The future supply of animal-derived protein for human consumption

Dietary supplementation with Clostridium autoethanogenum protein improves growth performance and promotes muscle protein synthesis by activating the mTOR signaling pathway of the broiler

The experiment aimed to evaluate the effects of different ratios of Clostridium autoethanogenum protein (CAP) used in the diets on the growth performance, muscle quality, serum indexes, and mTOR pathway of white feather broilers. Four hundred and eighty 1-day-old Arbor Acres (AA) broilers, comprising equal numbers of males and females, were randomly assigned to one of four treatments, and each treatment consisted of 12 replicates of 10 birds. Four diets were formulated based on isoenergetic and isonitrogenous principles. The control group (CAP 0) did not receive any CAP, while the experimental groups received 2% (CAP 2), 3% (CAP 3), and 4% (CAP 4) of CAP for six weeks. Compared with the CAP0, (1) The feed conversion ratio (FCR) was lower (p < 0.05), and the leg muscle yield was higher (p < 0.05) in the CAP3 and CAP4; (2) The serum levels of TP, ALB, T-AOC, and SOD were improved in the CAP3 (p < 0.05); (3) The expression of Lipin-1 gene was down-regulated and AMPKɑ2, Akt, and 4E-BP1 genes were up-regulated in the experiment group (p < 0.05); (4) The inclusion of 3% CAP in the diet increased the levels of 4E-BP1, S6K1, Akt, and AMPKɑ2 phosphorylation by modulating the mTOR signaling pathway (p < 0.05). In conclusion, broiler diets containing 3% CAP can activate the mTOR signaling pathway to promote muscle synthesis and improve growth performance.

Is Sustainable Consumption a Sufficient Motivator for Consumers to Adopt Meat Alternatives? A Consumer Perspective on Plant-Based, Cell-Culture-Derived, and Insect-Based Alternatives

This study investigates consumer preference and acceptance of three meat alternatives-plant-based, lab-grown, and insect-based-as sustainable choices to meet the demands of a growing population and evolving food systems. Insights were gathered from European consumers regarding their perceptions and consumption patterns using a mixed-methods approach. The approach employed a questionnaire followed by focus group discussions conducted in Slovenia and the UK to understand the motivations and barriers behind their responses. The UK and Slovenia were chosen as they provided the highest response rates to the questionnaire and they have differing legislation. The results show that plant-based alternatives are the most familiar and accepted option, while lab-grown meat and insect-based products are less familiar and have lower acceptance rates. Moreover, they show that although sustainability factors are important to consumers, they are not their only concern; health and nutrition are the primary motivators for choosing meat alternatives. These are followed closely by sensory appeal, pricing, and a preference for natural, minimally processed options. Based on insights from the focus groups, strategies to overcome the barriers to the acceptance of meat alternatives should include targeted product categorisation and placement, educational campaigns, effective use of media, and greater transparency in product information.

Larval performance of Zophobas morio (F.) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) on various diets enriched with post-distillation residues and essential oils of aromatic and medicinal plants

The increasing demands for resources driven by the global population necessitate exploring sustainable alternatives for affordable animal protein over the use of traditional protein sources. Insects, with their high protein content, offer a promising solution, especially when reared on agricultural post-distillation residues for enhanced sustainability and cost-effectiveness. We assessed the development of Zophobas morio (F.) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae) larvae on diets enriched with essential oils and post-distillation residues from Greek aromatic and medicinal plants. Two aromatic plant mixtures (A and B) were examined. Mixture A consisted of post-distillation residues, while Mixture B incorporated these residues along with essential oils. Insect rearing diets were enriched with different proportions (10, 20, and 30 %) of these mixtures, with wheat bran serving as the control. Enrichment positively influenced larval development without compromising survival. Larval weight remained unchanged with Mixture A, but improved with Mixture B. No adverse effects were detected in the case of the enriched diets, although higher concentrations of Mixture B prolonged development time.

Techno-Economic Analysis of Gas Fermentation for the Production of Single Cell Protein

Despite the large carbon footprint of livestock production, animal protein consumption has grown over the past several decades, necessitating new approaches to sustainable animal protein production. In this techno-economic analysis, single cell protein (SCP) produced via gas fermentation of carbon dioxide, oxygen, and hydrogen is studied as an animal feed source to replace fishmeal or soybean meal. Using wind-powered water electrolysis to produce hydrogen and oxygen with carbon dioxide captured from corn ethanol, the minimum selling price (MSP) of SCP is determined to be $2070 per metric ton. An emissions comparison between SCP, fishmeal, and soybean meal shows that SCP has a carbon intensity as low as 0.73 kg CO2-equiv/kg protein, while fishmeal and soybean meal have an average carbon intensity of 2.72 kg CO2-equiv/kg protein and 0.85 kg CO2-equiv/kg protein, respectively. Moreover, SCP production would occupy 0.4% of the land per ton of protein produced compared to soybean meal and would disturb less than 0.1% of the marine ecosystem currently disturbed by fishmeal harvesting practices. These results show promise for the future economic viability of SCP as a protein source in animal feed and indicate significant environmental benefits compared to other animal feed protein sources.

Hybrid Paneer: Influence of mung bean protein isolate (Vigna radiata L.) on the texture, microstructure, and in vitro gastro-small intestinal digestion

Replacing dairy proteins with legume proteins such as mung bean protein can create hybrid cheese alternatives with superior nutritional and functional properties. The effects of partially replacing (30%) cow milk with mung bean protein isolate (MBPI) on the rheology, texture, microstructure, and digestibility of paneer (acid-heat coagulated cheese) were studied. The developed hybrid cow milk-mung bean paneer (CMMBP) had higher protein and moisture contents, lower fat content, and a darker colour than cow milk paneer (CMP). CMMBP showed a significant reduction in hardness, cohesiveness, chewiness, and springiness compared to the cow milk-based control. Frequency sweeps performed using a dynamic rheometer showed higher storage modulus (G') for CMMBP compared to CMP, indicating greater elastic properties of the hybrid paneer. In vitro digestibility of CMMBP was significantly lower than CMP, as shown by the lower overall ninhydrin-reactive free amino N release and the presence of resistant peptides at the end of digestion.

Revisiting edible insects as sources of therapeutics and drug delivery systems for cancer therapy

Cancer has been medicine's most formidable foe for long, and the rising incidence of the disease globally has made effective cancer therapy a significant challenge. Drug discovery is targeted at identifying efficacious compounds with minimal side effects and developments in nanotechnology and immunotherapy have shown promise in the fight against this complicated illness. Since ancient times, insects and insect-derived products have played a significant role in traditional medicine across several communities worldwide. The aim of this study was to inspect the traditional use of edible insects in various cultures and to explore their modern use in cancer therapy. Edible insects are sources of nutrients and a variety of beneficial substances with anticancer and immunomodulatory potential. Recently, insect derived bioactive-components have also been used as nanoparticles either in combination with chemotherapeutics or as a nano-cargo for the enhanced delivery of chemotherapeutic drugs due to their high biocompatibility, low bio-toxicity, and their antioxidant and anticancer effects. The crude extracts of different edible insects and their active components such as sericin, cecropin, solenopsin, melittin, antimicrobial peptides and fibroin produce anti-cancer and immunomodulatory effects by various mechanisms which have been discussed in this review.

