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Kim H, Song C, Min D, Yoo J, Choi J. Excipient-free nanotransformation of hydrophilic macromolecules using aqueous counter collision for enhanced bioavailability. Int J Biol Macromol 2024:135416. [PMID: 39245092 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2024.135416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 09/02/2024] [Accepted: 09/05/2024] [Indexed: 09/10/2024]
Abstract
The demand for sustainable, eco-friendly biopolymer transdermal delivery systems has increased owing to growing environmental awareness. In this study, we used aqueous counter collision (ACC), a nontoxic nanotransformation method, to convert high- and ultrahigh-molecular-weight hydrophilic macromolecules into their corresponding nanoparticles (NPs). Hyaluronic acid (HA) and crosslinked HA (CLHA) were chosen as the model compounds. Their NPs exhibited particle sizes in the range of 10-100 nm and negative zeta potentials (-20 to -30 mV). Transmission electron microscopy revealed that the NPs were nearly spherical with smooth surfaces. Fourier-transform infrared and proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and agarose gel electrophoresis confirmed that the structures and molecular weights of HA and CLHA remained unaltered after ACC. However, the storage and loss moduli of HANPs and CLHANPs were significantly lower than those of HA and CLHA, respectively. Furthermore, the permeation of HANPs and CLHANPs in reconstructed human skin and human cadaver skin was visualized and quantified. HANPs and CLHANPs penetrated deeper into the skin, whereas HA and CLHA were mainly found in the stratum corneum. The total skin absorption (permeation and deposition) of HANPs and CLHANPs was approximately 2.952 and 5.572 times those of HA and CLHA, respectively. Furthermore, HANPs and CLHANPs exhibited resistance to enzyme and free radical degradation. Our findings reveal ACC as a promising, sustainable hydrophilic macromolecule delivery system compared with the chemical hydrolysis of HA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyuk Kim
- AMOREPACIFIC Research and Innovation Center, 1920 Yonggu-daero, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17074, Republic of Korea
| | - Chaeyeon Song
- AMOREPACIFIC Research and Innovation Center, 1920 Yonggu-daero, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17074, Republic of Korea
| | - Daejin Min
- AMOREPACIFIC Research and Innovation Center, 1920 Yonggu-daero, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17074, Republic of Korea
| | - Jaewon Yoo
- AMOREPACIFIC Research and Innovation Center, 1920 Yonggu-daero, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17074, Republic of Korea
| | - Joonho Choi
- AMOREPACIFIC Research and Innovation Center, 1920 Yonggu-daero, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 17074, Republic of Korea.
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2
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Brandmair K, Tao TP, Gerlach S, Przibilla J, Schepky A, Marx U, Hewitt NJ, Kühnl J, Maschmeyer I. Suitability of different reconstructed human skin models in the skin and liver Chip2 microphysiological model to investigate the kinetics and first-pass skin metabolism of the hair dye, 4-amino-2-hydroxytoluene. J Appl Toxicol 2024; 44:333-343. [PMID: 37699698 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4542] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2023] [Revised: 08/25/2023] [Accepted: 08/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023]
Abstract
The HUMIMIC skin-liver Chip2 microphysiological systems model using the epidermal model, EpiDerm™, was reported previously to mimic application route-dependent metabolism of the hair dye, 4-amino-2-hydroxytoluene (AHT). Therefore, we evaluated the use of alternative skin models-SkinEthic™, EpiDermFT™ and PhenionFT™-for the same purpose. In static incubations, AHT permeation was similar using SkinEthic™ and EpiDerm™ models. Older Day 21 (D21) SkinEthic™ models with a thicker stratum corneum did not exhibit a greater barrier to AHT (overall permeation was the same in D17 and D21 models). All epidermal models metabolised AHT, with the EpiDerm™ exhibiting higher N-acetylation than SkinEthic™ models. AHT metabolism by D21 SkinEthic™ models was lower than that by D17 SkinEthic™ and EpiDerm™ models, thus a thicker stratum corneum was associated with fewer viable cells and a lower metabolic activity. AHT permeation was much slower using PhenionFT™ compared to epidermal models and better reflected permeation of AHT through native human skin. This model also extensively metabolised AHT to N-acetyl-AHT. After a single topical or systemic application of AHT to Chip2 model with PhenionFT™, medium was analysed for parent and metabolites over 5 days. The first-pass metabolism of AHT was demonstrated, and the introduction of a wash step after 30 min decreased the exposure to AHT and its metabolites by 33% and 40%-43%, respectively. In conclusion, epidermal and FT skin models used in the Chip2 can mimic the first-pass skin metabolism of AHT. This highlights the flexibility of the Chip2 to incorporate different skin models according to the purpose.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Thi-Phuong Tao
- TissUse GmbH, Oudenarder Str. 16, D-13347, Berlin, Germany
| | - Silke Gerlach
- Beiersdorf AG, Unnastraße 48, D-20253, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Julia Przibilla
- Pharmacelsus GmbH, Science Park 2, D-66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | | | - Uwe Marx
