Cell-Based Delivery of Interleukin-13 Directs Alternative Activation of Macrophages Resulting in Improved Functional Outcome after Spinal Cord Injury

Amelioration of functional and histopathological consequences after spinal cord injury through phosphodiesterase 4D (PDE4D) inhibition

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a life-changing event that severely impacts the patient's quality of life. Modulating neuroinflammation, which exacerbates the primary injury, and stimulating neuro-regenerative repair mechanisms are key strategies to improve functional recovery. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is a second messenger crucially involved in both processes. Following SCI, intracellular levels of cAMP are known to decrease over time. Therefore, preventing cAMP degradation represents a promising strategy to suppress inflammation while stimulating regeneration. Intracellular cAMP levels are controlled by its hydrolyzing enzymes phosphodiesterases (PDEs). The PDE4 family is most abundantly expressed in the central nervous system (CNS) and its inhibition has been shown to be therapeutically relevant for managing SCI pathology. Unfortunately, the use of full PDE4 inhibitors at therapeutic doses is associated with severe emetic side effects, hampering their translation toward clinical applications. Therefore, in this study, we evaluated the effect of inhibiting specific PDE4 subtypes (PDE4B and PDE4D) on inflammatory and regenerative processes following SCI, as inhibitors selective for these subtypes have been demonstrated to be well-tolerated. We reveal that administration of the PDE4D inhibitor Gebr32a, even when starting 2 dpi, but not the PDE4B inhibitor A33, improved functional as well as histopathological outcomes after SCI, comparable to results obtained with the full PDE4 inhibitor roflumilast. Furthermore, using a luminescent human iPSC-derived neurospheroid model, we show that PDE4D inhibition stabilizes neural viability by preventing apoptosis and stimulating neuronal differentiation. These findings strongly suggest that specific PDE4D inhibition offers a novel therapeutic approach for SCI.

Inhibition of CD44 suppresses the formation of fibrotic scar after spinal cord injury via the JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway

Fibrotic scar is one of the main impediments to axon regeneration following spinal cord injury (SCI). In this study, we found that CD44 was upregulated during the formation of fibrotic scar, and blocking CD44 by IM7 caused downregulation of fibrosis-related extracellular matrix proteins at both 2 and 12 weeks post-spinal cord injury. More Biotinylated dextran amine (BDA)-traced corticospinal tract axons crossed the scar area and extended into the distal region after IM7 administration. A recovery of motor and sensory function was observed based on Basso Mouse Scale (BMS) scores and tail-flick test. In vitro experiments revealed that inhibiting CD44 and JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway decreased the proliferation, differentiation, and migration of fibroblasts induced by the inflammatory supernatant. Collectively, these findings highlight the critical role of CD44 and its downstream JAK2/STAT3 signaling pathway in fibrotic scar formation, suggesting a potential therapeutic target for SCI.

Macrophage polarization in spinal cord injury repair and the possible role of microRNAs: A review

The prevention, treatment, and rehabilitation of spinal cord injury (SCI) have always posed significant medical challenges. After mechanical injury, disturbances in microcirculation, edema formation, and the generation of free radicals lead to additional damage, impeding effective repair processes and potentially exacerbating further dysfunction. In this context, inflammatory responses, especially the activation of macrophages, play a pivotal role. Different phenotypes of macrophages have distinct effects on inflammation. Activation of classical macrophage cells (M1) promotes inflammation, while activation of alternative macrophage cells (M2) inhibits inflammation. The polarization of macrophages is crucial for disease healing. A non-coding RNA, known as microRNA (miRNA), governs the polarization of macrophages, thereby reducing inflammation following SCI and facilitating functional recovery. This study elucidates the inflammatory response to SCI, focusing on the infiltration of immune cells, specifically macrophages. It examines their phenotype and provides an explanation of their polarization mechanisms. Finally, this paper introduces several well-known miRNAs that contribute to macrophage polarization following SCI, including miR-155, miR-130a, and miR-27 for M1 polarization, as well as miR-22, miR-146a, miR-21, miR-124, miR-223, miR-93, miR-132, and miR-34a for M2 polarization. The emphasis is placed on their potential therapeutic role in SCI by modulating macrophage polarization, as well as the present developments and obstacles of miRNA clinical therapy.

ThermoCyte: an inexpensive open-source temperature control system for in vitro live-cell imaging

Live-cell imaging is a common technique in microscopy to investigate dynamic cellular behaviour and permits the accurate and relevant analysis of a wide range of cellular and tissue parameters, such as motility, cell division, wound healing responses and calcium (Ca2+) signalling in cell lines, primary cell cultures and ex vivo preparations. Furthermore, this can occur under many experimental conditions, making live-cell imaging indispensable for biological research. Systems which maintain cells at physiological conditions outside of a CO2 incubator are often bulky, expensive and use proprietary components. Here we present an inexpensive, open-source temperature control system for in vitro live-cell imaging. Our system 'ThermoCyte', which is constructed from standard electronic components, enables precise tuning, control and logging of a temperature 'set point' for imaging cells at physiological temperature. We achieved stable thermal dynamics, with reliable temperature cycling and a standard deviation of 0.42°C over 1 h. Furthermore, the device is modular in nature and is adaptable to the researcher's specific needs. This represents simple, inexpensive and reliable tool for laboratories to carry out custom live-cell imaging protocols, on a standard laboratory bench, at physiological temperature.

An In Vitro and Ex Vivo Analysis of the Potential of GelMA Hydrogels as a Therapeutic Platform for Preclinical Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition with no curative therapy currently available. Immunomodulation can be applied as a therapeutic strategy to drive alternative immune cell activation and promote a proregenerative injury microenvironment. Locally injected hydrogels carrying immunotherapeutic cargo directly to injured tissue offer an encouraging treatment approach from an immunopharmacological perspective. Gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) hydrogels are promising in this regard, however, detailed analysis on the immunogenicity of GelMA in the specific context of the SCI microenvironment is lacking. Here, the immunogenicity of GelMA hydrogels formulated with a translationally relevant photoinitiator is analyzed in vitro and ex vivo. 3% (w/v) GelMA, synthesized from gelatin type-A, is first identified as the optimal hydrogel formulation based on mechanical properties and cytocompatibility. Additionally, 3% GelMA-A does not alter the expression profile of key polarization markers in BV2 microglia or RAW264.7 macrophages after 48 h. Finally, it is shown for the first time that 3% GelMA-A can support the ex vivo culture of primary murine organotypic spinal cord slices for 14 days with no direct effect on glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP+ ) astrocyte or ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1+ ) microglia reactivity. This provides evidence that GelMA hydrogels can act as an immunotherapeutic hydrogel-based platform for preclinical SCI.

Effects of Recombinant IL-13 Treatment on Gut Microbiota Composition and Functional Recovery after Hemisection Spinal Cord Injury in Mice

In recent years, the gut-central nervous system axis has emerged as a key factor in the pathophysiology of spinal cord injury (SCI). Interleukin-13 (IL-13) has been shown to have anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects in SCI. The aim of this study was to investigate the changes in microbiota composition after hemisection injury and to determine whether systemic recombinant (r)IL-13 treatment could alter the gut microbiome, indirectly promoting functional recovery. The gut microbiota composition was determined by 16S rRNA gene sequencing, and correlations between gut microbiota alterations and functional recovery were assessed. Our results showed that there were no changes in alpha diversity between the groups before and after SCI, while PERMANOVA analysis for beta diversity showed significant differences in fecal microbial communities. Phylogenetic classification of bacterial families revealed a lower abundance of the Bacteroidales S24-7 group and a higher abundance of Lachnospiraceae and Lactobacillaceae in the post-SCI group. Systemic rIL-13 treatment improved functional recovery 28 days post-injury and microbiota analysis revealed increased relative abundance of Clostridiales vadin BB60 and Acetitomaculum and decreased Anaeroplasma, Ruminiclostridium_6, and Ruminococcus compared to controls. Functional assessment with PICRUSt showed that genes related to glyoxylate cycle and palmitoleate biosynthesis-I were the predominant signatures in the rIL-13-treated group, whereas sulfolactate degradation super pathway and formaldehyde assimilation-I were enriched in controls. In conclusion, our results indicate that rIL-13 treatment promotes changes in gut microbial communities and may thereby contribute indirectly to the improvement of functional recovery in mice, possibly having important implications for the development of novel treatment options for SCI.