Evaluating the Potential Safety Risk of Plant-Based Meat Analogues by Analyzing Microbial Community Composition

Plant-based meat analogues offer an environmentally and scientifically sustainable option as a substitute for animal-derived meat. They contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions, freshwater consumption, and the potential risks associated with zoonotic diseases linked to livestock production. However, specific processing methods such as extrusion or cooking, using various raw materials, can influence the survival and growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganisms, resulting in differences between plant-based meat analogues and animal meat. In this study, the microbial communities in five different types of plant-based meat analogues were investigated using high-throughput sequencing. The findings revealed a diverse range of bacteria, including Cyanobacteria, Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, Bacteroidota, Actinobacteriota, and Chloroflexi, as well as fungi such as Ascomycota, Basidiomycota, Phragmoplastophyta, Vertebrata, and Mucoromycota. Additionally, this study analyzed microbial diversity at the genus level and employed phenotype prediction to evaluate the relative abundance of various bacterium types, including Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, aerobic, anaerobic, and facultative anaerobic bacteria, as well as potential pathogenic bacteria. The insights gained from this study provide valuable information regarding the microbial communities and phenotypes of different plant-based meat analogues, which could help identify effective storage strategies to extend the shelf-life of these products.

Challenges facing sustainable protein production: Opportunities for cereals

Rising demands for protein worldwide are likely to drive increases in livestock production, as meat provides ∼40% of dietary protein. This will come at a significant environmental cost, and a shift toward plant-based protein sources would therefore provide major benefits. While legumes provide substantial amounts of plant-based protein, cereals are the major constituents of global foods, with wheat alone accounting for 15-20% of the required dietary protein intake. Improvement of protein content in wheat is limited by phenotyping challenges, lack of genetic potential of modern germplasms, negative yield trade-offs, and environmental costs of nitrogen fertilizers. Presenting wheat as a case study, we discuss how increasing protein content in cereals through a revised breeding strategy combined with robust phenotyping could ensure a sustainable protein supply while minimizing the environmental impact of nitrogen fertilizer.

Encouraging willingness to try insect foods with a utility-value intervention

Despite the benefits of eating insects (entomophagy), Western society is often inclined to reject this practice based on initial reactions of disgust. It is suggested there is potential to overcome this attitude through increasing interest and gaining knowledge of the benefits. One way to accomplish this is through an adapted utility-value intervention, traditionally applied in education research, to increase interest and perceived value in a topic. Across two studies (each with a one-month follow-up) participants researched and wrote an essay designed to increase interest and value in entomophagy or a control essay. Participants then completed a rating task assessing their willingness to try insect and familiar foods, along with other key attributes (e.g., sustainability). The utility-value intervention increased willingness to try insect foods as well as other key attributes compared to a non-insect control essay (Study 1). Unexpectedly, we also found a potentially similar (but smaller) effect of researching an insect-based recipe (Study 2) on willingness to try. The effects found in both studies were consistent at follow-up. These findings indicate the usefulness of utility-value interventions in encouraging entomophagy but also suggest that exposure to information about insect food, although less effective than a utility-value intervention, may also be sufficient.

Effects of different processing degrees of plant-based meat on the blood biochemical level, inflammation and intestinal microorganisms in mice

In recent years, with the increasing health needs of people, plant-based meat products have gradually entered the public's vision. However, many plant-based meats on the market today are so heavily processed and use so many additives that they can be classified as ultra-processed foods (UPFs). Very limited studies report whether the benefits of these plant-based meats are discounted when lots of additives were added. In this experiment, mice were fed with processed plant-based meat, ultra-processed plant-based meat, low-processed red meat, ultra-processed red meat to compare the health effects. In this experiment, some serum biochemical indexes, hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining of liver and intestine, 16s rDNA and short-chain fatty acids of mouse feces were detected. Compared with the negative control group, it was found that mice in the ultra-processed plant-based meat group, ultra-processed red meat group, and low-processed red meat group gained significant weight, and there exist intestinal inflammation and liver inflammation. In terms of gut microbiota, the diversity and structure of gut microbiota in both two plant-meat group was better than that in both two red-meat group. It can be concluded that plant-based meat and red meat cause different gut microbiota outcomes, which in turn affect body weight and the occurrence of liver and intestinal inflammation. What's more, plant-based meat is healthier than red meat, but overprocessing reduces the benefits of plant-based meat. There is a need to improve the way plant-based meat is processed and reduce the amount of additives used.

Double network hydrogels: Design, fabrication, and application in biomedicines and foods

Research on the design, fabrication, and application of double network (DN) hydrogels, assembled from pairs of polymers, has grown recently due to their unique structural, physicochemical, and functional properties. DN hydrogels can be designed to exhibit a broader range of functional attributes than single network (SN) ones, which extends their applications in various fields. There has been strong interest in the development of biopolymer DN hydrogels because of their environmental, sustainability, and safety benefits. However, there is limited knowledge on the formation and application of these novel materials. This article reviews the principles underlying the design and fabrication of hydrogels using different crosslinking approaches, including covalent and/or non-covalent bonding, and the formation mechanisms, network structures, and functional attributes of different DN hydrogels. The impact of polymer composition, structural organization, and bonding on the mechanical and functional properties of DN hydrogels is reviewed. Potential applications of these hydrogels are highlighted, including in tissue engineering, biomedicines, and foods. The functional attributes of DN hydrogels can be tailored to each of these applications by careful selection of the biopolymers and crosslinking mechanisms used to assemble them. Finally, areas where further research are needed to overcome the current limitations of DN hydrogels are highlighted.

Assessment of the inclusion of a feed additive of sodium humate derived from freshwater sapropel in diets for broiler chickens

Background and Aim

Poultry production is the fastest growing livestock industry in the world, as the rapid growth of and efficient absorption of feed by poultry ensure the production of poultry meat with a relatively low carbon footprint. Seeking new ways to increase livestock productivity as well as poultry product quality, the number of research studies on the use of humic substances of various origins in livestock farming has increased significantly, emphasizing the role of feed additives derived from local resources. The unique capability of humic substances to improve metabolic processes allows the immune protection of the bird body to be strengthened and production efficiency to be increased. This study aimed to identify the effects of sodium humate (NaHum) on the growth performance of broiler chickens and selected blood and ileum microbiota parameters.

