Alterations in Deiodinase 3 Expression Induced by BDE 209 in Human Neuroblasoma-Derived SK-N-AS Cells. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019. [PMID: 31468451 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-8023-5_71] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
PBDEs (stands for polybrominated diphenyl ethers) are extensively utilized flame retardants, and BDE 209 is one of the most widely used congeners. Studies have suggested the general toxic effects of PBDEs on the endocrine system and neural development. Our previous studies found that BDE 209 changed Type 3 iodothyronine deiodinase (Dio 3) expression in human SK-N-AS neuroblastoma cells. The current study was designed to examine the potential protection of taurine on alterations of Dio 3 expression induced by BDE 209 in SK-N-AS cells. Briefly, SK-N-AS cells were pretreated with taurine prior to the BDE 209 treatment, and the cell viability was evaluated by the MTT (methyl-thiazolyl-tetrazolium) assay. The disturbance or restoration in the levels of Dio 3 proteins and mRNA were observed separately by the western blot and qRT-PCR. Our data showed that taurine moderately attenuated BDE 209-mediated the loss of cell viability. Also, taurine moderately prevented the reduction in the Dio 3 protein expression and mRNA expression induced by BDE 209 in the SK-N-AS cells. Our findings indicated that taurine potentially provide the protection on PBDEs-induced toxicity on endocrine and neuro-development.
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16
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Wemken N, Drage DS, Abdallah MAE, Harrad S, Coggins MA. Concentrations of Brominated Flame Retardants in Indoor Air and Dust from Ireland Reveal Elevated Exposure to Decabromodiphenyl Ethane. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:9826-9836. [PMID: 31310110 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b02059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Concentrations of decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), 13 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD) were measured in indoor air and dust collected from Irish homes, cars, offices, and primary schools during 2016-2017. Median concentrations of DBDPE in air (88 pg/m3) and dust (6500 ng/g) significantly exceed those previously reported internationally, with concentrations highest in offices and schools, suggesting that DBDPE is widely used in Ireland. Median concentrations of BDE-209 in air (340 pg/m3) and dust (7100 ng/g) exceed or are within the range of concentrations reported recently for the same microenvironments in the U.K., and exceed those reported in many other countries. Concentrations of BDE-209 in cars exceeded significantly (p < 0.05) those in other microenvironments. HBCDD was detected in all dust samples (median: 580 ng/g), and in 81% of air samples (median: 24 pg/m3) at concentrations similar to those reported recently for the U.K. and elsewhere. Estimates of exposure to DBDPE of Irish adults (92 ng/day) and toddlers (210 ng/day) as well as to BDE-209 (220 ng/day and 650 ng/day for adults and toddlers, respectively) substantially exceed those reported for the U.K. population. Moreover, our estimates of exposure of the Irish population to Σtrideca-PBDEs exceed previous estimates for Ireland via dietary exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Wemken
- School of Physics and the Ryan Institute , National University of Ireland , Galway , H91TK33 , Ireland
| | - Daniel Simon Drage
- School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences , University of Birmingham , Birmingham B15 2TT , United Kingdom
| | - Mohamed Abou-Elwafa Abdallah
- School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences , University of Birmingham , Birmingham B15 2TT , United Kingdom
| | - Stuart Harrad
- School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences , University of Birmingham , Birmingham B15 2TT , United Kingdom
| | - Marie Ann Coggins
- School of Physics and the Ryan Institute , National University of Ireland , Galway , H91TK33 , Ireland
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17
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Chai M, Ding H, Shen X, Li R. Contamination and ecological risk of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in surface sediments of mangrove wetlands: A nationwide study in China. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 249:992-1001. [PMID: 31146319 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.02.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 02/14/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Mangroves act as sinks for terrigenous pollutants to alleviate their influence on offshore marine ecosystem. The nationwide study of PBDEs contamination in mangrove wetlands of China has not been explored, and their risk for human health lack quantitative analysis. In this study, sediment samples were collected in six mangrove wetlands along coastal area of South China to evaluate the levels, congener distributions and ecological risks of eight PBDEs, including BDE-28, -47, -99, -100, -153, -154, -183, and -209. Levels of ∑PBDEs (the sum of seven PBDEs except BDE-209) and BDE-209 were 0.13-2.18 ng g-1 and 1.44-120.28 ng g-1, respectively. In particular, mean level of BDE-209 was highest in Futian, followed by Yunxiao, Fangchenggang, Zhanjiang, Dongzhaigang, and Dongfang. As dominant PBDE congener, BDE-209 accounted for 63.6%-99.1% of the total PBDEs, suggesting the major sources of commercial deca-BDE mixtures. Among seven PBDE congeners except BDE-209, slightly different percentages of PBDE congeners were detected, with BDE-154, -47, and -100 being predominant congeners. Positive relationship was observed for total organic matter (TOM) with BDE-209, with no such relationships found for particle size compositions (clay, silt and sand). As for sediment-dwelling organism, the ecological risks from tri-, tera-, and hexa-BDE congeners could be negligible, and those from penta- and deca-BDE congeners were low or moderate, indicating major ecological risk drivers of penta- and deca-BDE congeners in mangrove wetlands in China. The ecological risk of PBDEs in mangrove sediments for human health was thought to be consumption of fish which would bioaccumulate PBDEs from the contaminated sediment. As for human health, the levels of non-cancer risks of PBDEs were all lower than 1, and the cancer risk was far less than the threshold level (10-6), demonstrating low risk for human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minwei Chai
- School of Environment and Energy, Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Huan Ding
- School of Environment and Energy, Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Xiaoxue Shen
- School of Environment and Energy, Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China
| | - Ruili Li
- School of Environment and Energy, Shenzhen Graduate School of Peking University, Shenzhen, 518055, Guangdong, China.