- TissUse GmbH, Oudenarder Str. 16, D-13347, Berlin, Germany
| | - Nicola J Hewitt
- Cosmetics Europe, Avenue Herrmann-Debroux 40, 1160, Auderghem, Belgium
| | - Jochen Kühnl
- Beiersdorf AG, Unnastraße 48, D-20253, Hamburg, Germany
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3
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Gordhan BG, Liebenberg D, Scarlatti G, Herrera C, Chiodi F, Martinson N, Fox J, Kana BD. Ex vivo challenge models for infectious diseases. Crit Rev Microbiol 2023:1-20. [PMID: 37909097 DOI: 10.1080/1040841x.2023.2274855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/02/2023]
Abstract
Traditionally, molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis for infectious agents were studied in cell culture or animal models but have limitations on the extent to which the resulting data reflect natural infection in humans. The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the urgent need to rapidly develop laboratory models that enable the study of host-pathogen interactions, particularly the relative efficacy of preventive measures. Recently, human and animal ex vivo tissue challenge models have emerged as a promising avenue to study immune responses, screen potential therapies and triage vaccine candidates. This approach offers the opportunity to closely approximate human disease from the perspective of pathology and immune response. It has advantages compared to animal models which are expensive, lengthy and often require containment facilities. Herein, we summarize some recent advances in the development of ex vivo tissue challenge models for COVID-19, HIV-1 and other pathogens. We focus on the contribution of these models to enhancing knowledge of host-pathogen interactions, immune modulation, and their value in testing therapeutic agents. We further highlight the advantages and limitations of using ex vivo challenge models and briefly summarize how the use of organoids provides a useful advancement over current approaches. Collectively, these developments have enormous potential for the study of infectious diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhavna Gowan Gordhan
- Department of Science and Innovation/National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Dale Liebenberg
- Department of Science and Innovation/National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Gabriella Scarlatti
- Viral Evolution and Transmission Unit, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Carolina Herrera
- Department of Infectious Disease, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Francesca Chiodi
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Neil Martinson
- Perinatal HIV Research Unit (PHRU), Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Julie Fox
- Guys and St. Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust and King's College London, London, UK
| | - Bavesh Davandra Kana
- Department of Science and Innovation/National Research Foundation Centre of Excellence for Biomedical TB Research, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, National Health Laboratory Service, Johannesburg, South Africa
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4
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Reconstructed Human Epidermis: An Alternative Approach for In Vitro Bioequivalence Testing of Topical Products. Pharmaceutics 2022; 14:pharmaceutics14081554. [PMID: 35893811 PMCID: PMC9331624 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics14081554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/29/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The use of in vitro human skin permeation tests is of value when addressing the quality and equivalence of topical drug products in Europe and the US. Human skin is the membrane of choice for these studies. The use of human skin as a membrane is hindered by limited access, high variability of results, and limited applicability for drugs with low skin permeability. Reconstructed human epidermis (RhE) models are validated as skin surrogates for safety tests and have been explored for percutaneous absorption testing. Clotrimazole poorly permeates human skin and is widely available for topical treatments. In this study, clotrimazole creams were used to test the ability of RhE to be used as biological membrane for bioequivalence testing, based on the Draft Guideline on Quality and Equivalence of Topical Products (CHMP/QWP/708282/2018) using a discriminative and modified in vitro permeation test (IVPT). To fulfill the validation of a discriminatory method, Canesten® 10 mg/g cream was compared with a test product with the same drug strength, along with two “negative controls” dosed at a 50% and 200% drug strength. Products were compared in finite dose conditions, regarding maximal flux (Jmax) and the total amount of drug permeated (Atotal). The results showed the discriminatory power of the method among the three drug strengths with no interference of the placebo formulation. The study design and validation complied with the requirements established in the guideline for a valid IVPT. This new test system allowed for the equivalence comparison between test and comparator product. Higher permeability of the RhE compared to human skin could be observed. This arose as a strength of the model for this modified IVPT bioequivalence testing, since comparing permeation profiles among products is envisaged instead of drawing absolute conclusions on skin permeation extent. These results may support the acceptance of RhE as biological membranes for modified IVPT in bioequivalence testing of topical products.