Early-phase rotator training impairs tissue repair and functional recovery after spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating disorder that often results in severe sensorimotor function impairment with limited recovery of function. In recent years, rehabilitation training for spinal cord injury has gradually emerged, and some of them play an important role in the repair of spinal cord injury However, the optimal training regimen for SCI remains to be determined. In this study, we explore the effects of rotarod training (began at 7 days post-injury) on the recovery of motor function after SCI, as well as its possible repair mechanism from the aspects of function and histopathological changes, the behaviors of specific trophic factors and cytokines, and the expression profile of specific genes. Multiple functional assessments showed that rotarod training initiated at 7 days post-injury is unsuitable for promoting neuro-electrophysiological improvement and trunk stability, but impaired functional coordination and motor recovery. In addition, rotarod training has negative effects on spinal cord repair after SCI, which is manifested as an increase of lesion area, a decrease in neuronal viability, a deterioration in immuno-microenvironment and remyelination, a significant reduction in the expression of trophic factors and an increase in the expression of pro-inflammatory factors. RNA sequencing suggested that the genes associated with angiogenesis and synaptogenesis were significantly downregulated and the PI3K-AKT pathway was inhibited, which was detrimental to spinal cord repair and impeded nerve regeneration. These results indicate that immediate rotarod training after SCI is currently unsuitable for rehabilitation in mice.

Therapeutic administration of mouse mast cell protease 6 improves functional recovery after traumatic spinal cord injury in mice by promoting remyelination and reducing glial scar formation

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) most often leads to permanent paralysis due to the inability of axons to regenerate in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS). In the past, we have shown that mast cells (MCs) improve the functional outcome after SCI by suppressing scar tissue formation at the lesion site via mouse mast cell protease 6 (mMCP6). In this study, we investigated whether recombinant mMCP6 can be used therapeutically to improve the functional outcome after SCI. Therefore, we applied mMCP6 locally via an intrathecal catheter in the subacute phase after a spinal cord hemisection injury in mice. Our findings showed that hind limb motor function was significantly improved in mice that received recombinant mMCP6 compared with the vehicle-treated group. In contrast to our previous findings in mMCP6 knockout mice, the lesion size and expression levels of the scar components fibronectin, laminin, and axon-growth-inhibitory chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans were not affected by the treatment with recombinant mMCP6. Surprisingly, no difference in infiltration of CD4+ T cells and reactivity of Iba-1+ microglia/macrophages at the lesion site was observed between the mMCP6-treated mice and control mice. Additionally, local protein levels of the pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators IL-1β, IL-2, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, TNF-α, IFNγ, and MCP-1 were comparable between the two treatment groups, indicating that locally applied mMCP6 did not affect inflammatory processes after injury. However, the increase in locomotor performance in mMCP6-treated mice was accompanied by reduced demyelination and astrogliosis in the perilesional area after SCI. Consistently, we found that TNF-α/IL-1β-astrocyte activation was decreased and that oligodendrocyte precursor cell (OPC) differentiation was increased after recombinant mMCP6 treatment in vitro. Mechanistically, this suggests effects of mMCP6 on reducing astrogliosis and improving (re)myelination in the spinal cord after injury. In conclusion, these data show for the first time that recombinant mMCP6 is therapeutically active in enhancing recovery after SCI.

Cell transplantation therapies for spinal cord injury focusing on bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells: Advances and challenges

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition with complex pathological mechanisms that lead to sensory, motor, and autonomic dysfunction below the site of injury. To date, no effective therapy is available for the treatment of SCI. Recently, bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSCs) have been considered to be the most promising source for cellular therapies following SCI. The objective of the present review is to summarize the most recent insights into the cellular and molecular mechanism using BMMSC therapy to treat SCI. In this work, we review the specific mechanism of BMMSCs in SCI repair mainly from the following aspects: Neuroprotection, axon sprouting and/or regeneration, myelin regeneration, inhibitory microenvironments, glial scar formation, immunomodulation, and angiogenesis. Additionally, we summarize the latest evidence on the application of BMMSCs in clinical trials and further discuss the challenges and future directions for stem cell therapy in SCI models.

Recent Advances in Biomaterials-Based Therapies for Alleviation and Regeneration of Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a major public health problem accompanied with numerous complications, usually leads to serve disability and huge financial burden. The adverse and unfavorable pathological environment triggers a series of secondary injuries, resulting in serious loss of nerve function and huge obstacle of endogenous nerve regeneration. With the advances in adaptive tissue regeneration biomaterials, regulation of detrimental microenvironment to reduce the secondary injury and to promote the neurogenesis becomes possible. The adaptive biomaterials could respond and regulate biochemical, cellular, and physiological events in the secondary injury, including excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation, to rebuild circumstances suitable for regeneration. In this review, the development of pathology after TBI is discussed, followed by the introduction of adaptive biomaterials based on various pathological characteristics. The adaptive biomaterials carried with neurotrophic factors and stem cells for TBI treatment are then summarized. Finally, the current drawbacks and future perspective of biomaterials for TBI treatment are suggested.

Motor rehabilitation as a therapeutic tool for spinal cord injury: New perspectives in immunomodulation

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) is a devastating condition that significantly impacts motor, sensory and autonomic function in patients. Despite advances in therapeutic approaches, there is still no curative therapy currently available. Neuroinflammation is a persisting event of the secondary injury phase of SCI that affects functional recovery, and modulation of the inflammatory response towards a beneficial anti-inflammatory state can improve recovery in preclinical SCI models. In human SCI patients, rehabilitative exercise, or motor rehabilitation as we will refer to it from here on out, remains the cornerstone of treatment to increase functional capacity and prevent secondary health implications. Motor rehabilitation is known to have anti-inflammatory effects; however, current literature is lacking in the description of the effect of motor rehabilitation on inflammation in the context of SCI. Understanding the effect on different inflammatory markers after SCI should enable the optimization of motor rehabilitation as a therapeutic regime. This review extensively describes the effect of motor rehabilitation on selected inflammatory mediators in both preclinical and human SCI studies. Additionally, we summarize how the type, duration, and intensity of motor rehabilitation can affect the inflammatory response after SCI. In doing so, we introduce a new perspective on how motor rehabilitation can be optimized as an immunomodulatory therapy to improve patient outcome after SCI.

Advanced Therapies for Traumatic Central Nervous System Injury: Delivery Strategy Reinforced Efficient Microglial Manipulation

Traumatic central nervous system (CNS) injuries, including spinal cord injury and traumatic brain injury, are challenging enemies of human health. Microglia, the main component of the innate immune system in CNS, can be activated postinjury and are key participants in the pathological procedure and development of CNS trauma. Activated microglia can be typically classified into pro-inflammatory (M1) and anti-inflammatory (M2) phenotypes. Reducing M1 polarization while promoting M2 polarization is thought to be promising for CNS injury treatment. However, obstacles such as the low permeability of the blood-brain barrier and short retention time in circulation limit the therapeutic outcomes of administrated drugs, and rational delivery strategies are necessary for efficient microglial regulation. To this end, proper administration methods and delivery systems like nano/microcarriers and scaffolds are investigated to augment the therapeutic effects of drugs, while some of these delivery systems have self-efficacies in microglial manipulation. Besides, systems based on cell and cell-derived exosomes also show impressive effects, and some underlying targeting mechanisms of these delivery systems have been discovered. In this review, we introduce the roles of microglia play in traumatic CNS injuries, discuss the potential targets for the polarization regulation of microglial phenotype, and summarize recent studies and clinical trials about delivery strategies on enhancing the effect of microglial regulation and therapeutic outcome, as well as targeting mechanisms post CNS trauma.

Mesenchymal stem cells for regenerative medicine in central nervous system

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are multipotent stem cells, whose paracrine and immunomodulatory potential has made them a promising candidate for central nervous system (CNS) regeneration. Numerous studies have demonstrated that MSCs can promote immunomodulation, anti-apoptosis, and axon re-extension, which restore functional neural circuits. The therapeutic effects of MSCs have consequently been evaluated for application in various CNS diseases including spinal cord injury, cerebral ischemia, and neurodegenerative disease. In this review, we will focus on the research works published in the field of mechanisms and therapeutic effects of MSCs in CNS regeneration.

Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Approaches for Spinal Cord Injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a disabling condition that disrupts motor, sensory, and autonomic functions. Despite extensive research in the last decades, SCI continues to be a global health priority affecting thousands of individuals every year. The lack of effective therapeutic strategies for patients with SCI reflects its complex pathophysiology that leads to the point of no return in its function repair and regeneration capacity. Recently, however, several studies started to uncover the intricate network of mechanisms involved in SCI leading to the development of new therapeutic approaches. In this work, we present a detailed description of the physiology and anatomy of the spinal cord and the pathophysiology of SCI. Additionally, we provide an overview of different molecular strategies that demonstrate promising potential in the modulation of the secondary injury events that promote neuroprotection or neuroregeneration. We also briefly discuss other emerging therapies, including cell-based therapies, biomaterials, and epidural electric stimulation. A successful therapy might target different pathologic events to control the progression of secondary damage of SCI and promote regeneration leading to functional recovery.