Materials and Methods

Dietary research was conducted 2 times under production conditions in a poultry facility of a commercial company, with 210 1-day-old, unsorted broiler chickens of both sexes (Ross 308). The broiler chickens were fed with standard commercial feed, the rearing period of 35 days, and slaughtered on day 36. Sodium humate additive was added to drinking water for the research groups of broilers in period from 8th to 35th day of life, 25 mL (Group 1, n = 2 × 35) and 50 mL (Group 2, n = 2 × 35) per liter of drinking water. Sodium humate contained an average of 4.48% dry matter, a kilogram of dry matter containing 104.3 g of crude protein, 3.6 g of crude fiber and 0.9 g of crude fat, 14.3 MJ of metabolic energy, and 5.8 MJ of energy for live weight gain, as well as a very high content of crude ash -759.8 g, including 4.2 g Ca, 4.2 g Na, and 4.81 g Fe, the dry matter digestibility of NaHum was 87.0%, and the absorption capacity of dry matter was 113.2%., the pH level was 13.0, i.e., alkaline. At the end of the dietary research, the productivity and economic efficiency of the research groups of broilers were calculated by live weight gain, carcass weight, feed conversation ratio, and blood and intestinal samples of broilers were analyzed to identify the effects of NaHum on the growth performance and health status of broilers.

Results

Dietary research found that adding 25 mL/L and 50 mL/L of NaHum to drinking water for the broiler chickens increased their live weights at the selling age, average live weight gains by 3.06-3.93%, and carcass weights by 5.07-6.06%, while feed conversion increased in terms of both live weight (1.5 and 1.51) and carcass weight (1.84 and 1.86) compared with the control group. The best economic performance in terms of the economic efficiency index and the cost index (CI) was found in Group 1, which was fed with the NaHum additive at an intake rate of 25 mL/L. The NaHum additive modulated the ileal microbiota and metabolic processes in the broiler body. At the same time, a significant decrease in the levels of total protein, alkaline phosphatase and phosphorus (P) in blood was found in the research groups.

Conclusion

Considering the positive effects of NaHum derived from freshwater sapropel on the productivity and economic efficiency of broiler chickens, the NaHum feed additive should be further investigated on a larger scale to obtain results that could reasonably be used in practice. This study concluded that a decrease in P levels in the blood was observed when NaHum was added to the drinking water; therefore, it is important to continue the research to draw reasonable conclusions on the effects of NaHum in liquid form on the health performance of farm animals.

The Chemical Composition of Soyhulls and Their Effect on Amino Acid and Nutrient Digestibility in Laying Hens during the Peak of Production

This study investigates the chemical composition of soyhulls (SHs) as an alternative feed ingredient and their effect on nutrient and amino acid (AA) digestibility in laying hens during peak production. A total of 200 golden brown hens (28 weeks old) were subjected to random allocation across 5 dietary treatments: a corn-soybean meal (SBM) reference diet and 4 test diets with 25% SHs from different mills (SH1, SH2, SH3, and SH4). Each treatment was replicated four times with ten birds per replicate. Digesta samples were collected during three phases (28-32, 32-36, and 36-40 weeks of age) to measure apparent metabolizable energy (AME), the apparent ileal digestibility (AID) of nutrients, and the standard ileal digestibility (SID) of AAs. The SBM diet had 30.0% crude protein (CP) and 3.78% crude fiber (CF), while the SH diets had 21.0 to 21.5% CP and 11.6% CF. The findings revealed that the AME was lower (p < 0.05) with SH diets (2404 kcal/kg) compared to the SBM diet (2627 kcal/kg) in all three phases. The SH diets had a lower AID of dry matter (DM), crude protein (CP), ash, ether extract (EE), and crude fiber (CF) than the SBM diet by an average of 2.88, 2.25, 4.93, 4.99, and 3.36%, respectively. The AID of nitrogen-free extract (NFE) was higher in the SH diets than the SBM diet by 3.42% in all three phases (p < 0.05). The SH diets had lower uric acid excretion (about 66.93 mg/100 mL) than the SBM diet (about 76.43 mg/100 mL) on average in all three phases. The SH diets had a lower SID of arginine, histidine, isoleucine, lysine, cysteine, valine, and tyrosine than the SBM diet by 2 to 10%, while the SID of methionine was higher in the SH diets than the SBM diet by 2.2% on average in all three phases (p < 0.05). The SH from Sadiq Brother Feed (SH1) had the highest AME and AID of DM, ash, CP, EE, CF, and the SID of AA among the SH diets. These results indicate that SH can partially replace SBM in laying hen diets, but the source and quality of SH should be considered.

Inverse metabolic engineering for improving protein content in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Production of Saccharomyces cerevisiae-based single cell protein (SCP) has recently received great attention due to the steady increase in the world's population and environmental issues. In this study, an inverse metabolic engineering approach was applied to improve the production of yeast SCP. Specifically, an S. cerevisiae mutant library, generated using UV-random mutagenesis, was screened for three rounds to isolate mutants with improved protein content and/or concentration. The #1021 mutant strain exhibited a respective 31% and 23% higher amino acid content and concentration than the parental S. cerevisiae D452-2 strain. Notably, the content, concentration, and composition of amino acids produced by the PAN2* strain, with a single nucleotide polymorphism in PAN2 coding for a catalytic subunit of the poly(A)-nuclease (PAN) deadenylation complex, were virtually identical to those produced by the #1021 mutant strain. In a glucose-limited fed-batch fermentation, the PAN2* strain produced 19.5 g L-1 amino acids in 89 h, which was 16% higher than that produced by the parental D452-2 strain. This study highlights the benefits of inverse metabolic engineering for enhancing the production titer and yield of target molecules without prior knowledge of rate-limiting steps involved in their biosynthetic pathways.

Booming the bugs: How can marketing help increase consumer acceptance of insect-based food in Western countries?

Edible insects could be a promising answer to the question of how to feed a growing human population with a healthier and more sustainable source of protein. Despite the increasing interest in entomophagy in food science and industry, however, consumer acceptance for insect-based food products remains low in Western countries. This systematic review provides a comprehensive and timely overview of studies relevant for researchers, practitioners and other stakeholders involved in the marketing of these products. Reviewing data from 45 selected studies, we focus on marketing measures tested for their influence on Western consumers' preference, acceptance, willingness to try, eat and/or buy insect-based food products. Organising the findings according to the 4Ps of the marketing mix framework, five main ways of enhancing the appeal and acceptance of insect-based food products are discussed: 1) developing product attributes that align with the specific preferences of target consumers; 2) a more subtle labelling of the presence of insects; 3) using value-added or competition-based pricing strategies; 4) making products consistently available in the marketplace; and 5) promoting products more effectively through advertising, tasting activities, and social influence. The heterogeneity we find among the studies, whether due to differences in the products researched, in sampling countries, or in data-collection methods, indicates key research gaps for future studies to address.