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18
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Kassotis CD, Kollitz EM, Hoffman K, Sosa JA, Stapleton HM. Thyroid receptor antagonism as a contributory mechanism for adipogenesis induced by environmental mixtures in 3T3-L1 cells. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 666:431-444. [PMID: 30802659 PMCID: PMC6456385 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.273] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
We previously demonstrated that indoor house dust extracts could induce adipogenesis in pre-adipocytes, suggesting a potential role for indoor contaminant mixtures in metabolic health. Herein, we investigated the potential role of thyroid receptor beta (TRβ) antagonism in adipogenic effects (dust-induced triglyceride accumulation and pre-adipocyte proliferation) following exposure to environmental mixtures (indoor house dust extracts). Concentrations of specific flame retardants were measured in extracts, and metabolic health information was collected from residents (n = 137). 90% of dust extracts exhibited significant adipogenic activity, >60% via triglyceride accumulation, and >70% via pre-adipocyte proliferation. Triglyceride accumulation was positively correlated with concentrations of each of twelve flame retardants, despite most being independently inactive; this suggests a putative role for co-exposures or mixtures. We further reported a positive correlation between dust-induced triglyceride accumulation and serum thyroid stimulating hormone concentrations, negative correlations with serum free triiodothyronine and thyroxine concentrations, and a positive and significant association between dust-induced triglyceride accumulation and residents' body mass index (BMI). We hypothesized that inhibition of TR antagonism might counteract these effects, and both addition of a TR agonist and siRNA knock-down of TR resulted in decreased dust-induced triglyceride accumulation in a subset of samples, bolstering this as a contributory mechanism. These results highlight a contributory role of environmental TR antagonism as a putative factor in metabolic health, suggesting that further research should evaluate this mechanism and determine whether in vitro adipogenic activity could have utility as a biomarker for metabolic health in residents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Erin M. Kollitz
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Kate Hoffman
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
| | - Julie Ann Sosa
- Department of Surgery, University of California at San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Heather M. Stapleton
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Durham, NC 27708
- Corresponding Author Post-Publication and person to whom reprints requests should be addressed: Heather M. Stapleton, PhD, Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, A207B Levine Science Research Center, 450 Research Drive, Durham, NC 27708, Phone: 919-613-8717,
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19
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Rovira J, Domingo JL. Human health risks due to exposure to inorganic and organic chemicals from textiles: A review. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2019; 168:62-69. [PMID: 30278363 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2018.09.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
It is well known that a number of substances used in the textile industry can mean not only environmental, but also health problems. The scientific literature regarding potential adverse health effects of chemical substances in that industry is mainly related with human exposure during textile production. However, information about exposure of consumers is much more limited. Although most research on the health effects of chemicals in textiles concern allergic skin reactions, contact allergy is not the only potential human health problem. In this paper, we have reviewed the current scientific information regarding human exposure to chemicals through skin-contact clothes. The review has been focused mainly on those chemicals whose probabilities of being detected in clothes were rather higher. Thus, we have revised the presence of flame retardants, trace elements, aromatic amines, quinoline, bisphenols, benzothiazoles/benzotriazoles, phthalates, formaldehyde, and also metal nanoparticles. Human dermal exposure to potentially toxic chemicals through skin-contact textiles/clothes shows a non-negligible presence in some textiles, which might lead to potential systemic risks. Under specific circumstances of exposure, the presence of some chemicals might mean non-assumable cancer risks for the consumers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joaquim Rovira
- Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, IISPV, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain
| | - José L Domingo
- Laboratory of Toxicology and Environmental Health, School of Medicine, IISPV, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Sant Llorenç 21, 43201 Reus, Catalonia, Spain.
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20
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Wang J, Wang Y, Shi Z, Zhou X, Sun Z. Legacy and novel brominated flame retardants in indoor dust from Beijing, China: Occurrence, human exposure assessment and evidence for PBDEs replacement. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2018; 618:48-59. [PMID: 29126026 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.11.049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2017] [Revised: 10/14/2017] [Accepted: 11/04/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Levels of legacy brominated flame retardants (BFRs), including tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA), hexabromocyclododecane isomers (HBCDs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), and six currently used novel BFRs were determined in house dust and office dust collected from a community in Beijing, China. This is the first study where the three kinds of legacy BFRs and novel BFRs were all measured in dust samples from China. HPLC-MS/MS was used for the detection of TBBPA and HBCDs, and the other BFRs were tested on a GC-NCI/MS. Decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE), PBDEs, HBCD and TBBPA were found to be the main BFRs in the dust samples, with median levels of 709, 241, 199 and 26.7ng/g dust, respectively. Due to the high density of electronic equipment used in offices, levels of BFRs in office dust were found to be higher than those in house dust. DBDPE, as a replacement of PBDEs, was the predominant BFR, and the median level of DBDPE was not only several orders of magnitude higher than that of other novel BFRs but also 3 to 27 times higher than that of the three legacy BFRs, indicating that the consumption pattern of BFRs in the Chinese market has shifted from PBDEs to PBDE alternatives. Median estimated daily intakes (EDIs) of BFRs through dust ingestion for adults (>20years) and toddlers (<2years) were in the range of 2.8×10-5-0.201ng/kg body weight (bw)/day and 5.7×10-4-2.52ng/kg bw/day, respectively. The body burden of BFRs for toddlers was far higher than that for adults; however, a comparison between EDIs and threshold values suggested that daily intakes of BFRs for both adults and toddlers were unlikely to raise significant health concerns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiandi Wang
- Shunyi Women and Children's Hospital of Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 110113, China; School of Public Health and Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Yuwei Wang
- School of Public Health and Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Zhixiong Shi
- School of Public Health and Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.