Edaravone Modulates Neuronal GPX4/ACSL4/5-LOX to Promote Recovery After Spinal Cord Injury

The FDA-approved drug edaravone has a neuroprotective effect on spinal cord injury (SCI) and many other central nervous system diseases. However, its molecular mechanism remains unclear. Since edaravone is a lipid peroxidation scavenger, we hypothesize that edaravone exerts its neuroprotective effect by inhibiting ferroptosis in SCI. Edaravone treatment after SCI upregulates glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and system Xc-light chain (xCT), which are anti-ferroptosis proteins. It downregulates pro-ferroptosis proteins Acyl-CoA synthetase long-chain family member 4 (ACSL4) and 5-lipoxygenase (5-LOX). The most significant changes in edaravone treatment occur in the acute phase, two days post injury. Edaravone modulates neuronal GPX4/ACSL4/5-LOX in the spinal segment below the lesion, which is critical for maintaining locomotion. Moreover, the GPX4/ACSL4/5-LOX in motor neuron is also modulated by edaravone in the spinal cord. Therefore, secondary injury below the lesion site is reversed by edaravone via ferroptosis inhibition. The cytokine array revealed that edaravone upregulated some anti-inflammatory cytokines such as IL-10, IL-13, and adiponectin. Edaravone reduced microgliosis and astrogliosis, indicating reduced neuroinflammation. Edaravone has a long-term effect on neuronal survival, spinal cord tissue sparing, and motor function recovery. In summary, we revealed a novel mechanism of edaravone in inhibiting neuronal ferroptosis in SCI. This mechanism may be generalizable to other neurological diseases.

Macrophage-based delivery of interleukin-13 improves functional and histopathological outcomes following spinal cord injury

BACKGROUND

Spinal cord injury (SCI) elicits a robust neuroinflammatory reaction which, in turn, exacerbates the initial mechanical damage. Pivotal players orchestrating this response are macrophages (Mφs) and microglia. After SCI, the inflammatory environment is dominated by pro-inflammatory Mφs/microglia, which contribute to secondary cell death and prevent regeneration. Therefore, reprogramming Mφ/microglia towards a more anti-inflammatory and potentially neuroprotective phenotype has gained substantial therapeutic interest in recent years. Interleukin-13 (IL-13) is a potent inducer of such an anti-inflammatory phenotype. In this study, we used genetically modified Mφs as carriers to continuously secrete IL-13 (IL-13 Mφs) at the lesion site.

METHODS

Mφs were genetically modified to secrete IL-13 (IL-13 Mφs) and were phenotypically characterized using qPCR, western blot, and ELISA. To analyze the therapeutic potential, the IL-13 Mφs were intraspinally injected at the perilesional area after hemisection SCI in female mice. Functional recovery and histopathological improvements were evaluated using the Basso Mouse Scale score and immunohistochemistry. Neuroprotective effects of IL-13 were investigated using different cell viability assays in murine and human neuroblastoma cell lines, human neurospheroids, as well as murine organotypic brain slice cultures.

RESULTS

In contrast to Mφs prestimulated with recombinant IL-13, perilesional transplantation of IL-13 Mφs promoted functional recovery following SCI in mice. This improvement was accompanied by reduced lesion size and demyelinated area. The local anti-inflammatory shift induced by IL-13 Mφs resulted in reduced neuronal death and fewer contacts between dystrophic axons and Mφs/microglia, suggesting suppression of axonal dieback. Using IL-4Rα-deficient mice, we show that IL-13 signaling is required for these beneficial effects. Whereas direct neuroprotective effects of IL-13 on murine and human neuroblastoma cell lines or human neurospheroid cultures were absent, IL-13 rescued murine organotypic brain slices from cell death, probably by indirectly modulating the Mφ/microglia responses.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, our data suggest that the IL-13-induced anti-inflammatory Mφ/microglia phenotype can preserve neuronal tissue and ameliorate axonal dieback, thereby promoting recovery after SCI.

Comparing the Efficacy and Safety of Cell Transplantation for Spinal Cord Injury: A Systematic Review and Bayesian Network Meta-Analysis

Objective

To compare the safety and effectiveness of transplanted cells from different sources for spinal cord injury (SCI).

Design

A systematic review and Bayesian network meta-analysis.

Data Sources

Medline, Embase, and the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials.

Study Selection

We included randomized controlled trials, case–control studies, and case series related to cell transplantation for SCI patients, that included at least 1 of the following outcome measures: American Spinal Cord Injury Association (ASIA) Impairment Scale (AIS grade), ASIA motor score, ASIA sensory score, the Functional Independence Measure score (FIM), International Association of Neurorestoratology Spinal Cord Injury Functional Rating Scale (IANR-SCIFRS), or adverse events. Follow-up data were analyzed at 6 and 12 months.

Results

Forty-four eligible trials, involving 1,266 patients, investigated 6 treatments: olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), neural stem cells/ neural progenitor cells (NSCs), mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), Schwann cells, macrophages, and combinations of cells (MSCs plus Schwann cells). Macrophages improved the AIS grade at 12 months (mean 0.42, 95% credible interval: 0–0.91, low certainty) and FIM score at 12 months (42.83, 36.33–49.18, very low certainty). MSCs improved the AIS grade at 6 months (0.42, 0.15–0.73, moderate certainty), the motor score at 6 months (4.43, 0.91–7.78, moderate certainty), light touch at 6 (10.01, 5.81–13.88, moderate certainty) and 12 months (11.48, 6.31–16.64, moderate certainty), pinprick score at 6 (14.54, 9.76–19.46, moderate certainty) and 12 months (12.48, 7.09–18.12, moderate certainty), and the IANR-SCIFRS at 6 (3.96, 0.62–6.97, moderate certainty) and 12 months (5.54, 2.45–8.42, moderate certainty). OECs improved the FIM score at 6 months (9.35, 1.71–17.00, moderate certainty). No intervention improved the motor score significantly at 12 months. The certainty of other interventions was low or very low. Overall, the number of adverse events associated with transplanted cells was low.

Conclusions

Patients with SCI who receive transplantation of macrophages, MSCs, NSCs, or OECs may have improved disease prognosis. MSCs are the primary recommendations. Further exploration of the mechanism of cell transplantation in the treatment of SCI, transplantation time window, transplantation methods, and monitoring of the number of transplanted cells and cell survival is needed.

Systematic Review Registration

https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/#recordDetails, identifier: CRD 42021282043.

Transmembrane protein 119 is neither a specific nor a reliable marker for microglia

Microglia are the resident innate immune cells of the central nervous system (CNS) parenchyma. To determine the impact of microglia on disease development and progression in neurodegenerative and neuroinflammatory diseases, it is essential to distinguish microglia from peripheral macrophages/monocytes, which are eventually equally recruited. It has been suggested that transmembrane protein 119 (TMEM119) serves as a reliable microglia marker that discriminates resident microglia from blood-derived macrophages in the human and murine brain. Here, we investigated the validity of TMEM119 as a microglia marker in four in vivo models (cuprizone intoxication, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), permanent filament middle cerebral artery occlusion (fMCAo), and intracerebral 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) injections) as well as post mortem multiple sclerosis (MS) brain tissues. In all applied animal models and post mortem MS tissues, we found increased densities of ionized calcium-binding adapter molecule 1⁺ (IBA1⁺ ) cells, paralleled by a significant decrease in TMEM119 expression. In addition, other cell types in peripheral tissues (i.e., follicular dendritic cells and brown adipose tissue) were also found to express TMEM119. In summary, this study demonstrates that TMEM119 is not exclusively expressed by microglia nor does it label all microglia, especially under cellular stress conditions. Since novel transgenic lines have been developed to label microglia using the TMEM119 promotor, downregulation of TMEM119 expression might interfere with the results and should, thus, be considered when working with these transgenic mouse models.