Evaluating Brewers' Spent Grain Protein Isolate Postprandial Amino Acid Uptake Kinetics: A Randomized, Cross-Over, Double-Blind Controlled Study

Valorization and utilization of brewers' spent grain (BSG) are of great interest in terms of reducing food waste and promoting more sustainable food systems. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the nutritional value of upcycled barley/rice proteins (BRP) extracted from BSG and compare this with pea proteins (PP). A randomized, cross-over, double-blind controlled trial was conducted with twelve participants (age: 24 ± 2.8 years, BMI: 23.3 ± 3.0 kg/m²). During three separate visits with a one-week washout period between visits, participants received 20 g BRP, PP, or the benchmark protein whey (WP). Blood-free amino acids (AA) were measured to determine postprandial AA uptake kinetics. The estimated total AA (TAA) uptake of BRP was 69% when compared to WP and 87% when compared to PP. The time to reach the maximum values was similar between the three protein sources. When comparing individual essential AA responses between BRP and PP, we observed higher responses in methionine and tryptophane and lower responses in lysine, histidine, and isoleucine for BRP compared to PP. This study demonstrates that BRP exhibits comparable postprandial TAA uptake profiles to PP. The findings highlight the complementarity of BRP and PP, which may offer the potential for blending approaches to optimize protein quality for overall health.

Comprehensive Review on the Role of Plant Protein As a Possible Meat Analogue: Framing the Future of Meat

Animal proteins from meat and goods derived from meat have recently been one of the primary concerns in the quest for sustainable food production. According to this perspective, there are exciting opportunities to reformulate more sustainably produced meat products that may also have health benefits by partially replacing meat with nonmeat substances high in protein. Considering these pre-existing conditions, this review critically summarizes recent findings on extenders from a variety of sources, including pulses, plant-based ingredients, plant byproducts, and unconventional sources. It views these findings as a valuable opportunity to improve the technological profile and functional quality of meat, with a focus on their ability to affect the sustainability of meat products. As a result, meat substitutes like plant-based meat analogues (PBMAs), meat made from fungi, and cultured meat are being offered to encourage sustainability.

Waste Orange Peels as a Feed Additive for the Enhancement of the Nutritional Value of Tenebrio molitor

Lately, additional attention is being placed on edible insects, since they constitute an excellent, cost-efficient source of proteins with a low ecological footprint. Tenebrio molitor was the first insect that was considered edible by EFSA in 2021. This species can replace conventional protein sources and thus, it has the potential to be used in many different food products. In the present study, a food by-product that is commonly produced (i.e., albedo orange peel waste) was used as a feed additive for T. molitor larvae, in an effort to further improve the circular economy and enhance the nutritional value of the insects. To this end, bran, which is commonly used as feed for T. molitor larvae, was fortified with the albedo orange peel waste (up to 25% w/w). Larval performance, in terms of larval survival and growth, as well as the larval nutritional value, i.e., the content of protein, fat, carbohydrates, ash, carotenoids, vitamins A and C, and polyphenols, was evaluated. Based on the results, the increase in the percentage of orange peel albedos in T. molitor feed resulted in a subsequent increase in the content of larvae in carotenoids and vitamin A up to 198%, in vitamin C up to 46%, and an increase in the protein and ash content up to 32% and 26.5%, respectively. Therefore, the use of albedo orange peel waste for feeding of T. molitor larvae is highly recommended, since it results in larvae with enhanced nutritional value and at the same time, the utilization of this feeding substrate further lowers the cost of insect farming.

Meat hybrids-An assessment of sensorial aspects, consumer acceptance, and nutritional properties

So-called meat hybrids are a new class of products where a fraction of the meat product (e.g., 20%) is replaced with alternative protein sources, such as plant-based ones. Research suggests that these products could serve as a low-threshold offer for a specific target group that wants to cut down on meat, thereby facilitating the transition toward a more healthy and sustainable diet. Nonetheless, data demonstrate that meat hybrids with a high substantial meat substitution level often fail in the market. This study summarises findings on the physicochemical properties, sensory, and acceptance of six different meat hybrids (70% meat and 30% plant proteins) that were collected in the framework of a case study in the project AiF 196 EN. For this purpose, sensory characteristics were collected via two QDA sessions and a hedonic consumer test. Furthermore, the hybrid recipes were analysed in their proximate composition. The respective recipes varied in protein source (soybean, pumpkin, and pea) and mode of incorporation [textured vegetable protein (TVP), high moisture extrudate (HME)]. It was shown that a meat hybrid with a relatively high share of 30% plant-based proteins with peas as a protein source and TVP as a processing method can still attract consumers.

Killing two birds with one stone: chemical and biological upcycling of polyethylene terephthalate plastics into food

Most polyethylene terephthalate (PET) plastic waste is landfilled or pollutes the environment. Additionally, global food production must increase to support the growing population. This article explores the feasibility of using microorganisms in an industrial system that upcycles PET into edible microbial protein powder to solve both problems simultaneously. Many microorganisms can utilize plastics as feedstock, and the resultant microbial biomass contains fats, nutrients, and proteins similar to those found in human diets. While microbial degradation of PET is promising, biological PET depolymerization is too slow to resolve the global plastic crisis and projected food shortages. Evidence reviewed here suggests that by coupling chemical depolymerization and biological degradation of PET, and using cooperative microbial communities, microbes can efficiently convert PET waste into food.

Fungi as a Source of Edible Proteins and Animal Feed

It is expected that the world population will reach 9 billion by 2050. Thus, meat, dairy or plant-based protein sources will fail to meet global demand. New solutions must be offered to find innovative and alternative protein sources. As a natural gift, edible wild mushrooms growing in the wet and shadow places and can be picked by hand have been used as a food. From searching mushrooms in the forests and producing single cell proteins (SCP) in small scales to mega production, academia, United Nations Organizations, industries, political makers and others, play significant roles. Fermented traditional foods have also been reinvestigated. For example, kefir, miso, and tempeh, are an excellent source for fungal isolates for protein production. Fungi have unique criteria of consuming various inexpensive wastes as sources of carbon and energy for producing biomass, protein concentrate or amino acids with a minimal requirement of other environmental resources (e.g., light and water). Fungal fermented foods and SCP are consumed either intentionally or unintentionally in our daily meals and have many applications in food and feed industries. This review addresses fungi as an alternative source of edible proteins and animal feed, focusing mainly on SCP, edible mushrooms, fungal fermented foods, and the safety of their consumption.