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5
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Quantin P, Stricher M, Catoire S, Ficheux H, Egles C. Dermatokinetics: Advances and Experimental Models, Focus on Skin Metabolism. Curr Drug Metab 2022; 23:340-354. [PMID: 35585827 DOI: 10.2174/1389200223666220517114004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Revised: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Numerous dermal contact products, such as drugs or cosmetics, are applied on the skin, the first protective barrier to their entrance into the organism. These products contain various xenobiotic molecules that can penetrate the viable epidermis. Many studies have shown that keratinocyte metabolism could affect their behavior by biotransformation. While aiming for detoxification, toxic metabolites can be produced. These metabolites may react with biological macromolecules often leading to sensitization reactions. After passing through the epidermis, xenobiotics can reach the vascularized dermis and therefore be bioavailable and distributed into the entire organism. To highlight these mechanisms, dermatokinetics, based on the concept of pharmacokinetics, has been developed recently. It provides information on the action of xenobiotics that penetrate the organism through the dermal route. The purpose of this review is first to describe and synthesize the dermatokinetics mechanisms to consider when assessing the absorption of a xenobiotic through the skin. We focus on skin absorption and specifically on skin metabolism, the two main processes involved in dermatokinetics. In addition, experimental models and methods to assess dermatokinetics are described and discussed to select the most relevant method when evaluating, in a specific context, dermatokinetics parameters of a xenobiotic. We also discuss the limits of this approach as it is notably used for risk assessment in the industry where scenario studies generally focus only on one xenobiotic and do not consider interactions with the rest of the exposome. The hypothesis of adverse effects due to the combination of chemical substances in contact with individuals and not to a single molecule are being increasingly studied and embraced in the scientific community.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Quantin
- UMR 7338 UTC-CNRS, BioMécanique et BioIngénierie, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, France
| | - Mathilde Stricher
- UMR 7338 UTC-CNRS, BioMécanique et BioIngénierie, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, France Biological Engineering
| | | | - Hervé Ficheux
- UMR 7338 UTC-CNRS, BioMécanique et BioIngénierie, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, France Biological Engineering
| | - Christophe Egles
- UMR 7338 UTC-CNRS, BioMécanique et BioIngénierie, Université de Technologie de Compiègne, France
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6
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Thakkar Y, Joshi K, Hickey C, Wahler J, Wall B, Etter S, Smith B, Griem P, Tate M, Jones F, Oudraogo G, Pfuhler S, Choi C, Williams G, Greim H, Eisenbrand G, Dekant W, Api AM. OUP accepted manuscript. Mutagenesis 2022; 37:13-23. [PMID: 35302169 PMCID: PMC8976226 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/geac004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 182] [Impact Index Per Article: 91.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2021] [Accepted: 02/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BlueScreen HC is a mammalian cell-based assay for measuring the genotoxicity and cytotoxicity of chemical compounds and mixtures. The BlueScreen HC assay has been utilized at the Research Institute for Fragrance Materials in a safety assessment program as a screening tool to prioritize fragrance materials for higher-tier testing, as supporting evidence when using a read-across approach, and as evidence to adjust the threshold of toxicological concern. Predictive values for the BlueScreen HC assay were evaluated based on the ability of the assay to predict the outcome of in vitro and in vivo mutagenicity and chromosomal damage genotoxicity assays. A set of 371 fragrance materials was assessed in the BlueScreen HC assay along with existing or newly generated in vitro and in vivo genotoxicity data. Based on a weight-of-evidence approach, the majority of materials in the data set were deemed negative and concluded not to have the potential to be genotoxic, while only a small proportion of materials were determined to show genotoxic effects in these assays. Analysis of the data set showed a combination of high positive agreement but low negative agreement between BlueScreen HC results, in vitro regulatory genotoxicity assays, and higher-tier test results. The BlueScreen HC assay did not generate any false negatives, thereby providing robustness when utilizing it as a high-throughput screening tool to evaluate the large inventory of fragrance materials. From the perspective of protecting public health, it is desirable to have no or minimal false negatives, as a false-negative result may incorrectly indicate the lack of a genotoxicity hazard. However, the assay did have a high percentage of false-positive results, resulting in poor positive predictivity of the in vitro genotoxicity test battery outcome. Overall, the assay generated 100% negative predictivity and 3.9% positive predictivity. In addition to the data set of 371 fragrance materials, 30 natural complex substances were evaluated for BlueScreen HC, Ames, and in vitro micronucleus assay, and a good correlation in all three assays was observed. Overall, while a positive result may have to be further investigated, these findings suggest that the BlueScreen HC assay can be a valuable screening tool to detect the genotoxic potential of fragrance materials and mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yax Thakkar
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Blvd, Woodcliff Lake, NJ 07677, United States
- Corresponding author. Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Boulevard, Woodcliff Lake, NJ 07677-7654, United States. E-mail:
| | - Kaushal Joshi
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Blvd, Woodcliff Lake, NJ 07677, United States
| | - Christina Hickey
- Firmenich, Inc., 250 Plainsboro Rd, Plainsboro Township, NJ 08536, United States
| | - Joseph Wahler
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Blvd, Woodcliff Lake, NJ 07677, United States