3D spheroids of human placenta-derived mesenchymal stem cells attenuate spinal cord injury in mice

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) is an absorbing candidate for cell therapy in treating spinal cord injury (SCI) due to its great potential for multiple cell differentiation, mighty paracrine secretion as well as vigorous immunomodulatory effect, of which are beneficial to the improvement of functional recovery post SCI. However, the therapeutic effects of MSC on SCI have been limited because of the gradual loss of MSC stemness in the process of expanding culture. Therefore, in this study, we aimed to maintain those beneficial properties of MSC via three-dimensional spheroid cell culture and then compared them with conventionally-cultured MSCs in the treatment of SCI both in vitro and in vivo with the aid of two-photon microscope. We found that 3D human placenta-derived MSCs (3D-HPMSCs) demonstrated a significant increase in secretion of anti-inflammatory factors and trophic factors like VEGF, PDGF, FGF via QPCR and Bio-Plex assays, and showed great potentials on angiogenesis and neurite morphogenesis when co-cultured with HUVECs or DRGs in vitro. After transplantation into the injured spinal cord, 3D-HPMSCs managed to survive for the entire experiment and retained their advantageous properties in secretion, and exhibited remarkable effects on neuroprotection by minimizing the lesion cavity, inhibiting the inflammation and astrogliosis, and promoting angiogenesis. Further investigation of axonal dieback via two-photon microscope indicated that 3D-HPMSCs could effectively alleviate axonal dieback post injury. Further, mice only treated with 3D-HPMSCs obtained substantial improvement of functional recovery on electrophysiology, BMS score, and Catwalk analysis. RNA sequencing suggested that the 3D-HPMSCs structure organization-related gene was significantly changed, which was likely to potentiate the angiogenesis and inflammation regulation after SCI. These results suggest that 3D-HPMSCs may hold great potential for the treatment of SCI.

Functional hydrogels as therapeutic tools for spinal cord injury: New perspectives on immunopharmacological interventions

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a complex medical and psychological challenge for which there is no curative therapy currently available. Despite major progress in pharmacological and surgical approaches, clinical trials for SCI patients have been uniformly disappointing thus far as there are many practical and biological issues yet to be resolved. Neuroinflammation is a critical event of the secondary injury phase after SCI, and recent research strategies have focused on modulating the immune response after injury to provide a more favorable recovery environment. Biomaterials can serve this purpose by providing physical and trophic support to the injured spinal cord after SCI. Of all potential biomaterials, functional hydrogels are emerging as a key component in novel treatment strategies for SCI, including controlled and localized delivery of immunomodulatory therapies to drive polarization of immune cells towards a pro-regenerative phenotype. Here, we extensively review recent developments in the use of functional hydrogels as immunomodulatory therapies for SCI. We briefly describe physicochemical properties of hydrogels and demonstrate how advanced fabrication methods lead to the required heterogeneity and hierarchical arrangements that increasingly mimic complex spinal cord tissue. We then summarize potential SCI therapeutic modalities including: (i) hydrogels alone; (ii) hydrogels as cellular or (iii) bioactive molecule delivery vehicles, and; (iv) combinatorial approaches. By linking the structural properties of hydrogels to their functions in treatment with particular focus on immunopharmacological stimuli, this may accelerate further development of functional hydrogels for SCI, and indeed next-generation central nervous system regenerative therapies.

Stem Cell Secretome for Spinal Cord Repair: Is It More than Just a Random Baseline Set of Factors?

Hundreds of thousands of people suffer spinal cord injuries each year. The experimental application of stem cells following spinal cord injury has opened a new era to promote neuroprotection and neuroregeneration of damaged tissue. Currently, there is great interest in the intravenous administration of the secretome produced by mesenchymal stem cells in acute or subacute spinal cord injuries. However, it is important to highlight that undifferentiated neural stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells are able to adapt to the damaged environment and produce the so-called lesion-induced secretome. This review article focuses on current research related to the secretome and the lesion-induced secretome and their roles in modulating spinal cord injury symptoms and functional recovery, emphasizing different compositions of the lesion-induced secretome in various models of spinal cord injury.

Comparison of the Cytokine Profile in Mesenchymal Stem Cells from Human Adipose, Umbilical Cord, and Placental Tissues

Human mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can be isolated from various tissues. However, the cytokine profile in different MSC types remains unclear. In this study, MSCs were extracted from adipose, umbilical cord, and placental tissues. The surface marker expression, multilineage differentiation potential, and cytokine secretion of these cells were compared. The isolated MSCs exhibited similar morphology and surface marker expression. However, they differed with regard to their differentiation potential. Adipose-MSCs (A-MSCs) exhibited a higher potential for adipogenesis and osteogenic differentiation compared with umbilical cord-MSCs (UC-MSCs) and placental-MSCs (P-MSCs). The expression levels of 80 cytokines were detected, and the data demonstrated that the three MSC types abundantly secreted insulin-like growth factor-binding protein (IGFBP)-4, IGFBP-3, tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase (TIMP)-1, TIMP-2, IGFBP-6, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor. However, the expression levels of vascular endothelial growth factor, tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin (IL)-6 receptor, and IL-13 in A-MSCs were higher compared with those of UC-MSCs and P-MSCs. Moreover, the expression levels of intercellular adhesion molecule-1 and growth differentiation factor 15 were lower in A-MSCs. Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analysis indicated that the "adipocytokine" and the "PI3K/Akt pathways" were enriched in A-MSCs. Taken together, the results demonstrated that MSCs from different sources exhibited differences in the secretion of specific factors. A-MSCs were associated with the expression of several proangiogenic factors and may be an improved source for angiogenesis and tissue regeneration.

Macrophage phagocytosis after spinal cord injury: when friends become foes

After spinal cord injury (SCI), macrophages can exert either beneficial or detrimental effects depending on their phenotype. Aside from their critical role in inflammatory responses, macrophages are also specialized in the recognition, engulfment, and degradation of pathogens, apoptotic cells, and tissue debris. They promote remyelination and axonal regeneration by removing inhibitory myelin components and cellular debris. However, excessive intracellular presence of lipids and dysregulated intracellular lipid homeostasis result in the formation of foamy macrophages. These develop a pro-inflammatory phenotype that may contribute to further neurological decline. Additionally, myelin-activated macrophages play a crucial role in axonal dieback and retraction. Here, we review the opposing functional consequences of phagocytosis by macrophages in SCI, including remyelination and regeneration versus demyelination, degeneration, and axonal dieback. Furthermore, we discuss how targeting the phagocytic ability of macrophages may have therapeutic potential for the treatment of SCI.

The Protein Kinase Inhibitor Midostaurin Improves Functional Neurological Recovery and Attenuates Inflammatory Changes Following Traumatic Cervical Spinal Cord Injury

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) impairs neuronal function and introduces a complex cascade of secondary pathologies that limit recovery. Despite decades of preclinical and clinical research, there is a shortage of efficacious treatment options to modulate the secondary response to injury. Protein kinases are crucial signaling molecules that mediate the secondary SCI-induced cellular response and present promising therapeutic targets. The objective of this study was to examine the safety and efficacy of midostaurin—a clinically-approved multi-target protein kinase inhibitor—on cervical SCI pathogenesis. High-throughput analyses demonstrated that intraperitoneal midostaurin injection (25 mg/kg) in C6/7 injured Wistar rats altered the local inflammasome and downregulated adhesive and migratory genes at 24 h post-injury. Treated animals also exhibited enhanced recovery and restored coordination between forelimbs and hindlimbs after injury, indicating the synergistic impact of midostaurin and its dimethyl sulfoxide vehicle to improve functional recovery. Furthermore, histological analyses suggested improved tissue preservation and functionality in the treated animals during the chronic phase of injury. This study serves as a proof-of-concept experiment and demonstrates that systemic midostaurin administration is an effective strategy for mitigating cervical secondary SCI damage.

Mechanism of mesenchymal stem cells in spinal cord injury repair through macrophage polarization

Treatment and rehabilitation of spinal cord injury (SCI) is a major problem in clinical medicine. Modern medicine has achieved minimal progress in improving the functions of injured nerves in patients with SCI, mainly due to the complex pathophysiological changes that present after injury. Inflammatory reactions occurring after SCI are related to various functions of immune cells over time at different injury sites. Macrophages are important mediators of inflammatory reactions and are divided into two different subtypes (M1 and M2), which play important roles at different times after SCI. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are characterized by multi-differentiation and immunoregulatory potentials, and different treatments can have different effects on macrophage polarization. MSC transplantation has become a promising method for eliminating nerve injury caused by SCI and can help repair injured nerve tissues. Therapeutic effects are related to the induced formation of specific immune microenvironments, caused by influencing macrophage polarization, controlling the consequences of secondary injury after SCI, and assisting with function recovery. Herein, we review the mechanisms whereby MSCs affect macrophage-induced specific immune microenvironments, and discuss potential avenues of investigation for improving SCI treatment.