| | - Xianqing Zhou
- School of Public Health and Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Zhiwei Sun
- School of Public Health and Beijing Key Laboratory of Environmental Toxicology, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
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21
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Tsou MC, Özkaynak H, Beamer P, Dang W, Hsi HC, Jiang CB, Chien LC. Mouthing activity data for children age 3 to <6 years old and fraction of hand area mouthed for children age <6 years old in Taiwan. JOURNAL OF EXPOSURE SCIENCE & ENVIRONMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGY 2018; 28:182-192. [PMID: 28120832 DOI: 10.1038/jes.2016.87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Non-dietary ingestion is an important exposure pathway for children owing to their frequent hand-to-mouth and object-to-mouth activities involving soil and dust contacts. We used videotaping and the computer-based translating methods to quantify the mouthing activity information for 24 children ages 3 to <6 years old living in Taiwan. We also reviewed the entire mouthing activity data collected during the project to determine the lesser studied information on hand surface areas mouthed by children ages <6 years old. The median indoor hand-to-mouth and object-to-mouth frequencies were found to be 10 and 4.3 contacts/h, respectively. Hand-to-mouth and object-to-mouth contact frequencies used in exposure assessments for children ages 3 to <6 years old in this study were similar to the recommended values reported in United States. Exposure Factors Handbook for comparable age US children. The average fractions of the hand area mouthed for children 6 to <12 months, 1 to <2 years, 2 to <3 years, and 3 to <6 years old were 0.12, 0.12, 0.13, and 0.09, respectively. The fraction of hand area mouthed by children was found to be significantly and negatively correlated with their age. About half of the total hand-to-mouth contact events involved immersion of part of a hand or a finger into the mouth. The findings from this study extend the available mouthing activity information for 3 to <6 years old children and also provide new data for an Asian country, allowing comparison of results with western values collected mostly in the United States.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Chien Tsou
- School of Public Health, College of Public Health and Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Public Health, College of Public Health, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | | | - Paloma Beamer
- Environmental Health Sciences, Mel and Enid Zuckerman College of Public Health, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Winston Dang
- School of Public Health, College of Public Health and Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Public Health, College of Public Health, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Hsing-Cheng Hsi
- Graduate Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chuen-Bin Jiang
- Department of Pediatrics, Taipei Mackay Memorial Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
- Mackay Junior College of Medicine, Nursing and Management, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Chu Chien
- School of Public Health, College of Public Health and Nutrition, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
- School of Public Health, College of Public Health, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
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22
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Malliari E, Kalantzi OI. Children's exposure to brominated flame retardants in indoor environments - A review. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2017; 108:146-169. [PMID: 28863388 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2017.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 08/18/2017] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this review is to present up-to-date research on children's exposure to brominated flame retardants (BFRs) in indoor environments. Large geographical variations were observed for all BFRs [polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), hexabromocyclododecane (HBCDD), tetrabromobisphenol A (TBBPA)], with the highest concentrations of PBDEs measured in North America (BDE-47) and Europe (BDE-209), where higher concentrations of PBDEs are present in dust from houses, daycare centers and primary schools. In Asia the highest PBDE concentrations were measured in China, near e-waste recycling areas. In the Middle East, Australia and Africa BFR levels were low in most indoor spaces. Asian countries also have the highest concentrations of TBBPA and HBCDD, followed by European countries. Fewer studies have been conducted measuring novel and emerging BFRs (NBFRs or EBFRs), of which decabromodiphenylethane (DBDPE) has the highest concentration in indoor environments, especially in China. The vast majority of children's exposure studies have been conducted in houses, sampling either dust or air, and considerably fewer in schools, daycare centers, cars and public facilities, despite BFR levels being comparable to (or sometimes even higher than) house dust. Relatively fewer studies focused on children's tissues such as serum, and only two studied exposure via mouthing toys. Alternative noninvasive sampling matrices that may act as surrogates for exposure to BFRs such as handwipes and silicone wristbands have recently started to gain momentum, because of the ease of sampling, faster collection time and better correlations to serum than house dust. Feces sampling is another promising alternative to children's serum that warrants further research. While many studies have associated different indoor environment characteristics, there is a knowledge gap on the association between children's behaviour and activity patterns and their exposure to BFRs, as well as data on infant exposure to BFRs via baby products. Results from the studies showed that dust ingestion was the dominant exposure pathway for most studied BFRs compared to indoor air inhalation and dermal contact, especially for infants and toddlers who have higher exposures than older children.