- Present address: 15211 North Kierland Blvd Scottsdale, AZ 85254, United States
| | - Brian Wall
- Global Product Safety, Colgate-Palmolive Company, 909 River Rd, Piscataway, NJ 08854, United States
| | - Sylvain Etter
- Firmenich, Inc., Rue de la Bergère 7, 1242 Satigny, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin Smith
- Innovations in Food & Chemical Safety Programme, Agency for Science, Technology and Research (A*STAR), 1, #20-10 Fusionopolis Way, Connexis, North Tower, 138632, Singapore
- Singapore Institute of Food & Biotechnology Innovation, A*STAR, 1, #20-10 Fusionopolis Way, Connexis, North Tower, 138632, Singapore
| | - Peter Griem
- Symrise AG, Mühlenfeldstr 1, 37603, Holzminden, Niedersachsen, Germany
| | - Matthew Tate
- Gentronix, Alderley Edge, Macclesfield SK10 4TG, United Kingdom
| | - Frank Jones
- SC Johnson, 1525 Howe St, Racine, WI 53403, United States
| | - Gladys Oudraogo
- L'Oreal Life Sciences Research, 1, Av Eugene Schueller 93600 Aulnay sous Bois, France
| | - Stefan Pfuhler
- The Procter & Gamble Company, Mason Business Centre, Mason, OH, United States
| | | | - Gary Williams
- New York Medical College, 40 Sunshine Cottage Rd, Valhalla, NY 10595, United States
| | - Helmut Greim
- Technical University of Munich, Arcisstraße 21, 80333 München, Germany
| | - Gerhard Eisenbrand
- University of Kaiserslautern, Erwin-Schrödinger-Straße 52, 67663 Kaiserslautern, Germany (Retired)
| | - Wolfgang Dekant
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology of the University of Würzburg, Sanderring 2, 97070 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Anne Marie Api
- Research Institute for Fragrance Materials, Inc., 50 Tice Blvd, Woodcliff Lake, NJ 07677, United States
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7
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Downs TR, Arlt VM, Barnett BC, Posgai R, Pfuhler S. Effect of 2-acetylaminofluorene and its genotoxic metabolites on DNA adduct formation and DNA damage in 3D reconstructed human skin tissue models. Mutagenesis 2021; 36:63-74. [PMID: 31816077 PMCID: PMC8081378 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/gez044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In vitro genotoxicity assays utilising human skin models are becoming important tools for the safety assessment of chemicals whose primary exposure is via the dermal route. In order to explore metabolic competency and inducibility of CYP450 activating enzymes, 3D reconstructed human skin tissues were topically treated with 2-acetylaminofluorene (2-AAF) and its genotoxic metabolites, N-hydroxy-2-acetylaminofluorene (N-OH-2-AAF) and N-hydroxy-2-aminofluorene (N-OH-2-AF), which primarily cause DNA damage by forming DNA adducts. 2-AAF did not increase DNA damage measured in the reconstructed skin micronucleus (RSMN) assay when administered in multiple applications at 24 h intervals but was detected in the skin comet assay in the presence of the DNA polymerase inhibitor aphidicolin (APC). Similarly, no increase was found with N-OH-2-AAF in the RSMN assay after multiple treatments whereas a single 3 h exposure to N-OH-2-AAF caused a large dose-related increase in the skin comet assay. A significant increase in the RSMN assay was only obtained with the highly reactive N-OH-2-AF metabolite after multiple treatments over 72 h, whereas N-OH-2-AF caused a strong increase after a single 3 h exposure in the skin comet assay. In support of these results, DNA adduct formation, measured by the 32P-postlabelling assay, was examined. Adduct levels after 2-AAF treatment for 3 h were minimal but increased >10-fold after multiple exposures over 48 h, suggesting that enzyme(s) that metabolise 2-AAF are induced in the skin models. As expected, a single 3 h exposure to N-OH-2-AAF and N-OH-2-AF resulted in adduct levels that were at least 10-fold greater than those after multiple exposures to 2-AAF despite ~100-fold lower tested concentrations. Our results demonstrate that DNA damage caused by 2-AAF metabolites is more efficiently detected in the skin comet assay than the RSMN assay and after multiple exposures and enzyme induction, 2-AAF-induced DNA damage can be detected in the APC-modified comet assay.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Volker M Arlt
- Department of Analytical, Environmental and Forensic Sciences, King’s College London, London, UK
- NIHR Health Protection Research Unit in Health Impact of Environmental Hazards, King’s College London in Partnership with Public Health England and Imperial College London, London, UK
| | | | | | - Stefan Pfuhler
- Procter & Gamble, Mason, OH, USA
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +1 513 622 1163; E-mail:
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Yu L, Zhai J, Wang Y, Geng Y, Chen X, Wen Y, Tang H, Yu R, Zhang Y, Liu X. Exposure to N-monoacetyl-p-phenylenediamine impaired ovarian function in mice. J Appl Toxicol 2021; 41:2031-2041. [PMID: 34014586 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2021] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
p-Phenylenediamine (PPD) is the main constituent of permanent hair dye and is also widely used in the photographic and rubber industries. PPD and its metabolites have been shown to increase the risk of cancer (especially ovarian cancer); however, their effect on female reproduction is unclear. We investigated the effects of the PPD metabolite N-monoacetyl-PPD (MAPPD) on mouse blastocyst development and ovarian function. Sixty 8-week-old female Kunming mice were administered at 0-, 100-, and 300-mg/kg/day MPPD by gavage for 28 days. KGN (human ovarian granulosa cells) were treated with MAPPD at concentrations of 0, 50, 100, and 300 μg/ml for 48 h. The number of abnormal blastocysts increased on gestation day 3.5 in all treatment groups. Compared with the control group, in MAPPD exposed group, the number of antral follicles decreased, the levels of E2 and P4 decreased in ovarian tissue, the serum levels of E2 , P4 , luteinizing hormone (LH), and T decreased, and follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) increased. The expression of FSH receptor (FSHR) and LH receptor (LHR) was significantly downregulated, and the level of oxidative stress was significantly increased. In KGN cells, the level of reactive oxygen species increased in a dose-dependent manner, and the mRNA levels of FSHR, LHR, and aromatase increased. These results suggest that MAPPD inhibits FSH- and LH-induced aromatase activity by causing oxidative stress, which decrease hormone levels, leading to abnormal follicle development. Meanwhile, MAPPD exposure could affect early embryonic development abnormalities by affecting the quality of ovum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liliang Yu