Physical properties during a 28-day ageing period of blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi) Longissimus thoracis et lumborum and Biceps femoris muscles

The study aimed to determine the effect of sex, muscle-type, and ageing on the physical properties of blesbok (Damaliscus pygargus phillipsi) Longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LTL) and Biceps femoris (BF) muscles. Randomly assigned steak samples from twenty mature blesbok (10 of each sex) antelope were vacuum-packed and stored at 4.4 ± 1 °C for 2, 4, 7, 10, 17 and 28 ageing days. Cumulative purge loss, pH, colour (L*, a*, b), cooking loss, and Warner Braztler shear force were determined. Males had meat with higher (P = 0.032) pH values than females, while all other attributes were similar (P > 0.05). The LTL had greater (P < 0.05) purge losses, L* and a* values than the BF muscle, while other quality attributes were greater (P < 0.05) for the BF muscle. Despite fluctuations, there was an overall decrease in shear force with ageing time. According to all quality parameters measured, the optimum ageing period for blesbok would seem to be 10 days.

Nutritional Value and Physicochemical Characteristics of Alternative Protein for Meat and Dairy-A Review

In order to alleviate the pressure on environmental resources faced by meat and dairy production and to satisfy the increasing demands of consumers for food safety and health, alternative proteins have drawn considerable attention in the food industry. However, despite the successive reports of alternative protein food, the processing and application foundation of alternative proteins for meat and dairy is still weak. This paper summarizes the nutritional composition and physicochemical characteristics of meat and dairy alternative proteins from four sources: plant proteins, fungal proteins, algal proteins and insect proteins. The difference between these alternative proteins to animal proteins, the effects of their structural features and environmental conditions on their properties, as well as the corresponding mechanism are compared and discussed. Though fungal proteins, algal proteins and insect proteins have shown some advantages over traditional plant proteins, such as the comparable protein content of insect proteins to meat, the better digestibility of fungal proteins and the better foaming properties of algal proteins, there is still a big gap between alternative proteins and meat and dairy proteins. In addition to needing to provide amino acid composition and digestibility similar to animal proteins, alternative proteins also face challenges such as maintaining good solubility and emulsion properties. Their nutritional and physicochemical properties still need thorough investigation, and for commercial application, it is important to develop and optimize industrial technology in alternative protein separation and modification.

Plant-Based Meat Analogues Weaken Gastrointestinal Digestive Function and Show Less Digestibility Than Real Meat in Mice

Real meat and plant-based meat analogues have different in vitro protein digestibility properties. This study aims to further explore their in vivo digestion and absorption and their effects on the gastrointestinal digestive function of mice. Compared with the real pork and beef, plant-based meat analogues significantly reduced the number of gastric parietal cells, the levels of gastrin/CCKBR, acetylcholine/AchR, Ca²⁺, CAMK II, PKC, and PKA, the activity of H⁺, K⁺-ATPase, and pepsin, the duodenal villus height, and the ratio of villus height to crypt depth and downregulated the expression of most nitrogen nutrient sensors. Peptidomics revealed that plant-based meat analogues released fewer peptides during in vivo digestion and increased the host- and microbial-derived peptides. Moreover, the real beef showed better absorption properties. These results suggested that plant-based meat analogues weaken gastrointestinal digestive function of mice, and their digestion and absorption performance in vivo is not as good as the real meat.

Single Cell Protein for Foods and Feeds: A Review of Trends

Introduction:

Predictions on the world’s population in the next few decades suggest that the global demand for animal-derived proteins may not be met if current conventional agriculture approaches are used. One promising solution to this complex crisis lies in the use of single-cell proteins (SCP). SCP refers to the edible biomass of unicellular microorganisms and can be developed as animal feeds or human foods. This paper provides a detailed overview on research towards the production and utilisation of SCPs and trends within the field.

Study Design:

A bibliometric based study was conducted on 425 SCP research articles collected from the Web of Science database, analysing the most cited papers using VOSviewer software, and contributing authors, affiliations and country of origin. Research publications on SCP started in 1961 and has grown steadily over the years.

Discussion:

Emerging research topics within SCP production focused on the use of improved fungal strains, the composition and characteristics of SCPs based on the type of substrates used, industrial production processes and the use of waste for SCP production, which serves the dual purpose of mitigating the cost associated with waste disposal and production of a valuable product.

Plant oil bodies and their membrane components: new natural materials for food applications

Plants store triacylglycerols in the form of oil bodies (OBs) as an energy source for germination and subsequent seedling growth. The interfacial biomaterials from these OBs are called OB membrane materials (OBMMs) and have several applications in foods, e.g., as emulsifiers. OBMMs are preferred, compared with their synthetic counterparts, in food applications as emulsifiers because they are natural, i.e., suitable for clean label, and may stabilize bioactive components during storage. This review focuses mainly on the extraction technologies for plant OBMMs, the functionality of these materials, and the interaction of OB membranes with other food components. Different sources of OBs are evaluated and the challenges during the extraction and use of these OBMMs for food applications are addressed.

Formulation and characterization of plant-based egg white analogs using RuBisCO protein

RuBisCO protein, which can be isolated from abundant and sustainable plant sources, can mimic some of the desirable functional attributes of egg white proteins. In this study, plant-based egg white analogs were successfully produced using 10 w% RuBisCO solutions (pH 8). These protein solutions had similar apparent viscosity-shear rate profiles, shear modulus-temperature profiles, gelling temperatures, and final gel strengths as egg white. However, there were some differences. RuBisCO protein gels were slightly darker than egg white, which was attributed to the presence of phenolic impurities. Moreover, RuBisCo proteins exhibited a single thermal transition temperature (∼66 °C) whereas egg white proteins exhibited two (∼66 and ∼81 °C). RuBisCO gels were more brittle but less chewy and resilient than egg white gels. This study provides valuable insights into the potential of RuBisCO protein for formulating plant-based egg white analogs.

Fungal protein

This chapter reviews the uses of processed fungal cells as protein-rich foods in substitution to meat. Yeasts, mushrooms, and filamentous fungi have long been part of the human diet, improving the nutritional quality and taste of different foods. Recently, because of the populational growth and environmental impact caused by animal farming, the use of animal-derived protein has been raising concerns in public and scientific debates. Fungal biomass represents a nutritious, safe meat alternative that can help society in the reduction of greenhouse gases emissions and improve public health. Additionally, it provides all essential amino acids and has an interesting fatty acid profile. Current research is involved in finding new strains with improved efficiency, the investigation of new substrates (especially agro-industrial wastes) to reduce the environmental impact, and the development of new formulations to use mycoprotein in different dishes.