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Ji X, Ding J, Xie X, Cheng Y, Huang Y, Qin L, Han C. Pollution Status and Human Exposure of Decabromodiphenyl Ether (BDE-209) in China. ACS OMEGA 2017; 2:3333-3348. [PMID: 30023692 PMCID: PMC6044870 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.7b00559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 06/15/2017] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Decabromodiphenyl ether (BDE-209/decaBDE) is a high-production-volume brominated flame retardant in China, where the decaBDE commercial mixture is manufactured in Laizhou Bay, Shandong Province, even after the prohibition of penta- and octaBDE mixtures. The demand for flame retardants produced in China has been increasing in recent years as China not only produces electronic devices but also has numerous electronic waste (e-waste) recycling regions, which receive e-wastes from both domestic and foreign sources. High concentrations of BDE-209 have been observed in biotic and abiotic media in each of the different areas, especially within the decaBDE manufacturers and e-waste recycling areas. BDE-209 has been viewed as toxic and bioaccumulative because it might debrominate to less brominated polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) (lower molecular weight and hydrophobicity), which are more readily absorbed by organisms. The highest concentration of PBDEs in dust within urban areas reached 40 236 ng g-1 in the Pearl River Delta, and BDE-209 contributed the greatest proportion to the total PBDEs (95.1%). Moreover, the maximum hazard quotient was found for toddlers (0.703) for BDE-209, which was close to 1. This suggests that exposure to BDE-209 might lead to increased potential for adverse effects and organ harm (e.g., the lungs) through inhalation, dust ingestion, and dermal absorption, especially for the group of toddlers compared to others. In daily food and human tissues, the amount of BDE-209 was also extensively detected. However, the toxicity and adverse effect of BDE-209 to humans are still not clear; thus, further studies are required to better assess the toxicological effects and exposure scenarios, a more enhanced environmental policy for ecological risks regarding BDE-209 and its debrominated byproducts in China.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowen Ji
- State
Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Center for
Hydrosciences Research, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, P. R. China
| | - Jue Ding
- College
of the Environment, Hohai University, Nanjing 210098, P. R. China
| | - Xianchuan Xie
- State
Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Center for
Hydrosciences Research, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, P. R. China
| | - Yu Cheng
- State
Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Center for
Hydrosciences Research, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, P. R. China
| | - Yu Huang
- State
Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Center for
Hydrosciences Research, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, P. R. China
| | - Long Qin
- State
Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Center for
Hydrosciences Research, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, P. R. China
| | - Chao Han
- State
Key Laboratory of Lake Science and Environment, Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of
Sciences, Nanjing 210008, P. R. China
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Raffy G, Mercier F, Blanchard O, Derbez M, Dassonville C, Bonvallot N, Glorennec P, Le Bot B. Semi-volatile organic compounds in the air and dust of 30 French schools: a pilot study. INDOOR AIR 2017; 27:114-127. [PMID: 26880519 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Revised: 01/29/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
The contamination of indoor environments with chemical compounds released by materials and furniture, such as semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs), is less documented in schools than in dwellings-yet children spend 16% of their time in schools, where they can also be exposed. This study is one of the first to describe the contamination of the air and dust of 90 classrooms from 30 nursery and primary schools by 55 SVOCs, including pesticides, phosphoric esters, musks, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), phthalates, and polybromodiphenylethers (PBDEs). Air samples were collected using an active sampling method, and dust samples were collected via two sampling methods (wiping and vacuum cleaning). In air, the highest concentrations (median >100 ng/m3 ) were measured for diisobutyl phthalate (DiBP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and galaxolide. In dust, the highest concentrations (median >30 μg/g) were found for DEHP, diisononyl phthalate (DiNP), DiBP, and DBP. An attempt to compare two floor dust sampling methods using a single unit (ng/m²) was carried out. SVOC concentrations were higher in wiped dust, but frequencies of quantification were greater in vacuumed dust.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Raffy
- EHESP - School of Public Health Sorbonne Paris Cité, Rennes, France
- Irset-Inserm UMR 1085 - Research Institute for Environmental and Occupational Health, Rennes, France
- LERES - Environment and Health Research Laboratory, Rennes, France
| | - F Mercier
- EHESP - School of Public Health Sorbonne Paris Cité, Rennes, France
- Irset-Inserm UMR 1085 - Research Institute for Environmental and Occupational Health, Rennes, France
- LERES - Environment and Health Research Laboratory, Rennes, France
| | - O Blanchard
- EHESP - School of Public Health Sorbonne Paris Cité, Rennes, France
- Irset-Inserm UMR 1085 - Research Institute for Environmental and Occupational Health, Rennes, France
| | - M Derbez
- CSTB - Scientific and Technical Centre for Building, OQAI - French Indoor Air Quality Observatory, Université Paris Est, Marne-la-Vallée, France
| | - C Dassonville
- CSTB - Scientific and Technical Centre for Building, OQAI - French Indoor Air Quality Observatory, Université Paris Est, Marne-la-Vallée, France
| | - N Bonvallot
- EHESP - School of Public Health Sorbonne Paris Cité, Rennes, France
- Irset-Inserm UMR 1085 - Research Institute for Environmental and Occupational Health, Rennes, France
| | - P Glorennec
- EHESP - School of Public Health Sorbonne Paris Cité, Rennes, France
- Irset-Inserm UMR 1085 - Research Institute for Environmental and Occupational Health, Rennes, France
| | - B Le Bot
- EHESP - School of Public Health Sorbonne Paris Cité, Rennes, France
- Irset-Inserm UMR 1085 - Research Institute for Environmental and Occupational Health, Rennes, France
- LERES - Environment and Health Research Laboratory, Rennes, France
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25
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Initial Evaluation of Provincial-Level Environmental Risks from the Perspective of Human Settlements. SUSTAINABILITY 2016. [DOI: 10.3390/su8121259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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26
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Civan MY, Kara UM. Risk assessment of PBDEs and PAHs in house dust in Kocaeli, Turkey: levels and sources. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 23:23369-23384. [PMID: 27638794 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7512-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/23/2016] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Indoor dust samples were collected from 40 homes in Kocaeli, Turkey and were analyzed simultaneously for 14 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and 16 poly aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) isomers. The total concentrations of PBDEs (Σ14PBDEs) ranged from 29.32 to 4790 ng g-1, with a median of 316.1 ng g-1, while the total indoor dust concentrations of 16 PAHs (Σ16PAHs) extending over three to four orders of magnitude ranged from 85.91 to 40,359 ng g-1 with a median value of 2489 ng g-1. Although deca-PBDE products (BDE-209) were the principal source of PBDEs contamination in the homes (median, 138.3 ng g-1), the correlation in the homes was indicative of similar sources for both the commercial penta and deca-PBDE formulas. The PAHs diagnostic ratios indicated that the main sources of PAHs measured in the indoor samples could be coal/biomass combustion, smoking, and cooking emissions. For children and adults, the contributions to ∑14PBDEs exposure were approximately 93 and 25 % for the ingestion of indoor dust, and 7 and 75 % for dermal contact. Exposure to ∑16PAHs through dermal contact was the dominant route for both children (90.6 %) and adults (99.7 %). For both groups, exposure by way of inhalation of indoor dust contaminated with PBDEs and PAHs was negligible. The hazard index (HI) values for BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-153, and BDE-209 were lower than the safe limit of 1, and this result suggested that none of the population groups would be likely to experience potential health risk due to exposure to PBDEs from indoor dust in the study area. Considering only ingestion + dermal contact, the carcinogenic risk levels of both B2 PAHs and BDE-209 for adults were 6.2 × 10-5 in the US EPA safe limit range while those for children were 5.6 × 10-4 and slightly higher than the US EPA safe limit range (1 × 10-6 and 1 × 10-4). Certain precautions should be considered for children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mihriban Yılmaz Civan
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kocaeli University, Umuttepe Campus, 41380, Kocaeli, Turkey.