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Jingwei Zhai
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yingxiong Wang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yanqing Geng
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xuemei Chen
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yixian Wen
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Hongyu Tang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Rao Yu
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Yue Zhang
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
| | - Xueqing Liu
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Reproductive and Development, Department of Reproductive Biology, School of Public Health, Chongqing Medical University, Chongqing, China
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9
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Tao TP, Brandmair K, Gerlach S, Przibilla J, Géniès C, Jacques-Jamin C, Schepky A, Marx U, Hewitt NJ, Maschmeyer I, Kühnl J. Demonstration of the first-pass metabolism in the skin of the hair dye, 4-amino-2-hydroxytoluene, using the Chip2 skin-liver microphysiological model. J Appl Toxicol 2021; 41:1553-1567. [PMID: 33594739 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4146] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
We used TissUse's HUMIMIC Chip2 microfluidic model, incorporating reconstructed skin models and liver spheroids, to investigate the impact of consumer-relevant application scenarios on the metabolic fate of the hair dye, 4-amino-2-hydroxytoluene (AHT). After a single topical or systemic application of AHT to Chip2 models, medium was analysed for parent and metabolites over 5 days. The metabolic profile of a high dose (resulting in a circuit concentration of 100 μM based on 100% bioavailability) of AHT was the same after systemic and topical application to 96-well EpiDerm™ models. Additional experiments indicated that metabolic capacity of EpiDerm™ models were saturated at this dose. At 2.5 μM, concentrations of AHT and several of its metabolites differed between application routes. Topical application resulted in a higher Cmax and a 327% higher area under the curve (AUC) of N-acetyl-AHT, indicating a first-pass effect in the EpiDerm™ models. In accordance with in vivo observations, there was a concomitant decrease in the Cmax and AUC of AHT-O-sulphate after topical, compared with systemic application. A similar alteration in metabolite ratios was observed using a 24-well full-thickness skin model, EpiDermFT™, indicating that a first-pass effect was also possible to detect in a more complex model. In addition, washing the EpiDermFT™ after 30 min, thus reflecting consumer use, decreased the systemic exposure to AHT and its metabolites. In conclusion, the skin-liver Chip2 model can be used to (a) recapitulate the first-pass effect of the skin and alterations in the metabolite profile of AHT observed in vivo and (b) provide consumer-relevant data regarding leave-on/rinse-off products.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Katrin Brandmair
- Front End Innovation, department of toxicology, Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Silke Gerlach
- Front End Innovation, department of toxicology, Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Julia Przibilla
- ADMET & in vitro Pharmacology, Pharmacelsus GmbH, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Camille Géniès
- Department of applied research: pharmacology, Pierre Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique, Toulouse, France
| | - Carine Jacques-Jamin
- Department of applied research: pharmacology, Pierre Fabre Dermo-Cosmétique, Toulouse, France
| | - Andreas Schepky
- Front End Innovation, department of toxicology, Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Uwe Marx
- Contract development, TissUse GmbH, Berlin, Germany
| | | | | | - Jochen Kühnl
- Front End Innovation, department of toxicology, Beiersdorf AG, Hamburg, Germany
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10
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Luo K, Zeng D, Kang Y, Lin X, Sun N, Li C, Zhu M, Chen Z, Man YB, Li H. Dermal bioaccessibility and absorption of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor dust and its implication in risk assessment. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 264:114829. [PMID: 32559865 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2020] [Revised: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 05/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Numerous studies have focused on assessing the risk of human exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in indoor dust via dermal contact. However, the dermal bioaccessibility and dermal absorption of PAHs in indoor dust have seldom been reported. In the present study, the effects of temperature, sweat ratio, solid-liquid ratio and incubation time on the dermal bioaccessibility of PAHs were examined. Naphthalene, phenanthrene, pyrene and benzo[a]pyrenewere selected for examination in an absorption assay with keratinocyte cells. The results showed the release of PAHs from indoor dust fitted a first-order one-compartment model. Naphthalene had the highest rate of release, which was consistent with the bioaccessibility assay results. In addition, the absorption rate of naphthalene and phenanthrene by keratinocytes was higher than that of pyrene and benzo[a]pyrene, with the latter being of higher molecular weight. These results indicated that low molecular weight PAHs were much more easily absorbed via dermal contact than were high molecular weight PAHs. The dermal bioavailability of PAHs in indoor dust was estimated by multiplying the bioaccessibility of PAHs in indoor dust by the ratio of dermal absorption by skin cells, and ranged from 0.12 to 51.0%. These data will be useful in risk assessments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kesong Luo
- School of Environment, South China Normal University, Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Diya Zeng
- School of Environment, South China Normal University, Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yuan Kang
- School of Environment, South China Normal University, Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China.