Stem Cell Therapy for Spinal Cord Injury

Traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI) results in direct and indirect damage to neural tissues, which results in motor and sensory dysfunction, dystonia, and pathological reflex that ultimately lead to paraplegia or tetraplegia. A loss of cells, axon regeneration failure, and time-sensitive pathophysiology make tissue repair difficult. Despite various medical developments, there are currently no effective regenerative treatments. Stem cell therapy is a promising treatment for SCI due to its multiple targets and reactivity benefits. The present review focuses on SCI stem cell therapy, including bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells, umbilical mesenchymal stem cells, adipose-derived mesenchymal stem cells, neural stem cells, neural progenitor cells, embryonic stem cells, induced pluripotent stem cells, and extracellular vesicles. Each cell type targets certain features of SCI pathology and shows therapeutic effects via cell replacement, nutritional support, scaffolds, and immunomodulation mechanisms. However, many preclinical studies and a growing number of clinical trials found that single-cell treatments had only limited benefits for SCI. SCI damage is multifaceted, and there is a growing consensus that a combined treatment is needed.

Müller glia-myeloid cell crosstalk accelerates optic nerve regeneration in the adult zebrafish

Neurodegenerative disorders, characterized by progressive neuronal loss, eventually lead to functional impairment in the adult mammalian central nervous system (CNS). Importantly, these deteriorations are irreversible, due to the very limited regenerative potential of these CNS neurons. Stimulating and redirecting neuroinflammation was recently put forward as an important approach to induce axonal regeneration, but it remains elusive how inflammatory processes and CNS repair are intertwined. To gain more insight into these interactions, we investigated how immunomodulation affects the regenerative outcome after optic nerve crush (ONC) in the spontaneously regenerating zebrafish. First, inducing intraocular inflammation using zymosan resulted in an acute inflammatory response, characterized by an increased infiltration and proliferation of innate blood-borne immune cells, reactivation of Müller glia, and altered retinal cytokine expression. Strikingly, inflammatory stimulation also accelerated axonal regrowth after optic nerve injury. Second, we demonstrated that acute depletion of both microglia and macrophages in the retina, using pharmacological treatments with both the CSF1R inhibitor PLX3397 and clodronate liposomes, compromised optic nerve regeneration. Moreover, we observed that csf1ra/b double mutant fish, lacking microglia in both retina and brain, displayed accelerated RGC axonal regrowth after ONC, which was accompanied with unusual Müller glia proliferative gliosis. Altogether, our results highlight the importance of altered glial cell interactions in the axonal regeneration process after ONC in adult zebrafish. Unraveling the relative contribution of the different cell types, as well as the signaling pathways involved, may pinpoint new targets to stimulate repair in the vertebrate CNS.

Functional consequences of a close encounter between microglia and brain-infiltrating monocytes during CNS pathology and repair

Neuroinflammation is recognized as an important factor contributing to the development and progression of several central nervous system (CNS) disorders. Upon CNS trauma or disease, parenchymal microglia highly proliferate and accumulate in and around the lesion site. In addition, blood-derived monocytes can infiltrate the inflamed CNS in response to cellular damage and/or a compromised blood-brain barrier. Both microglia and infiltrating monocytes are characterized by multiple functional states and can either display highly proinflammatory properties or promote resolution of inflammation and tissue regeneration. Despite sharing some basic immunologic functions, microglia and monocytes display many distinctive features, which ultimately define their contribution to neuropathology. Understanding how the innate immune system participates to brain disease is imperative to identify novel treatment options for CNS inflammatory disorders. In this context, existing and newly developed in vitro platforms for disease modeling are fundamental tools to investigate and modulate microglia and monocyte immune functions within a specific neuropathologic context. In this review, we first briefly summarize the current knowledge on microglia and monocyte ontogenesis, as well as their complex and interconnected contributions to the development of various CNS pathologies. Following the well-recognized concept that both microglia and monocytes can either exert neuroprotective functions or exacerbate tissue damage, we provide a comprehensive overview of cellular models currently available for in vitro study of neuroinflammatory responses. In this context, we highlight how simplified single-cell models may not always correctly recapitulate in vivo biology, hence future research should move toward novel models with higher and multicellular complexity.

Assessment of ability of human adipose derived stem cells for long term overexpression of IL-11 and IL-13 as therapeutic cytokines

Adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) are a type of mesenchymal stem cells with the therapeutic effects that make them one of the best sources for cell therapy. In this study, we aimed to assess the ability of human ADSCs for constant expression of IL-11 and IL-13, simultaneously. In this study, the characterized hADSCs were transduced with a lentiviral vector (PCDH-513B) containing IL-11 and IL-13 genes, and the ability of long-term expression of the transgenes was evaluated by ELISA technique on days 15, 45 and 75 after transduction. Our results indicated a high rate of transduction (more than 90%) in the isolated hADSCs. Our data showed the highest rate of expression on days 75 after transduction which was 242.67 pg/ml for IL-11 and 303.6 pg/ml for IL-13 compared with 35.2 pg/ml and 35.6 pg/ml in untreated cells, respectively (p = 0.001). Besides, MTT assay showed transduction of hADSCs with lentiviral viruses containing IL-11 and IL-13 had no adverse effect on hADSCs proliferation (p-value = 0.89). Finally, we successfully constructed a hADSC population stably overexpressing IL-11 as the neurotrophic cytokine and IL-13 as the anti-inflammatory cytokine and this transduced cells can be used for further studies in EAE mice model.

Murine induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neuroimmune cell culture models emphasize opposite immune-effector functions of interleukin 13-primed microglia and macrophages in terms of neuroimmune toxicity

Cellular models of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived microglia and macrophages are an emerging toolbox to investigate neuroinflammation in vitro. We previously demonstrated that murine iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophages display phenotypical activation properties highly comparable to microglia and macrophages in vivo. Here we extended the characterization of iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophages with the analysis of their transcriptome profile. Next, these cellular models were employed to evaluate neuroimmune toxicity in vitro and to investigate the immune-modulatory properties of interleukin 13 (IL13), a cytokine known for its ability to protect against neuroinflammation-induced pathology by modulating microglia and macrophage activation. iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophages, in co-culture with astrocyte-committed neural stem cells (NSC), were (pre)treated with IL13 and stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon γ (IFNγ), to assess how IL13 modulates their inflammatory response. Additionally, the use of luciferase-expressing NSC (Luc-NSC) allowed real-time monitoring of immune-mediated neurotoxicity. Despite the known anti-inflammatory properties of IL13, iPSC-microglia primed with IL13 before LPS + IFNγ stimulation significantly increased NO secretion. This was associated with a marked reduction of the luminescence signal produced by Luc-NSC. Interestingly, we observed that IL13 signaling has a divergent functional outcome in microglia as compared to macrophages, as for the latter no major alterations in NO release and Luc-NSC viability were observed upon IL13 (pre)treatment. Finally, the striking IL13-induced upregulation of NO secretion by microglia under pro-inflammatory conditions was confirmed in vivo, where intracerebral delivery of IL13 increased inducible nitric oxide synthase mRNA expression. Concluding, we applied iPSC-derived neuroimmune cell culture models to identify distinct neuroimmune (toxicity) responses of microglia and macrophages to IL13-based immune modulation.

Neuroprotective modulation of microglia effector functions following priming with interleukin 4 and 13: current limitations in understanding their mode-of-action

In recent years the long-standing theory of microglia's properties for dual polarization towards a pro- or anti-inflammatory phenotype has been deeply challenged. Furthermore, the elucidation of microglia ontogenesis exposed intrinsic differences between microglia and peripheral myeloid cells, thereby further underscoring the need to re-evaluate microglia-specific activation behavior, especially within an inflamed central nervous system (CNS) environment. This review critically summarizes recent literature on the in vitro and in vivo response of murine microglia to the immune-modulatory cytokines interleukin 4 (IL4) and interleukin 13 (IL13), i.e. those driving the so-called anti-inflammatory phenotype. Here we highlight several pivotal factors that may influence experimental outcome and/or interpretation of in vitro and in vivo studies evaluating microglia's phenotypical and functional properties upon IL4/IL13 treatment. Finally, the current therapeutic relevance of IL4/IL13-induced microglia activation in both acute and chronic CNS disorders is discussed.