| | - U Merve Kara
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kocaeli University, Umuttepe Campus, 41380, Kocaeli, Turkey
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27
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Gou YY, Que DE, Chuang CY, Chao HR, Shy CG, Hsu YC, Lin CW, Chuang KP, Tsai CC, Tayo LL. Dust levels of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans (PBDD/Fs) in the Taiwanese elementary school classrooms: Assessment of the risk to school-age children. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 572:734-741. [PMID: 27515016 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.07.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2016] [Revised: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Elementary school classroom dust is an important source of exposure to polybrominated dibenzo-p-dioxins/furans and diphenyl ethers (PBDD/DF/DEs) for school-age children. Our goal is thus to investigate concentrations of PBDD/DF/DEs in elementary school classroom dust to further assess the impact on school-age children via ingestion. The dust from classrooms, including both normal (NR) and computer classrooms (CR), was collected from six urban and four rural schools. Fourteen PBDEs and twelve PBDD/Fs were measured using high-resolution gas-chromatography/high-resolution mass-spectrometry. The mean levels of Σ14PBDEs in NR and CR dust from the urban classrooms were 370 and 2510ng/g and those whose dust from the rural classrooms were 464 and 1780ng/g. The means of ΣPBDD/Fs were 0.0401ng-WHO2005-TEQ/g (concentration: 4.72ng/g) in urban NR dust, 0.0636ng-WHO2005-TEQ/g (7.51ng/g) in urban CR dust, 0.0281ng-WHO2005TEQ/g (3.60ng/g) in rural NR dust, and 0.0474ng-WHO2005TEQ/g (6.28ng/g) in rural CR dust. The PBDEs pattern in NR dust was quite different from that in CR dust, but the PBDD/Fs patterns in NR and CR dust were similar. A linearly significant correlation coefficient (n=20, r=0.862, p<0.001) was found between ΣPBDEs and ΣPBDD/Fs in NR and CR dust, indicating that the PBDEs and PBDD/Fs in the dust may be from the same sources in the elementary school classrooms. This study assessed the risks (daily intake and cancer and non-cancer risks) of PBDEs and PBDD/Fs for the children from the classroom dust, and the calculated risk values did not exceed the related thresholds. With regard to the exposure scenarios for school-age children in an indoor environment, the results suggest that they might ingest more dust PBDD/DF/DEs in their homes than in the schools. In conclusion, the exposure of Taiwanese elementary school children to PBDD/DF/DEs via indoor dust was with a safe range based on our findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan-You Gou
- Emerging Compounds Research Center, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Neipu, Pingtung County 912, Taiwan
| | - Danielle E Que
- School of Chemical Engineering, Chemistry, Biological Engineering and Material Science and Engineering, Mapúa Institute of Technology, Intramuros, Manila 1002, Philippines
| | - Chun-Yu Chuang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Environmental Sciences, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu City 300, Taiwan
| | - How-Ran Chao
- Emerging Compounds Research Center, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Neipu, Pingtung County 912, Taiwan.
| | - Cherng-Gueih Shy
- Department of Radiology, Pingtung Christian Hospital, Pingtung City, Pingtung 900, Taiwan
| | - Yi-Chyun Hsu
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Kun Shan University, Yung-Kang Dist., Tainan City 71003, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Wen Lin
- Department of Child Care, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung County 912, Taiwan
| | - Kuo Pin Chuang
- Graduate Institute of Animal Vaccine Technology, College of Veterinary Medicine, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Neipu, Pingtung County 912, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Chung Tsai
- Graduate Institute of Science Education and Environmental Education, National Kaohsiung Normal University, Yan-Chou District, Kaohsiung City 824, Taiwan
| | - Lemmuel L Tayo
- School of Chemical Engineering, Chemistry, Biological Engineering and Material Science and Engineering, Mapúa Institute of Technology, Intramuros, Manila 1002, Philippines
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28
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Kim SK, Kim KS, Sang HH. Overview on relative importance of house dust ingestion in human exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): International comparison and Korea as a case. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 571:82-91. [PMID: 27471979 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.07.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2016] [Revised: 07/10/2016] [Accepted: 07/10/2016] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
Human exposure studies to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) have reached different results about the relative importance of diet intake and house dust ingestion. In the present study, concentrations of PBDEs in Korean house dust (n=15) from geographically different cities were measured, which were in agreement with a previous result, and compared with those for 22 countries of five continents collected from the most recent scientific literature. Compared with other exposure pathways, diet intake was the most important contributor to total PBDEs exposure of Korean adults (i.e., 71% of overall intake). On global comparison, total PBDE levels in house dust differed by two to three orders of magnitude among the countries investigated, with a significant relationship with gross domestic product (GDP). Whereas, dietary daily intakes exhibited a narrow difference within one order of magnitude worldwide and no relationship with GDP. Consequently, the relative importance of major two pathways depended on the contamination extent of PBDEs in house dust, which may be associated with the amount of PBDE products in use. In most countries except for UK and USA, the contribution of house dust ingestion was less important than diet intake in the current and are expected to much more mitigate in the future. However, how fast the effect of regulation will be reflected to house dust and human exposure is necessary to be monitored steadily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seung-Kyu Kim
- Department of Marine Science, College of Natural Sciences, Incheon National University, 119 Academy-ro (Songdo-dong), Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea; Research Institute of Basic Sciences, Incheon National University, 119 Academy-ro (Songdo-dong), Yeonsu-gu, Incheon 22012, Republic of Korea.