| | - Xunyang Lin
- School of Environment, South China Normal University, Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Na Sun
- School of Environment, South China Normal University, Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Cheng Li
- School of Environment, South China Normal University, Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Mengqi Zhu
- School of Environment, South China Normal University, Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Zhenwen Chen
- School of Environment, South China Normal University, Higher Education Mega Center, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Yu Bon Man
- Consortium on Health, Environment, Education and Research (CHEER), Department of Science and Environmental Studies, The Education University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong
| | - Hui Li
- Departmentof Ecology, College of Life Science and Technology, Jinan University, China
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Eilstein J, Grégoire S, Fabre A, Arbey E, Géniès C, Duplan H, Rothe H, Ellison C, Cubberley R, Schepky A, Lange D, Klaric M, Hewitt NJ, Jacques‐Jamin C. Use of human liver and EpiSkin™ S9 subcellular fractions as a screening assays to compare the in vitro hepatic and dermal metabolism of 47 cosmetics‐relevant chemicals. J Appl Toxicol 2020; 40:416-433. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.3914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2019] [Revised: 09/24/2019] [Accepted: 09/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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12
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Nepal MR, Kang MJ, Kim GH, Cha DH, Nam DH, Jeong TC. Identification of pre- and pro-haptens with a β-galactosidase-expressing E. coli culture system for skin sensitization. Toxicol Lett 2019; 305:81-93. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Revised: 12/31/2018] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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13
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Riebeling C, Luch A, Tralau T. Skin toxicology and 3Rs-Current challenges for public health protection. Exp Dermatol 2019; 27:526-536. [PMID: 29575089 DOI: 10.1111/exd.13536] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Driven by the fast paced development of complex test systems in vitro, mass spectrometry and omics, we finally have the tools to unravel the molecular events that underlie toxicological adversity. Yet, timely regulatory adaptation of these new tools continues to pose major challenges even for organs readily accessible such as skin. The reasons for this encompass a need for conservatism as well as the need of tests to serve an existing regulatory framework rather than to produce scientific knowledge. It is important to be aware of this in order to align regulatory skin toxicity with the 3R principles more readily. While most chemical safety testing is still based on animal data, regulatory frameworks have seen a strong push towards non-animal approaches. The endpoints corrosion, irritation, sensitisation, absorption and phototoxicity, for example, can now be covered in vitro with the corresponding test guidelines (TGs) being made available by the OECD. However, in vitro approaches tend to be more reductionist. Hence, a combination of several tests is usually preferable to achieve satisfying predictivity. Moreover, the test systems and their combined use need to be standardised and are therefore subject not only to validation but also to the ongoing development of so-called integrated approaches to testing and assessment (IATAs). Concomitantly, skin models are being refined to deliver the complexity required for increased applicability and predictivity. Given the importance of regulatory applicability for 3R-derived approaches to have a long-lasting impact, this review examines the state of regulatory implementation and perspectives, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Riebeling
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Luch
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Tewes Tralau
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
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15
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Matsuzawa T, Nakano M, Oikawa A, Nakamura Y, Matsue H. Three-Dimensional Epidermal Model from Human Hair Follicle-Derived Keratinocytes. Methods Mol Biol 2019; 1993:123-137. [PMID: 31148083 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9473-1_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) epidermal models reconstructed from human skin-derived keratinocytes have been utilized as an alternative to animal testing and models, not only in toxicology, but also in skin biology. Although there are currently several reconstructed human epidermis (RHE) models commercially available, the donors of the keratinocytes are not identified in these models. A tailor-made system is needed to investigate the individual differences in RHE derived from each donor.It is possible to make an individual RHE using each donor's keratinocytes, which are usually obtained by invasive procedures such as skin excision or biopsy. To overcome this drawback, we established an RHE model using keratinocytes derived from plucked hair follicles as a less invasive procedure under conditions without feeder cells, serum, or matrix proteins. In this chapter, we provide a method of isolation and two-dimensional (2D) culture of keratinocytes derived from adult human plucked hair follicles including the outer root sheath (ORS). We also provide a detailed protocol for establishing an RHE model by culturing the keratinocytes under a 3D culture condition. We believe that our less invasive technique will provide a useful tool for investigating individual RHE in both normal and disease settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takamitsu Matsuzawa
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan.