The immunoregulatory and neuroprotective effects of human adipose derived stem cells overexpressing IL-11 and IL-13 in the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis mice

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory demyelination disease in the central nervous system (CNS) characterized by incomplete endogenous remyelination in the chronic phase. A shift of the balance between pro and anti-inflammatory cytokines is one of the important markers in the pathogenesis of MS. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of human adipose derived stem cells (hADSCs) overexpressing interleukin 11 and interleukin 13 (IL-11, 13-hADSCs) on the experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of MS.12 days after immunization of C57Bl/6 female mice with MOG35-55 and initial clinical symptoms appearance, the IL-11, 13-hADSCs were injected via the tail vein into the EAE mice. Then, the mice were sacrificed at 30 days post-immunization (DPI) and the spinal cords of experimental groups were extracted for histopathological and real-time RT-PCR studies.The results indicated that the clinical scores and mononuclear cells infiltration into the spinal cords of EAE mice were significantly reduced in mice treated with IL-11, 13-hADSCs. Likewise, the remyelination and oligodendrogenesis were significantly enhanced in the mentioned treatment group. Real-time results demonstrated that pro/anti-inflammatory cytokine genes expression was reversed in IL-11, 13-hADSCs treatment group in comparison to the untreated EAE group.Expression of IL-11 as a neurotrophic cytokine and IL-13 as an anti-inflammatory cytokine by hADSCs could increase the immunomodulatory and neuroprotective effects of hADSCs and be a powerful candidate in stem cell therapy for future treatment of MS.

HDAC8 Inhibition Reduces Lesional Iba-1+ Cell Infiltration after Spinal Cord Injury without Effects on Functional Recovery

Pan-histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibition with valproic acid (VPA) has beneficial effects after spinal cord injury (SCI), although with side effects. We focused on specific HDAC8 inhibition, because it is known to reduce anti-inflammatory mediators produced by macrophages (Mφ). We hypothesized that HDAC8 inhibition improves functional recovery after SCI by reducing pro-inflammatory classically activated Mφ. Specific HDAC8 inhibition with PCI-34051 reduced the numbers of perilesional Mφ as measured by histological analyses, but did not improve functional recovery (Basso Mouse Scale). We could not reproduce the published improvement of functional recovery described in contusion SCI models using VPA in our T-cut hemisection SCI model. The presence of spared fibers might be the underlying reason for the conflicting data in different SCI models.

Evaluation of M2-like macrophage enrichment after diffuse traumatic brain injury through transient interleukin-4 expression from engineered mesenchymal stromal cells

BACKGROUND

Appropriately modulating inflammation after traumatic brain injury (TBI) may prevent disabilities for the millions of those inflicted annually. In TBI, cellular mediators of inflammation, including macrophages and microglia, possess a range of phenotypes relevant for an immunomodulatory therapeutic approach. It is thought that early phenotypic modulation of these cells will have a cascading healing effect. In fact, an anti-inflammatory, "M2-like" macrophage phenotype after TBI has been associated with neurogenesis, axonal regeneration, and improved white matter integrity (WMI). There already exist clinical trials seeking an M2-like bias through mesenchymal stem/stromal cells (MSCs). However, MSCs do not endogenously synthesize key signals that induce robust M2-like phenotypes such as interleukin-4 (IL-4).

METHODS

To enrich M2-like macrophages in a clinically relevant manner, we augmented MSCs with synthetic IL-4 mRNA to transiently express IL-4. These IL-4 expressing MSCs (IL-4 MSCs) were characterized for expression and functionality and then delivered in a modified mouse TBI model of closed head injury. Groups were assessed for functional deficits and MR imaging. Brain tissue was analyzed through flow cytometry, multi-plex ELISA, qPCR, histology, and RNA sequencing.

RESULTS

We observed that IL-4 MSCs indeed induce a robust M2-like macrophage phenotype and promote anti-inflammatory gene expression after TBI. However, here we demonstrate that acute enrichment of M2-like macrophages did not translate to improved functional or histological outcomes, or improvements in WMI on MR imaging. To further understand whether dysfunctional pathways underlie the lack of therapeutic effect, we report transcriptomic analysis of injured and treated brains. Through this, we discovered that inflammation persists despite acute enrichment of M2-like macrophages in the brain.

CONCLUSION

The results demonstrate that MSCs can be engineered to induce a stronger M2-like macrophage response in vivo. However, they also suggest that acute enrichment of only M2-like macrophages after diffuse TBI cannot orchestrate neurogenesis, axonal regeneration, or improve WMI. Here, we also discuss our modified TBI model and methods to assess severity, behavioral studies, and propose that IL-4 expressing MSCs may also have relevance in other cavitary diseases or in improving biomaterial integration into tissues.

Alternatively Polarized Macrophages Regulate the Growth and Differentiation of Ependymal Stem Cells through the SIRT2 Pathway

Ependymal stem cells (EpSCs) are dormant stem cells in the adult spinal cord that proliferate rapidly and migrate to the site of injury after spinal cord injury (SCI). Although they can differentiate into neurons under appropriate conditions in vitro, EpSCs mainly differentiate into astrocytes in vivo. Our previous study confirmed that alternatively polarized macrophages (M2) facilitate the differentiation of EpSCs towards neurons, but the detailed mechanism remains elusive. In the present study, we found that M2 conditioned medium could upregulate the expression of Sirtuin 2 (SIRT2) in EpSCs in vitro through the BDNF/TrkB-MEK/ERK signaling pathway. As an important deacetylase, SIRT2 deacetylated stable Ac-α-tubulin (Acetyl alpha Tubulin) in microtubules and thus promoted EpSC differentiation into neurons. The present study provides a theoretical basis and a new way to improve neural recovery, such as regulating the growth and differentiation of EpSCs by increasing the proportion of M2 cells in the local microenvironment or upregulating the expression of SIRT2 in EpSCs.

IL-13 Ameliorates Neuroinflammation and Promotes Functional Recovery after Traumatic Brain Injury

Microglia play essential roles in neuroinflammatory responses after traumatic brain injury (TBI). Our previous studies showed that phenotypes of microglia, as well as infiltrating macrophages, altered at different stages after CNS injury, which was correlated to functional outcomes. IL-13 is an anti-inflammatory cytokine that has been reported to protect against demyelination and spinal cord injury through immunomodulation. The effects of IL-13 in microglia/macrophage-mediated immune responses after TBI remain unknown. In this study, we showed that intranasal administration of IL-13 in male C57BL/6J mice accelerated functional recovery in the controlled cortical impact model of TBI. IL-13 treatment increased the time to fall off in the Rotarod test, reduced the number of foot faults in the foot fault test, and improved the score in the wire hang test up to 28 d after TBI. Consistent with functional improvement, IL-13 reduced neuronal tissue loss and preserved white matter integrity 6 d after TBI. Furthermore, IL-13 ameliorated the elevation of proinflammatory factors and reduced the number of proinflammatory microglia/macrophages 6 d after TBI. Additionally, IL-13 enhanced microglia/macrophage phagocytosis of damaged neurons in the peri-lesion areas. In vitro studies confirmed that IL-13 treatment inhibited the production of proinflammatory cytokines in rat primary microglia in response to LPS or dead neuron stimulation and increased the ability of microglia to engulf fluorophore-labeled latex beads or dead neurons. Collectively, we demonstrated that IL-13 treatment improved neurologic outcomes after TBI through adjusting microglia/macrophage phenotypes and inhibiting inflammatory responses. IL-13 may represent a potential immunotherapy to promote long-term recovery from TBI.

Microglial polarization in posttraumatic epilepsy: Potential mechanism and treatment opportunity

Owing to the complexity of the pathophysiological mechanisms driving epileptogenesis following traumatic brain injury (TBI), effective preventive treatment approaches are not yet available for posttraumatic epilepsy (PTE). Neuroinflammation appears to play a critical role in the pathogenesis of the acquired epilepsies, including PTE, but despite a large preclinical literature demonstrating the ability of anti-inflammatory treatments to suppress epileptogenesis and chronic seizures, no anti-inflammatory treatment approaches have been clinically proven to date. TBI triggers robust inflammatory cascades, suggesting that they may be relevant for the pathogenesis of PTE. A major cell type involved in such cascades is the microglial cells-brain-resident immune cells that become activated after brain injury. When activated, these cells can oscillate between different phenotypes, and such polarization states are associated with the release of various pro- and anti-inflammatory mediators that may influence brain repair processes, and also differentially contribute to the development of PTE. As the molecular mechanisms and key signaling molecules associated with microglial polarization in brain are discovered, strategies are now emerging that can modulate this polarization, promoting this as a potential therapeutic strategy for PTE. In this review, we discuss the relevant literature regarding the polarization of brain-resident immune cells following TBI and attempt to put into perspective a role in epilepsy pathogenesis. Finally, we explore potential strategies that could polarize microglia/macrophages toward a neuroprotective phenotype to mitigate PTE development.