| | - Kyoung-Soo Kim
- Battey R&D, Samsung SDI, 130 Samsung-ro, Yeongtong-gu, Gyeonggi-do, Suwon 443-803, Republic of Korea
| | - Hee Hong Sang
- Oil and POPs Research Group, Korean Institute of Ocean Science and Technology, Geoje-shi 656-834, Republic of Korea
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29
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Sun J, Wang Q, Zhuang S, Zhang A. Occurrence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in indoor air and dust in Hangzhou, China: Level, role of electric appliances, and human exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2016; 218:942-949. [PMID: 27554982 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.08.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2016] [Revised: 08/13/2016] [Accepted: 08/17/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
This study investigated the occurrence of 8 polybrominated diphenyl ether (PBDE) congeners from homes (n = 20), offices (n = 20), air conditioners (n = 6), and computers (n = 6). High detection frequencies for most of the congeners were observed, indicating continued widespread use of Penta-, Octa- and Deca-BDE mixtures. The median concentrations of ∑PBDEs were 119 and 194 pg m-3 for home air and office air, respectively. Regarding dust, the median concentrations of ∑PBDEs were 239 and 437 ng g-1 for home and office dust, respectively. The ratios of the median concentrations of BDE-209 to ∑PBDEs were approximately 0.95 and 0.87 for home dust and office dust, respectively. The median concentrations of ∑PBDEs were 359 ng g-1 and 350 ng g-1 for dust on air conditioner filters and the back cabinet of the computer, respectively. The ratios of the median concentrations of BDE-209 to ∑PBDEs were approximately 0.58 and 0.46 for air conditioner and computer samples. Running air conditioners contributed to ΣPBDEs in office air through direct and indirect pathways. The daily intake of PBDEs was estimated to be 2630 pg (kg bw)-1 day-1 for toddlers in homes and 319 pg (kg bw)-1 day-1 for adults in homes and offices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianqiang Sun
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances, Top Key Discipline of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China
| | - Qianwen Wang
- Zhejiang Institute for Food and Drug Control, Hangzhou 310052, China
| | - Shulin Zhuang
- MOE Key Laboratory of Environmental Remediation and Ecosystem Health, College of Environmental and Resource Sciences, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Anping Zhang
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances, Top Key Discipline of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310032, China.
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30
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Deng WJ, Zheng HL, Tsui AKY, Chen XW. Measurement and health risk assessment of PM 2.5, flame retardants, carbonyls and black carbon in indoor and outdoor air in kindergartens in Hong Kong. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2016; 96:65-74. [PMID: 27608428 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2016.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2016] [Revised: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Indoor air pollution is closely related to children's health. Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and dechlorane plus (DP) transmitted through indoor PM2.5 and dust, along with carbonyl compounds and black carbon (BC) aerosol were analysed in five Hong Kong kindergartens. The results showed that 60% of the median PM2.5 levels (1.3×101 to 2.9×101μg/m3 for indoor; 9.5 to 8.8×101μg/m3 for outdoor) in the five kindergartens were higher than the guidelines set by the World Health Organization (2.5×101μg/m3). Indoor PM2.5 mass concentrations were correlated with outdoor PM2.5 in four of the kindergartens. The PBDEs (0.10-0.64ng/m3 in PM2.5; 0.30-2.0×102ng/g in dust) and DP (0.05-0.10ng/m3 in PM2.5; 1.3-8.7ng/g in dust) were detected in 100% of the PM2.5 and dust samples. Fire retardant levels in the air were not correlated with the levels of dust in this study. The median BC concentrations varied by >7-fold from 8.8×102ng/m-3 to 6.7×103ng/m-3 and cooking events might have caused BC concentrations to rise both indoors and outdoors. The total concentrations of 16 carbonyls ranged from 4.7×101μg/m3 to 9.3×101μg/m3 indoors and from 1.9×101μg/m3 to 4.3×101μg/m3 outdoors, whilst formaldehyde was the most abundant air carbonyl. Indoor carbonyl concentrations were correlated with outdoor carbonyls in three kindergartens. The health risk assessment showed that hazard indexes (HIs) HIs of non-cancer risks from PBDEs and DPs were all lower than 0.08, whilst non-cancer HIs of carbonyl compounds ranged from 0.77 to 1.85 indoors and from 0.50 to 0.97 outdoors. The human intake of PBDEs and DP through inhalation of PM2.5 accounted for 78% to 92% of the total intake. The cancer hazard quotients (HQs) of formaldehyde ranged from 4.5E-05 to 2.1E-04 indoors and from 1.9E-05 to 6.2E-05 outdoors. In general, the indoor air pollution in the five Hong Kong kindergartens might present adverse effects to children, although different schools showed distinct pollution levels, so indoor air quality might be improved through artificial measures. The data will be useful to developing a feasible management protocol for indoor environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen-Jing Deng
- Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Tai Po, N.T., Hong Kong, China.