| | - Michiyo Nakano
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Ayako Oikawa
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yuumi Nakamura
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Matsue
- Department of Dermatology, Graduate School of Medicine, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
- Medical Mycology Research Center, Chiba University, Chiba, Japan
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16
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Oesch F, Fabian E, Landsiedel R. Xenobiotica-metabolizing enzymes in the skin of rat, mouse, pig, guinea pig, man, and in human skin models. Arch Toxicol 2018; 92:2411-2456. [PMID: 29916051 PMCID: PMC6063329 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-018-2232-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Studies on the metabolic fate of medical drugs, skin care products, cosmetics and other chemicals intentionally or accidently applied to the human skin have become increasingly important in order to ascertain pharmacological effectiveness and to avoid toxicities. The use of freshly excised human skin for experimental investigations meets with ethical and practical limitations. Hence information on xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XME) in the experimental systems available for pertinent studies compared with native human skin has become crucial. This review collects available information of which—taken with great caution because of the still very limited data—the most salient points are: in the skin of all animal species and skin-derived in vitro systems considered in this review cytochrome P450 (CYP)-dependent monooxygenase activities (largely responsible for initiating xenobiotica metabolism in the organ which provides most of the xenobiotica metabolism of the mammalian organism, the liver) are very low to undetectable. Quite likely other oxidative enzymes [e.g. flavin monooxygenase, COX (cooxidation by prostaglandin synthase)] will turn out to be much more important for the oxidative xenobiotic metabolism in the skin. Moreover, conjugating enzyme activities such as glutathione transferases and glucuronosyltransferases are much higher than the oxidative CYP activities. Since these conjugating enzymes are predominantly detoxifying, the skin appears to be predominantly protected against CYP-generated reactive metabolites. The following recommendations for the use of experimental animal species or human skin in vitro models may tentatively be derived from the information available to date: for dermal absorption and for skin irritation esterase activity is of special importance which in pig skin, some human cell lines and reconstructed skin models appears reasonably close to native human skin. With respect to genotoxicity and sensitization reactive-metabolite-reducing XME in primary human keratinocytes and several reconstructed human skin models appear reasonably close to human skin. For a more detailed delineation and discussion of the severe limitations see the Conclusions section in the end of this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Oesch
- Institute of Toxicology, Johannes Gutenberg-University, Obere Zahlbacherstr. 67, 55131, Mainz, Germany
| | - E Fabian
- Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, GV/TB, Z470, BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Str. 38, 67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | - Robert Landsiedel
- Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, GV/TB, Z470, BASF SE, Carl-Bosch-Str. 38, 67056, Ludwigshafen, Germany.
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Application of standard cell cultures and 3D in vitro tissue models as an effective tool in drug design and development. Pharmacol Rep 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2017.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Lichter J, Bock U, Lotz C, Groeber F, Blömeke B. Functional expression of N-acetyltransferase 1 in differentiated human skin keratinocytes. Br J Dermatol 2017; 177:870-872. [PMID: 27681044 DOI: 10.1111/bjd.15091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J Lichter
- University Trier, Environmental Toxicology, Universitätsring 15, 54296, Trier, Germany
| | - U Bock
- University Trier, Environmental Toxicology, Universitätsring 15, 54296, Trier, Germany
| | - C Lotz
- Chair of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 2, 97080, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - F Groeber
- Translational Center Wuerzburg, Fraunhofer Institute for Interfacial Engineering and Biotechnology (IGB) Wuerzburg, Röntgenring 11, 97070, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - B Blömeke
- University Trier, Environmental Toxicology, Universitätsring 15, 54296, Trier, Germany
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Almeida A, Sarmento B, Rodrigues F. Insights on in vitro models for safety and toxicity assessment of cosmetic ingredients. Int J Pharm 2017; 519:178-185. [PMID: 28104405 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2016] [Revised: 01/10/2017] [Accepted: 01/11/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
According to the current European legislation, the safety assessment of each individual cosmetic ingredient of any formulation is the basis for the safety evaluation of a cosmetic product. Also, animal testing in the European Union is prohibited for cosmetic ingredients and products since 2004 and 2009, respectively. Additionally, the commercialization of any cosmetic products containing ingredients tested on animal models was forbidden in 2009. In consequence of these boundaries, the European Centre for the Validation of Alternative Methods (ECVAM) proposes a list of validated cell-based in vitro models for predicting the safety and toxicity of cosmetic ingredients. These models have been demonstrated as valuable and effective tools to overcome the limitations of animal in vivo studies. Although the use of in vitro cell-based models for the evaluation of absorption and permeability of cosmetic ingredients is widespread, a detailed study on the properties of these platforms and the in vitro-in vivo correlation compared with human data are required. Moreover, additional efforts must be taken to develop in vitro models to predict carcinogenicity, repeat dose toxicity and reproductive toxicity, for which no alternative in vitro methods are currently available. This review paper summarizes and characterizes the most relevant in vitro models validated by ECVAM employed to predict the safety and toxicology of cosmetic ingredients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreia Almeida
- I3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Bruno Sarmento
- I3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, University of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; INEB - Instituto de Engenharia Biomédica, University of Porto, Rua Alfredo Allen, 208, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal; CESPU, Instituto de Investigação e Formação Avançada em Ciências e Tecnologias da Saúde, Instituto Superior de Ciências da Saúde-Norte, Rua Central de Gandra, 1317, 4585-116 Gandra, Portugal.