Over-toasting dehulled rapeseed meal and soybean meal, but not sunflower seed meal, increases prececal nitrogen and amino acid digesta flows in broilers

Poorly digestible proteins may lead to increased protein fermentation in the ceca of broilers and hence, the production of potentially harmful metabolites. To evaluate effects of protein fermentation on gut health, an experimental contrast in ileal nitrogen (N) and amino acid (AA) flow is required. Therefore, our objective was to develop a model that creates a contrast in protein fermentation by increasing the prececal flow of protein within ingredients. To this end, we used additional toasting of protein sources and evaluated the effect on prececal N and AA flows. One-day-old Ross 308 male broilers (n = 480) were divided over 6 dietary treatments, with 8 replicate pens with 10 broilers each. Diets contained 20% of a regular soybean meal (SBM), high protein sunflower seed meal (SFM) or a dehulled rapeseed meal (dRSM) as is, or heat damaged by secondary toasting at 136°C for 20 min (tSBM, tSFM, or tdRSM). Ileal and total tract digesta flows of N and AA were determined with 5 birds per pen in their third week of life using an inert marker (TiO2) in the feed. Additional toasting increased the feed conversion ratio (FCR) only in birds fed dRSM (1.39 vs. 1.31), but not SBM and SFM (interaction P = 0.047). In SBM, additional toasting increased the flow of histidine, lysine, and aspartate through the distal ileum and excreted, while in SFM it had no effect on flows of N and AA. Toasting dRSM increased the prececal flows and excretion of N (862 vs 665 and 999 vs 761 mg/d, respectively) and of the AA. Of the ingredients tested, toasting dRSM is a suitable model to increase protein flows into the hind-gut, permitting the assessment of effects of protein fermentation.

Annual protein yield and extractable protein potentials in three legumes and two grasses

BACKGROUND

New protein sources with low environmental and climatic impact are needed. Perennial crops show advantages as compared to annual crops and the upcoming biorefinery technology can extract proteins from the perennial biomass for protein concentrate production. The search for best-suited biomass crops needs to include harvest during the full growing season to support economic viability of biorefinery plants. Here we examined two grasses under increasing N fertilizer regime (175, 350 and 525 kg N ha^-1 ) and three legumes, subject to a four-cut strategy. The well-defined Cornell Net Carbohydrate and Protein System (CNCPS) was used to estimate potential extractable protein. A key, previously presented in the literature, was applied in order to translate the CNCPS results into potential extracted protein concentrate.

RESULTS

Crude protein (CP) yield per hectare was highest in red clover in 2015 (2907 kg CP ha^-1 ) and the fertilized (525 kg N ha^-1 ) tall fescue in 2016 (2435 kg CP ha^-1 ). When translating the numbers into potential extraction of protein concentrate, the red clover had the highest protein concentrate yield per hectare in 2015 (835 kg CP ha^-1 ) and lucerne in 2016 (803 kg CP ha^-1 ).

CONCLUSION

The results revealed that the entire season needs attention for optimization and not only the first cut, since both CP yields and quality peaks in different cuts across the five species and 2 years. Further knowledge of CP yield responses to field management and species mixtures are needed in order to advise farmers on the optimal crop for biorefining. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Limited Supply of Protein and Lysine Is Prevalent among the Poorest Households in Malawi and Exacerbated by Low Protein Quality

We estimated dietary supplies of total and available protein and indispensable amino acids (IAAs) and predicted the risk of deficiency in Malawi using Household Consumption and Expenditure Survey data. More than half of dietary protein was derived from cereal crops, while animal products provided only 11%. The supply of IAAs followed similar patterns to that of total proteins. In general, median protein and IAA supplies were reduced by approximately 17% after accounting for digestibility, with higher losses evident among the poorest households. At population level, 20% of households were at risk of protein deficiency due to inadequate available protein supplies. Of concern was lysine supply, which was inadequate for 33% of households at the population level and for the majority of the poorest households. The adoption of quality protein maize (QPM) has the potential to reduce the risk of protein and lysine deficiency in the most vulnerable households by up to 12% and 21%, respectively.

Plant-Based Diets Are Not Enough? Understanding the Consumption of Plant-Based Meat Alternatives Along Ultra-processed Foods in Different Dietary Patterns in Germany

A low-processive plant-based diet is considered valuable for a sustainable diet profile-it is supposed to meet health as well as environmental concerns. However, there is a growing trend toward plant-based meat alternatives, most of which are to be classified as ultra-processed food (UPF). The paper aimed to understand the consumption of different ultra-processed foods to describe their relation to dietary patterns and sustainability. The objective was (1) to depict the status-quo of consumption of plant-based meat alternatives along with other UPF groups (i.e., convenience products, fast foods, snacks, ultra-processed beverages) in a German sample (n = 814) and (2) to investigate the extent to which all examined UPFs are represented in different dietary patterns (vegetarian, flexitarian, regular meat-eaters, high meat-eaters). UPF intake and dietary groups were determined using a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ). Potential factors influencing UPF consumption, such as attitudes toward sustainability and healthy eating practices, were assessed using validated and fitted psychometric scales. Overall, the frequency of UPF consumption varies significantly along the product groups studied. Plant-based meat alternatives were the least consumed food (12.3%), followed by convenience products (57.4%), fast foods (55.9%), ultra-processed beverages (80.1%), and sweet and salty snacks (97.3%). Plant-based meat alternative consumption predominated within a vegetarian diet, while other UPFs, like convenience products, fast foods, sweet and salty snacks, and ultra-processed beverages, were mainly consumed by meat-eaters. Remarkably, flexitarian diets depict low consumption of all types of ultra-processed foods. In order to meet societal sustainability goals, diets and corresponding societal and political actions should emphasize not only plant orientation but also the increase of non- and low-processed foods.

Waste mitigation and resource recovery from food industry wastewater employing microalgae-bacterial consortium

Wastewater generated by the food industry is rich in nitrogen and phosphorus with possible presence of heavy metals. Physical and chemical methods of treatment, although effective, are expensive and may cause secondary environmental pollution damaging aquatic and human life. Traditional biological methods are eco-friendly and cost-effective but involve standalone microorganisms that pose risk of contamination and are not as effective. This review discusses the application of novel microalgal-bacterial consortium as a solution for the resource recovery and treatment of dairy, starch and aquaculture wastewater. Use of biofilm reactors containing anaerobic and aerobic sludge has shown 80-90% and > 90% COD and nutrient removal efficiency in treatment of dairy and starch processing wastewater, respectively. The treatment of aquaculture processing wastewater can be challenging due to high sality and requires salt-tolerant bacteria-microalgae consortium. In this regard, the identification of dominant microalgae and bacteria using 16S rRNA and 18S rRNA genes is recommended.