| | - Hai-Long Zheng
- Department of Geography and Resource Management, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Anita K Y Tsui
- Department of Early Childhood Education, The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Tai Po, N.T., Hong Kong, China
| | - Xun-Wen Chen
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Clear Water Bay, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
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31
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Kienzler A, Bopp SK, van der Linden S, Berggren E, Worth A. Regulatory assessment of chemical mixtures: Requirements, current approaches and future perspectives. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2016; 80:321-34. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2016.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Revised: 05/13/2016] [Accepted: 05/16/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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32
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Cristale J, Hurtado A, Gómez-Canela C, Lacorte S. Occurrence and sources of brominated and organophosphorus flame retardants in dust from different indoor environments in Barcelona, Spain. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2016; 149:66-76. [PMID: 27179204 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2016.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Revised: 05/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/02/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the simultaneous presence of eight polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), nine new brominated flame retardants (NBFRs) and ten organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) was investigated in dust samples collected from different indoor environments (homes, schools, theatres, a university and a Research Institute) in Barcelona, Spain. OPFRs were detected at the highest concentrations followed by PBDEs. ∑OPFRs ranged from 2053 to 72,090ngg(-1) and tris(2-chloroisopropyl) phosphate (TCIPP) was the most abundant compound. BDE-209 was the main PBDE congener detected (up to 14,990ngg(-1)), while other PBDEs ranged from 2.6 to 118ngg(-1). Among the studied NBFRs, decabromodiphenyl ethane (DBDPE - up to 4432ngg(-1)) followed by bis(2-ethylhexyl) tetrabromophthalate (BEH-TEBP - up to 508ngg(-1)) were detected at the highest concentration, whereas a lower detection frequency was observed for 2-ethylhexyl 2,3,4,5-tetrabromobenzoate (EH-TBB), 1,2-bis(2,4,6-tribromophenoxy)ethane (BTBPE), pentabromotoluene (PBT) and hexabromobenzene (HBB). The levels and profile of flame retardants (FRs) were characteristic of each environment, where theatres followed by homes presented the highest concentrations and schools had the lowest levels. Principal Component Analysis permitted to identify the main sources and distribution of all FRs, according to specific uses in each environment. The simultaneous presence of all FR families in indoor dust points to the need to monitor these compounds to minimize human exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joyce Cristale
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Alba Hurtado
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Cristian Gómez-Canela
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
| | - Silvia Lacorte
- Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain
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Wang G, Peng J, Zhang D, Li X. Characterizing distributions, composition profiles, sources and potential health risk of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) in the coastal sediments from East China Sea. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2016; 213:468-481. [PMID: 26970872 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2016.02.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2015] [Revised: 02/23/2016] [Accepted: 02/28/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Sediment samples (n = 20) were collected from Yangtze River Estuary (YRE) and the adjacent East China Sea (ECS) inner shelf to explore spatial and temporal distributions, environmental fate, sources and potential health risk of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs). Concentrations of BDE-209 and total 7 PBDEs (without BDE-209; ∑7PBDEs) ranged from 62.3 to 1758 pg g(-1) and from 36.9 to 233.6 pg g(-1) dry weight, respectively; both of the highest values occurred near the city of Wenzhou. Concentrations of BDE-209 and ∑7PBDEs both indicated a decreasing trend from inshore areas toward outer shelf. Significantly positive linear correlations were only observed between logBDE-183 concentrations and TOC/grain size (r(2) = 0.6734 and 0.5977 for TOC and grain size, respectively) as well as BDE-209 and TOC/grain size (r(2) = 0.4137 and 0.5332 for TOC and grain size, respectively) in the north of 28(°)N, indicating that YR had significant influence on the distribution of higher brominated congeners only in the north part. Depth profiles of PBDEs in a sediment core P01 (n = 1, m = 11) collected from YRE showed that the input of BDE-209 gradually increased from 1930 to 2010, while the levels of ∑7PBDEs peaked in 1986 and obviously decreased in recent years. Partial Least-Squares Regression (PLSR) revealed that PBDEs in the coastal ECS were mainly from direct discharge of local anthropogenic activities (80.7%), followed by surface runoff of contaminated soils (15.1%), microbial degradation after sedimentation (2.6%) and photodegradation during atmospheric transportation (1.6%). The cancer risk of human exposure to BDE-209 at the 95% confidence level was 3.09 × 10(-7), 1.67 × 10(-7) and 8.86 × 10(-7) for children, teens and adults, respectively, significantly lower than the threshold level (10(-6)). Hazard index (HI) calculated for non-cancer risk was also far less than 1 for the three groups, suggesting no non-cancer risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guoguang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China.
| | - Jialin Peng
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Dahai Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Xianguo Li
- Key Laboratory of Marine Chemistry Theory and Technology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China.