Heparin-based, injectable microcarriers for controlled delivery of interleukin-13 to the brain

The anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-13 can be loaded and released from heparin-based cryogel biomaterials for sustained delivery to the brain.

Human adipose tissue- and umbilical cord-derived stem cells: which is a better alternative to treat spinal cord injury?

Multiple types of stem cells have been proposed for the treatment of spinal cord injury, but their comparative information remains elusive. In this study, a rat model of T10 contusion spinal cord injury was established by the impactor method. Human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cells (UCMSCs) or human adipose tissue-derived mesenchymal stem cells (ADMSCs) (2.5 μL/injection site, 1 × 10⁵ cells/μL) was injected on rostral and caudal of the injury segment on the ninth day after injury. Rats injected with mesenchymal stem cell culture medium were used as controls. Our results show that although transplanted UCMSCs and ADMSCs failed to differentiate into neurons or glial cells in vivo, both significantly improved motor and sensory function. After spinal cord injury, UCMSCs and ADMSCs similarly promoted spinal neuron survival and axonal regeneration, decreased glial scar and lesion cavity formation, and reduced numbers of active macrophages. Bio-Plex analysis of spinal samples showed a specific increase of interleukin-10 and decrease of tumor necrosis factor α in the ADMSC group, as well as a downregulation of macrophage inflammatory protein 3α in both UCMSC and ADMSC groups at 3 days after cell transplantation. Upregulation of interleukin-10 and interleukin-13 was observed in both UCMSC and ADMSC groups at 7 days after cell transplantation. Isobaric tagging for relative and absolute quantitation proteomics analyses showed that UCMSCs and ADMSCs induced changes of multiple genes related to axonal regeneration, neurotrophy, and cell apoptosis in common and specific manners. In conclusion, UCMSC and ADMSC transplants yielded quite similar contributions to motor and sensory recovery after spinal cord injury via anti-inflammation and improved axonal growth. However, there were some differences in cytokine and gene expression induced by these two types of transplanted cells. Animal experiments were approved by the Laboratory Animal Ethics Committee at Jinan University (approval No. 20180228026) on February 28, 2018, and the application of human stem cells was approved by the Medical Ethics Committee of Medical College of Jinan University of China (approval No. 2016041303) on April 13, 2016.

Interleukin-13 Gene Modification Enhances Grafted Mesenchymal Stem Cells Survival After Subretinal Transplantation

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) hold great potential for cell- and gene-based therapies for retinal degeneration. Limited survival is the main obstacle in achieving successful subretinal transplantation of MSCs. The present study sought to evaluate the effect of interleukin-13 (IL-13) gene modification on the phenotypic alteration of retinal microglia (RMG) and the survival of MSCs following subretinal grafting. In this study, LPS-activated RMG were cocultured with MSCs or IL-13-expressing MSCs (IL-13-MSCs) for 24 h, and activated phenotypes were detected in vitro. Western blotting was performed to quantify cytokine secretion by light-injured retinas following subretinal transplantation. The numbers of activated RMG and surviving grafted cells were analysed, and the integrity of the blood-retinal barrier (BRB) was examined in vivo. We found that, compared with normal MSCs, cocultured IL-13-MSCs suppressed the expression of pro-inflammatory factors and major histocompatibility complex II, promoted the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines by activated RMG and simultaneously inhibited the proliferation of and phagocytosis by RMG. The subretinal transplantation of IL-13-MSCs increased the expression of neurotrophic factors, IL-13 and tight junction proteins in the host retina, decreased the number of phagocytic RMG and improved the survival of grafted cells. Furthermore, IL-13-MSCs alleviated BRB breakdown induced by subretinal injection. Our results demonstrate that IL-13-MSCs can polarize activated RMG to the neuroprotective M2 phenotype and enhance the survival of grafted MSCs against the damage stress induced by subretinal transplantation.

Short-term inhibition of fibrinolytic system restores locomotor function after spinal cord injury in mice

Spinal cord injury (SCI) is caused by an initial mechanical insult followed by a series of deleterious events that promote the progressive damage of affected tissues. Fibrinolysis, the process by which plasmin degrades cross-linked fibrin clots, has numerous functions in the central nervous system. However, the roles of the fibrinolytic system in SCI pathophysiology remain unknown. We investigated the roles of fibrinolysis in SCI, and explored therapeutic applications targeting fibrinolysis. Plasminogen-deficient (Plg^-/-) mice exhibited significantly improved locomotor function in the early phase of SCI (the first 7 days post injury), with significant inhibition of bleeding and vascular permeability, but failed to demonstrate conclusive functional recovery. Consistent with these findings, the short-term administration of tranexamic acid (TXA) in wild-type mice over the first 3 days post injury significantly improved locomotor function after SCI, whereas prolonged TXA administration did not. Prolonged TXA administration resulted in significantly lower levels of matrix metalloproteinase activities in the spinal cord, suggesting that inhibition of the fibrinolytic system impaired tissue remodeling. Our results indicate that the fibrinolytic system has time-dependent biphasic actions following SCI. The temporally optimised modulation of fibrinolytic activity may thus be a novel therapeutic strategy to improve functional outcomes after SCI.

Murine iPSC-derived microglia and macrophage cell culture models recapitulate distinct phenotypical and functional properties of classical and alternative neuro-immune polarisation

The establishment and validation of reliable induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived in vitro models to study microglia and monocyte/macrophage immune function holds great potential for fundamental and translational neuro-immunology research. In this study, we first demonstrate that ramified CX₃CR1⁺ iPSC-microglia (cultured within a neural environment) and round-shaped CX₃CR1^- iPSC-macrophages can easily be differentiated from newly established murine CX₃CR1^eGFP/+CCR2^RFP/+ iPSC lines. Furthermore, we show that obtained murine iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophages are distinct cell populations, even though iPSC-macrophages may upregulate CX₃CR1 expression when cultured within a neural environment. Next, we characterized the phenotypical and functional properties of murine iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophages following classical and alternative immune polarisation. While iPSC-macrophages could easily be triggered to adopt a classically-activated or alternatively-activated phenotype following, respectively, lipopolysaccharide + interferon γ or interleukin 13 (IL13) stimulation, iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophages cultured within a neural environment displayed a more moderate activation profile as characterised by the absence of MHCII expression upon classical immune polarisation and the absence of Ym1 expression upon alternative immune polarisation. Finally, extending our preceding in vivo studies, this striking phenotypical divergence was also observed for resident microglia and infiltrating monocytes within highly inflammatory cortical lesions in CX₃CR1^eGFP/+CCR2^RFP/+ mice subjected to middle cerebral arterial occlusion (MCAO) stroke and following IL13-mediated therapeutic intervention thereon. In conclusion, our study demonstrates that the applied murine iPSC-microglia and iPSC-macrophage culture models are able to recapitulate in vivo microglia and monocyte/macrophage ontogeny and corresponding phenotypical/functional properties upon classical and alternative immune polarisation, and therefore represent a valuable in vitro platform to further study and modulate microglia and (infiltrating) monocyte immune responses under neuro-inflammatory conditions within a neural environment.

STAT6 mediates the effect of ethanol on neuroinflammatory response in TBI

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) and ethanol intoxication (EI) frequently coincide, particularly in young subjects. However, the mechanisms of their interaction remain poorly understood. Among other pathogenic pathways, TBI induces glial activation and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus, resulting in acute and chronic hippocampal dysfunction. In this regard, we investigated the role of EI affecting these responses unfolding after TBI. We used a blunt, weight-drop approach to model TBI in mice. Male mice were pre-administered with ethanol or vehicle to simulate EI. The neuroinflammatory response in the hippocampus was assessed by monitoring the expression levels of >20 cytokines, the phosphorylation status of transcription factors and the phenotype of microglia and astrocytes. We used AS1517499, a brain-permeable STAT6 inhibitor, to elucidate the role of this pathway in the EI/TBI interaction. We showed that TBI causes the elevation of IL-33, IL-1β, IL-38, TNF-α, IFN-α, IL-19 in the hippocampus at 3 h time point and concomitant EI results in the dose-dependent downregulation of IL-33, IL-1β, IL-38, TNF-α and IL-19 (but not of IFN-α) and in the selective upregulation of IL-13 and IL-12. EI is associated with the phosphorylation of STAT6 and the transcription of STAT6-controlled genes. Moreover, ethanol-induced STAT6 phosphorylation and transcriptional activation can be recapitulated in vitro by concomitant exposure of neurons to ethanol, depolarization and inflammatory stimuli (simulating the acute trauma). Acute STAT6 inhibition prevents the effects of EI on IL-33 and TNF-α, but not on IL-13 and negates acute EI beneficial effects on TBI-associated neurological impairment. Additionally, EI is associated with reduced microglial activation and astrogliosis as well as preserved synaptic density and baseline neuronal activity 7 days after TBI and all these effects are prevented by acute administration of the STAT6 inhibitor concomitant to EI. EI concomitant to TBI exerts significant immunomodulatory effects on cytokine induction and microglial activation, largely through the activation of STAT6 pathway, ultimately with beneficial outcomes.