Sustainable microalgal biomass production in food industry wastewater for low-cost biorefinery products: a review

Microalgae are recognized as cell factories enriched with biochemicals suitable as feedstock for bio-energy, food, feed, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceuticals applications. The industrial application of microalgae is challenging due to hurdles associated with mass cultivation and biomass recovery. The scale-up production of microalgal biomass in freshwater is not a sustainable solution due to the projected increase of freshwater demands in the coming years. Microalgae cultivation in wastewater is encouraged in recent years for sustainable bioeconomy from biorefinery processes. Wastewater from the food industry is a less-toxic growth medium for microalgal biomass production. Traditional wastewater treatment and management processes are expensive; hence it is highly relevant to use low-cost wastewater treatment processes with revenue generation through different products. Microalgae are accepted as potential biocatalysts for the bioremediation of wastewater. Microalgae based purification of wastewater technology could be a universal alternative solution for the recovery of resources from wastewater for low-cost biomass feedstock for industry. This review highlights the importance of microalgal biomass production in food processing wastewater, their characteristics, and different microalgal cultivation methods, followed by nutrient absorption mechanisms. Towards the end of the review, different microalgae biomass harvesting processes with biorefinery products, and void gaps that tend to hinder the biomass production with future perspectives will be intended. Thus, the review could claim to be valuable for sustainable microalgae biomass production for eco-friendly bioproduct conversions.

Graphical abstract

Fad, Food, or Feed: Alternative Seafood and Its Contribution to Food Systems

Aquatic foods, or “seafood”, are an integral part of the global food system that contribute significantly to many dimensions of human wellbeing, including livelihoods and food and nutrition security. Fish, molluscs, crustaceans, algae and other aquatic foods are of particular importance in low- and middle-income countries as a source of employment, income, and nutrition for many poor and vulnerable people, including women. Global concern over the ability of fisheries and aquaculture to sustainably meet future seafood demand is driving improvements in technology and management. It has also inspired the emergence of plant-based and cell-based seafood, collectively termed “alternative seafood”. Growing investment, consumer demand, and participation by major food companies in the alternative seafood sector necessitate an evaluation of potential opportunities and challenges alternative seafood poses to food systems. This paper explores key economic, social, and environmental implications associated with production, distribution, and consumption of alternative seafood and its interactions with fisheries and aquaculture over the next decade, with specific emphasis on low- and middle-income countries. Available data on current supply and projected growth suggest that alternative seafood may account for almost eight percent of global seafood supplies destined for human consumption in 2030. Assuming current production techniques and expected technological development, the sector has potential for reduced environmental impacts relative to the existing fisheries and aquaculture sectors. However, its potential to impact livelihoods, food and nutrition security, and the environment remains largely a matter of conjecture due to the lack of robust data. Mechanistically, it is believed that growth of alternative seafood supplies will lessen demand for “conventional” seafood and/or meat, a scenario with implications for livelihoods, food and nutrition security, and the environment. Such changes are contingent on technological development, human and institutional behavior, market forces, and ecological linkages and as such, remain speculative. Nevertheless, as a novel sector, new food, and potential alternative to conventional seafood and/or meat, society has an opportunity to shape the growth of alternative seafood and its contribution to national and global development goals. This paper identifies knowledge gaps that require further research to inform inclusive, equitable, and sustainable development and governance of the emerging alternative seafood sector.

Subchronic feeding, allergenicity, and genotoxicity safety evaluations of single strain bacterial protein

Microbial proteins are potentially important alternatives to animal protein. A safety assessment was conducted on a Clostridium protein which can serve as a high-quality protein source in human food. A battery of toxicity studies was conducted comprising a 14-day dose-range finding dietary study in rats, 90-day dietary study in rats and in vitro genotoxicity studies. The allergenic potential was investigated by bioinformatics analysis. In the 90-day feeding study, rats were fed diets containing 0, 5.0, 7.5, and 10% Clostridium protein. The Clostridium protein-containing diets were well-tolerated and no adverse effects on the health or growth were observed. Significant reductions in neutrophil counts were observed in all female rats compared to controls, which were slightly outside of reference ranges. These effects were not deemed to be adverse due to the absence of comparable findings in male rats and high physiological variability of measured values within groups. A No-Observed-Adverse-Effect-Level (NOAEL) of at least 10% Clostridium protein, the highest dose tested and corresponding to 5,558 and 6,671 mg/kg body weight/day for male and female rats, respectively, was established. No evidence of genotoxicity was observed and the allergenic potential was low. These results support the use of Clostridium protein as a food ingredient.

How can the design thinking process improve an innovative insect-based food experience?

This work set out to show that the novel problem-solving process called design thinking (DT) can advance the acceptance and consumption of insects as food. The DT approach involving a multidisciplinary team comprised three stages: (1) an exploratory evaluation through questionnaires to raise consumer empathy, (2) an ideation stage to enable visualization and rapid prototyping, which resulted in the creation of twelve food products using mealworm larva and cricket flour and (3) an experimentation stage, where the five most promising ideas (packaging and products) were selected and tested on consumers. Four consumption trends were identified: vegetarianism (intellectual), challenge (social relationship), luxury (emotional) and sport (health). Prototypes corresponding to consumer needs were developed. After identifying the positive and negative effects elicited by the prototypes, the most promising ones were tested. Exposing consumers to small manageable steps during a food experience with insects dispelled false beliefs and overcame revulsion. The outcomes of this study are encouraging for the development of innovation in the food industry, favouring the acceptance of new foods and supporting the provision of healthier food choices for the general western population. These findings can also help companies adapt to the growing scarcity of resources and improve the value of innovations they offer the market.

Current perspective on veterinary drug and chemical residues in food of animal origin

The marked increase in the demand for animal protein of high quality necessitates protecting animals from infectious diseases. This requires increasing the use of veterinary therapeutics. The overuse and misuse of veterinary products can cause a risk to human health either as short-term or long-term health problems. However, the biggest problem is the emergence of resistant strains of bacteria or parasites. This is in addition to economic losses due to the discarding of polluted milk or condemnation of affected carcasses. This paper discusses three key points: possible sources of drug and chemical residues, human health problems, and the possible method of control and prevention of veterinary drug residues in animal products.

Growth and Fatty Acid Composition of Black Soldier Fly Hermetia illucens (Diptera: Stratiomyidae) Larvae Are Influenced by Dietary Fat Sources and Levels

Simple Summary

The black soldier fly Hermetia illucens is a potentially promising feed or food source due to its valuable nutritional composition. However, its fat content and fatty acid composition significantly vary with the rearing substrates, making it a flexible resource in fat quantity and quality. Recent research has attempted to manipulate the fat content and fatty acid composition of the insect with modulated feed formulation. Nevertheless, the results of most investigations are not comparable, since the rearing substrates used are various organic wastes with complex substrates. Therefore, it is necessary to perform a quantitative and accurate assessment of dietary fat on larval yield and fatty acid composition. In this study, the influence of two supplemental levels of six dietary fat sources on growth and nutrient composition was evaluated, especially fatty acid composition of black solider fly Hermetia illucens larvae. Additionally, the relationships between dietary fat and larval growth and fatty acid composition were quantitatively determined. Our work deepens the understanding of the fat/fatty acid needs of this insect and therefore enlightens the purposive culture of insects for appropriate fat supply.