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Canha N, Mandin C, Ramalho O, Wyart G, Ribéron J, Dassonville C, Hänninen O, Almeida SM, Derbez M. Assessment of ventilation and indoor air pollutants in nursery and elementary schools in France. INDOOR AIR 2016; 26:350-65. [PMID: 25955661 DOI: 10.1111/ina.12222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 05/02/2015] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to characterize the relationship between Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) and ventilation in French classrooms. Various parameters were measured over one school week, including volatile organic compounds, aldehydes, particulate matter (PM2.5 mass concentration and number concentration), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), air temperature, and relative humidity in 51 classrooms at 17 schools. The ventilation was characterized by several indicators, such as the air exchange rate, ventilation rate (VR), and air stuffiness index (ICONE), that are linked to indoor CO2 concentration. The influences of the season (heating or non-heating), type of school (nursery or elementary), and ventilation on the IAQ were studied. Based on the minimum value of 4.2 l/s per person required by the French legislation for mechanically ventilated classrooms, 91% of the classrooms had insufficient ventilation. The VR was significantly higher in mechanically ventilated classrooms compared with naturally ventilated rooms. The correlations between IAQ and ventilation vary according to the location of the primary source of each pollutant (outdoor vs. indoor), and for an indoor source, whether it is associated with occupant activity or continuous emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Canha
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Bobadela LRS, Portugal
- Université Paris-Est, CSTB (Scientific and Technical Building Centre), OQAI (French Indoor Air Quality Observatory), Champs sur Marne, Marne la Vallée Cedex 2, France
| | - C Mandin
- Université Paris-Est, CSTB (Scientific and Technical Building Centre), OQAI (French Indoor Air Quality Observatory), Champs sur Marne, Marne la Vallée Cedex 2, France
| | - O Ramalho
- Université Paris-Est, CSTB (Scientific and Technical Building Centre), OQAI (French Indoor Air Quality Observatory), Champs sur Marne, Marne la Vallée Cedex 2, France
| | - G Wyart
- Université Paris-Est, CSTB (Scientific and Technical Building Centre), OQAI (French Indoor Air Quality Observatory), Champs sur Marne, Marne la Vallée Cedex 2, France
| | - J Ribéron
- Université Paris-Est, CSTB (Scientific and Technical Building Centre), OQAI (French Indoor Air Quality Observatory), Champs sur Marne, Marne la Vallée Cedex 2, France
| | - C Dassonville
- Université Paris-Est, CSTB (Scientific and Technical Building Centre), OQAI (French Indoor Air Quality Observatory), Champs sur Marne, Marne la Vallée Cedex 2, France
| | - O Hänninen
- National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), Kuopio, Finland
| | - S M Almeida
- Centro de Ciências e Tecnologias Nucleares, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, Bobadela LRS, Portugal
| | - M Derbez
- Université Paris-Est, CSTB (Scientific and Technical Building Centre), OQAI (French Indoor Air Quality Observatory), Champs sur Marne, Marne la Vallée Cedex 2, France
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Donauer S, Chen A, Xu Y, Calafat AM, Sjodin A, Yolton K. Prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polyfluoroalkyl chemicals and infant neurobehavior. J Pediatr 2015; 166:736-42. [PMID: 25524317 PMCID: PMC4344877 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpeds.2014.11.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Revised: 09/29/2014] [Accepted: 11/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess the impact of prenatal exposure to polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polyfluoroalkyl chemicals (PFCs) on early infant neurobehavior. STUDY DESIGN In a cohort of 349 mother/infant pairs, we measured maternal serum concentrations during pregnancy of PBDEs, including BDE-47 and other related congeners, as well as 2 common PFCs, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid. When the infants were 5 weeks of age, we measured their neurobehavior by using the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit Network Neurobehavioral Scale (NNNS). RESULTS Neither PBDE nor PFC exposures during gestation were associated with the 11 individual NNNS outcomes included in our study; however, when we used latent profile analysis to categorize infants into neurobehavioral profiles based on performance on the NNNS (social/easygoing, high arousal/difficult, or hypotonic), a 10-fold increase in prenatal PFOA concentrations significantly increased the odds of being categorized as hypotonic compared with social/easygoing (aOR 3.79; 95% CI 1.1-12.8). CONCLUSIONS Infants of mothers with greater serum concentrations of PFOA during pregnancy were more likely to be categorized as hypotonic. No association between PBDE concentrations and hypotonia was found. Additional studies should further investigate possible associations of prenatal PFC exposure and muscle tone in infants and children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Donauer
- Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH.
| | - Aimin Chen
- Department of Environmental Health, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Yingying Xu
- Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
| | - Antonia M. Calafat
- National Center for Environmental Health, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Andreas Sjodin
- Division of Laboratory Sciences, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia, USA
| | - Kimberly Yolton
- Department of Pediatrics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, USA
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Wang T, Li S, Zhang C, Li Y. Quantities, sources and adsorption of polybrominated diphenyl ethers in components of surficial sediments collected in Songhua River (Jilin City), China. CHEMOSPHERE 2015; 119:1208-1216. [PMID: 25460763 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2014.10.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2014] [Revised: 09/28/2014] [Accepted: 10/05/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Quantities of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs, BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154, 183 and 209) in surficial sediments (SSs) of the Songhua River, China were extracted and detected by Soxhlet extractor and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Sources of the PBDEs were investigated by factor analysis. Contributions of Fe oxides, Mn oxides and organic matters (OMs), and their interactions of SSs to the adsorption of PBDEs were described based on multiple linear regressions. The analysis results from GC/MS indicated that the concentrations of PBDEs ranged from 2.90 to 9871 ng g(-)(1) (dry weight) with a mean value of 397 ng g(-)(1). The congener profiles of the SSs were dominated by BDE-209 (⩾71.8%). Relatively high contents of PBDEs were observed in SSs from the upstream section. Deca-BDE commercial formulations constituted the largest contribution (33.6%) to PBDEs in the SSs, followed by Penta-BDE commercial formulations (21.7%) and Octa-BDE commercial formulations (13.2%). Each of the components in the SSs contributes positively to PBDEs' adsorption. Synergism of Fe oxides and OMs was observed in the PBDEs' adsorption. The interactions of Mn oxides and other components inhibited the PBDEs' adsorption onto SSs, and the antagonism in the BDE-209 adsorption was stronger than other Σ7PBDEs (BDE-28, 47, 99, 100, 153, 154 and 183). However, the synergism observed in the Σ7PBDEs adsorption was stronger than BDE-209. The BDE-209 in SSs mainly came from Deca-BDE commercial formulations. The adsorption of PBDEs onto SSs was affected by the octanol-water coefficient (Kow) of the PBDEs' congeners and the components of the SSs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ting Wang
- Resources and Environmental Research Academy, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China; State Key Laboratory of Environmental Criteria and Risk Assessment, Chinese Research Academy of Environment Sciences, Beijing 100012, China
| | - Shanshan Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Louisville, Louisville KY 40292, United States
| | - Chen Zhang
- Resources and Environmental Research Academy, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China
| | - Yu Li
- Resources and Environmental Research Academy, North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China.
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