Peripheral Administration of IL-13 Induces Anti-inflammatory Microglial/Macrophage Responses and Provides Neuroprotection in Ischemic Stroke

Neuroinflammation is strongly induced by cerebral ischemia. The early phase after the onset of ischemic stroke is characterized by acute neuronal injury, microglial activation, and subsequent infiltration of blood-derived inflammatory cells, including macrophages. Therefore, modulation of the microglial/macrophage responses has increasingly gained interest as a potential therapeutic approach for the ischemic stroke. In our study, we investigated the effects of peripherally administered interleukin 13 (IL-13) in a mouse model of permanent middle cerebral artery occlusion (pMCAo). Systemic administration of IL-13 immediately after the ischemic insult significantly reduced the lesion volume, alleviated the infiltration of CD45+ leukocytes, and promoted the microglia/macrophage alternative activation within the ischemic region, as determined by arginase 1 (Arg1) immunoreactivity at 3 days post-ischemia (dpi). Moreover, IL-13 enhanced the expression of M2a alternative activation markers Arg1 and Ym1 in the peri-ischemic (PI) area, as well as increased plasma IL-6 and IL-10 levels at 3 dpi. Furthermore, IL-13 treatment ameliorated gait disturbances at day 7 and 14 and sensorimotor deficits at day 14 post-ischemia, as analyzed by the CatWalk gait analysis system and adhesive removal test, respectively. Finally, IL-13 treatment decreased neuronal cell death in a coculture model of neuroinflammation with RAW 264.7 macrophages. Taken together, delivery of IL-13 enhances microglial/macrophage anti-inflammatory responses in vivo and in vitro, decreases ischemia-induced brain cell death, and improves sensory and motor functions in the pMCAo mouse model of cerebral ischemia.

ADAM17-deficiency on microglia but not on macrophages promotes phagocytosis and functional recovery after spinal cord injury

A disintegrin and metalloproteinase 17 (ADAM17) is the major sheddase involved in the cleavage of a plethora of cytokines, cytokine receptors and growth factors, thereby playing a substantial role in inflammatory and regenerative processes after central nervous system trauma. By making use of a hypomorphic ADAM17 knockin mouse model as well as pharmacological ADAM10/ADAM17 inhibitors, we showed that ADAM17-deficiency or inhibition significantly increases clearance of apoptotic cells, promotes axon growth and improves functional recovery after spinal cord injury (SCI) in mice. Microglia-specific ADAM17-knockout (ADAM17flox^+/+-Cx3Cr1 Cre^+/-) mice also showed improved functional recovery similar to hypomorphic ADAM17 mice. In contrast, endothelial-specific (ADAM17flox^+/+-Cdh5Pacs Cre^+/-) and macrophage-specific (ADAM17flox^+/+-LysM Cre^+/-) ADAM17-knockout mice or bone marrow chimera with transplanted ADAM17-deficient macrophages, displayed no functional improvement compared to wild type mice. These data indicate that ADAM17 expression on microglia cells (and not on macrophages or endothelial cells) plays a detrimental role in inflammation and functional recovery after SCI.

Possible Strategies to Optimize a Biomarker Discovery Approach to Correlate with Neurological Outcome in Patients with Spinal Cord Injury: A Pilot Study

The lack of reliable diagnostic and prognostic markers for spinal cord injured (SCI) patients is a severe obstacle in development and testing of new therapies, and it also impairs appropriate rehabilitation care. The sparse available data on the biochemical composition of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) during the acute and/or chronic phase of the lesion provide, up until now, inconsistent results. In this pilot study, we then explored the possibility of combining a multi-parametric and bioinformatic analysis of CSF for its biological properties tested on different cells types, suitable for investigating inflammation and re-myelination. The patient enrollment was based on stringent inclusion criteria; that is, cervical and thoracic SCI trauma, CSF collection within 24 h of trauma, type of surgical approach for spine stabilization, and absence of steroid therapy before CSF collection. Eleven SCI patients and four healthy controls were included, and in three patients, CSF was also collected at 3 months after lesion. We identified 19 proteins among the 60 investigated cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and structural biomarkers, which are transiently regulated 24 h after SCI. A bioinformatic analysis indicated that interleukin (IL)-6 and IL-10 are in the core of the interconnected net of activated proteins. Cell-based experiments indicate that CSF from SCI patients stimulates astroglia derivation from neural precursor cells, and an inverse correlation between IL-8 CSF level and oligodendrocyte precursor cells generated from neural stem cells was also observed. Results from this pilot study suggest that using a combined bioanalytic and biological approach to analyze SCI CSF at different times after injury could be a useful approach for identifying reliable diagnostic and prognostic markers in SCI.

BET protein inhibition regulates cytokine production and promotes neuroprotection after spinal cord injury

BACKGROUND

Spinal cord injury (SCI) usually causes a devastating lifelong disability for patients. After a traumatic lesion, disruption of the blood-spinal cord barrier induces the infiltration of macrophages into the lesion site and the activation of resident glial cells, which release cytokines and chemokines. These events result in a persistent inflammation, which has both detrimental and beneficial effects, but eventually limits functional recovery and contributes to the appearance of neuropathic pain. Bromodomain and extra-terminal domain (BET) proteins are epigenetic readers that regulate the expression of inflammatory genes by interacting with acetylated lysine residues. While BET inhibitors are a promising therapeutic strategy for cancer, little is known about their implication after SCI. Thus, the current study was aimed to investigate the anti-inflammatory role of BET inhibitors in this pathologic condition.

METHODS

We evaluated the effectiveness of the BET inhibitor JQ1 to modify macrophage reactivity in vitro and to modulate inflammation in a SCI mice model. We analyzed the effects of BET inhibition in pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory cytokine production in vitro and in vivo. We determined the effectiveness of BET inhibition in tissue sparing, inflammation, neuronal protection, and behavioral outcome after SCI.

RESULTS

We have found that the BET inhibitor JQ1 reduced the levels of pro-inflammatory mediators and increased the expression of anti-inflammatory cytokines. A prolonged treatment with JQ1 also decreased reactivity of microglia/macrophages, enhanced neuroprotection and functional recovery, and acutely reduced neuropathic pain after SCI.

CONCLUSIONS

BET protein inhibition is an effective treatment to regulate cytokine production and promote neuroprotection after SCI. These novel results demonstrate for the first time that targeting BET proteins is an encouraging approach for SCI repair and a potential strategy to treat other inflammatory pathologies.

Mouse mast cell protease 4 suppresses scar formation after traumatic spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injury (SCI) triggers the formation of a glial and fibrotic scar, which creates a major barrier for neuroregenerative processes. Previous findings indicate that mast cells (MCs) protect the spinal cord after mechanical damage by suppressing detrimental inflammatory processes via mouse mast cell protease 4 (mMCP4), a MC-specific chymase. In addition to these immunomodulatory properties, mMCP4 also plays an important role in tissue remodeling and extracellular matrix degradation. Therefore, we have investigated the effects of mMCP4 on the scarring response after SCI. We demonstrate that the decrease in locomotor performance in mMCP4^-/- mice is correlated with excessive scar formation at the lesion. The expression of axon-growth inhibitory chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans was dramatically increased in the perilesional area in mMCP4^-/- mice compared to wild type mice. Moreover, the fibronectin-, laminin-, and collagen IV-positive scar was significantly enlarged in mMCP4^-/- mice at the lesion center. A degradation assay revealed that mMCP4 directly cleaves collagen IV in vitro. On the gene expression level, neurocan and GFAP were significantly higher in the mMCP4^-/- group at day 2 and day 28 after injury respectively. In contrast, the expression of fibronectin and collagen IV was reduced in mMCP4^-/- mice compared to WT mice at day 7 after SCI. In conclusion, our data show that mMCP4 modulates scar development after SCI by altering the gene and protein expression patterns of key scar factors in vivo. Therefore, we suggest a new mechanism via which endogenous mMCP4 can improve recovery after SCI.