Abstract

A 16-day rearing trial was performed to investigate the influence of two supplemental levels (5% and 10%) of six dietary fat sources (linseed oil, peanut oil, coconut oil, soybean oil, lard oil and fish oil) on the growth, development and nutrient composition of black solider fly larvae. Our results demonstrated that the pre-pupa rate of larvae was linearly influenced by dietary C18:0, C18:3n-3 and C18:2n-6 content (pre-pupa rate = 0.927 × C18:0 content + 0.301 × C18:3n-3 content-0.258 × C18:2n-6 content p < 0.001)), while final body weight was linearly influenced by that of C16:0 (final body weight = 0.758 × C16:0 content, p = 0.004). Larval nutrient composition was significantly affected by dietary fat sources and levels, with crude protein, fat and ash content of larvae varying between 52.0 and 57.5, 15.0 and 23.8, and 5.6 and 7.2% dry matter. A higher level of C12:0 (17.4–28.5%), C14:0 (3.9–8.0%) and C16:1n-9 (1.3–4.3%) was determined in larvae fed the diets containing little of them. In comparison, C16:0, C18:1n-9, C18:2n-6 and C18:3n-3 proportions in larvae were linearly related with those in diets, with the slope of the linear equations varying from 0.39 to 0.60. It can be concluded that sufficient C16:0, C18:0 and C18:3n-3 supply is beneficial for larvae growth. Larvae could produce and retain C12:0, C14:0, and C16:1n-9 in vivo, but C16:0, C18:1n-9, C18:2n-6 and C18:3n-3 could only be partly incorporated from diets and the process may be enhanced by a higher amount of dietary fat. Based on the above observation, an accurately calculated amount of black soldier fly larvae could be formulated into aquafeed as the main source of saturated fatty acids and partial source of mono-unsaturated and poly-unsaturated fatty acids to save fish oil.

Plant-Based Proteins: The Good, Bad, and Ugly

Our global population is growing at a pace to exceed 10 billion people by the year 2050. This growth will place pressure on the agricultural production of food to feed the hungry masses. One category that will be strained is protein. Per capita protein consumption is rising in virtually every country for both nutritional reasons and consumption enjoyment. The United Nations estimates protein demand will double by 2050, and this will result in a critical overall protein shortage if drastic changes are not made in the years preceding these changes. Therefore, the world is in the midst of identifying technological breakthroughs to make protein more readily available and sustainable for future generations. One protein sourcing category that has grown in the past decade is plant-based proteins, which seem to fit criteria established by discerning consumers, including healthy, sustainable, ethical, and relatively inexpensive. Although demand for plant-based protein continues to increase, these proteins are challenging to utilize in novel food formulations.

Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, Volume 13 is March 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.

Enzymatic probe sonication for quick extraction of total bisphenols from animal-derived foods: Applicability to occurrence and exposure assessment

A high demand exists in bisphenols (BPs) screening studies for quick, reliable and straightforward analytical methods that generate data faster and simultaneously. Herein, we describe a combination of enzymatic probe sonication (EPS) and ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) for quick extraction and simultaneous quantification of eight important BPs in animal-derived foods. Results obtained demonstrated that the ultrasonic probe power could not only enhance the enzymatic hydrolysis efficiency, but also accelerate the liquid-liquid extraction procedure. Under optimized EPS parameters, one sample could be exhaustively extracted within 120 s, as compared with 12 h needed for the conventional enzymatic extraction which is more suitable for high-throughput analysis. The method was successfully applied to analyze residual BPs in animal-derived foods collected from Beijing, China. Widespread occurrence of BPA, BPS, BPF, BPAF, BPP, and BPB were found, with detection frequencies of 65.2%, 42.4%, 33.7%, 29.4%, 28.3%, and 27.2%, respectively. The highest total concentration levels of BPs (sum of the eight BPs analyzed, ΣBPs) were found in chicken liver (mean 12.2 μg/kg), followed by swine liver (6.37 μg/kg), bovine muscle (3.24 μg/kg), egg (2.03 μg/kg), sheep muscle (2.03 μg/kg), chicken muscle (1.45 μg/kg), swine muscle (1.42 μg/kg), and milk (1.17 μg/kg). The estimated daily intake (EDI) of BPs, based on the mean and 95th percentile concentrations and daily food consumptions, was estimated to be 5.687 ng/kg bw/d and 22.71 ng/kg bw/d, respectively. The human health risk assessment in this work suggests that currently BPs do not pose significant risks to the consumers because the hazard index (HI) was <1.

Evaluation of Fermented Oat and Black Soldier Fly Larva as Food Ingredients in Senior Dog Diets

Simple Summary

Along with concerns about the shortage of future food resources, the problem of ensuring a stable supply of feed materials is emerging. The rapid growth of the pet food market is also increasing the demand for new food ingredients, requiring the evaluation of their safety and nutritional value. Recently, insects and fermented foods are some of the materials that have entered the spotlight as potential future foods, and studies on their usefulness as food are being actively conducted. This study aimed to evaluate and verify the safety of fermented oat (Avena sativa) and black soldier fly larva (Hermetia illucens L.) when used in a dog food as part of the effort toward discovering suitable nutritionally excellent and functional food materials. Our results show that 10% fermented oat flour, 5% black soldier fly larva meal, or a combination thereof in the food did not negatively affect food intake, body weight, fecal status, skin condition, or hematological and biochemical parameters. Overall, our findings suggest that fermented oat and black soldier fly larva can be used as food ingredients for dogs.

Abstract

The aim of this study was to evaluate the suitability of fermented oat (FO) and black soldier fly larva (BSFL) as food ingredients for dogs. A total of 20 spayed female dogs were divided into four treatment groups, with 5 dogs per group. The four treatment groups consisted of a control group, a diet with 10% FO, one with 5% BSFL, and one with 10% FO and 5% BSFL, and each experimental food was fed for 12 weeks. The feeding of FO and/or BSFL did not affect the daily food intake, body weight, body condition score, fecal score, or skin condition of the dogs. In all the experimental groups, no significant differences in serum IgG, IL-10, or TNF-α levels were observed upon the feeding of FO and/or BSFL. Some hematological (white blood cell and basophils) and serum biochemical parameters (phosphorous, globulin, and alkaline phosphatase) showed significant differences with FO and/or BSFL feeding compared to the control group, but they were within the normal reference range. No adverse clinical signs related to these parameters being affected by FO and BSFL were observed. The feeding of BSFL for 12 weeks reduced the serum cholesterol level (p < 0.05) at the end of the experiment. Our findings suggest the suitability of FO and BSFL as food materials for dogs.