| | - Francisca Rodrigues
- LAQV/REQUIMTE, Department of Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Portugal.
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Imran M, Usman HF, Shafi H, Sarwar M, Tahir MA. Development of Rapid and Economical Colorimetric Screening Method for p-Phenylenediamine in Variety of Biological Matrices and its Application to Eleven Fatal Cases of p-Phenylenediamine Poisoning. J Forensic Sci 2016; 62:483-487. [PMID: 27957731 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2015] [Revised: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 05/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
A rapid colorimetric method for detection of p-phenylenediamine (PPD) in various biological samples is developed. The o-cresol test for acetaminophen detection has been modified to detect PPD in blood, urine, gastric contents, and liver. After precipitating protein with trichloroacetic acid solution (2 mL, 10% w/v), biological specimens were required to convert PPD metabolites to PPD by acid hydrolysis. Finally, o-cresol solution (1 mL, 1% w/v), hydrogen peroxide (200 μL, 3%v/v), and concentrated ammonium hydroxide (0.5 mL) were added in the biological samples. The presence of PPD was indicated by formation of violet color which was turned to bluish green color within 10-15 min. The limit of detection was found to be 2 mg/L in blood, urine, and gastric contents and 2 mg/Kg in liver. This method is also free from any potential interference by p-aminophenol, acetaminophen, and other amine drugs under test conditions. This method was successfully employed to thirteen fatal cases of PPD poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammad Imran
- Forensic Toxicology department, Punjab Forensic Science Agency, Thokar Niaz Baig, Multan Road, Lahore, 53700, Pakistan
| | - Hafiz Faisal Usman
- Forensic Toxicology department, Punjab Forensic Science Agency, Thokar Niaz Baig, Multan Road, Lahore, 53700, Pakistan
| | - Humera Shafi
- Forensic Toxicology department, Punjab Forensic Science Agency, Thokar Niaz Baig, Multan Road, Lahore, 53700, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Sarwar
- Forensic Toxicology department, Punjab Forensic Science Agency, Thokar Niaz Baig, Multan Road, Lahore, 53700, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Ashraf Tahir
- Forensic Toxicology department, Punjab Forensic Science Agency, Thokar Niaz Baig, Multan Road, Lahore, 53700, Pakistan
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Spriggs S, Sheffield D, Olayanju A, Kitteringham NR, Naisbitt DJ, Aleksic M. Effect of Repeated Daily Dosing with 2,4-Dinitrochlorobenzene on Glutathione Biosynthesis and Nrf2 Activation in Reconstructed Human Epidermis. Toxicol Sci 2016; 154:5-15. [PMID: 27492222 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfw140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Glutathione (GSH) plays a major role in skin detoxification processes due to its ability to conjugate electrophilic exogenous compounds with, and sometimes without, catalysis by glutathione-s-transferase (GST). GST activity has been demonstrated both in skin and in most in vitro skin equivalents but so far studies have focussed on chemical clearance (conjugate identification and rate of conjugation) and did not consider the GSH lifecycle (conjugation, recycling, synthesis). We used the model skin sensitizer 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) to investigate the effects of chemical exposure on GSH lifecycle in reconstructed human epidermis (RHE). We demonstrated that the RHE model is suitable to carry out repeated cycles of 2-h exposure to DNCB over a 3-day period. After each exposure to DNCB, the level of GSH is diminished in a dose dependent manner. After a 22-h recovery period, GSH is replenished back to initial levels. Accumulation of the nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) in the cytosol also occurs within the 2 h of exposure to DNCB but returns to baseline during each recovery period, demonstrating that activation of the Nrf2 signaling pathway offers a rapid response to chemical stress. The amount of dinitrophenyl-glutathione (DNP-SG) formed with DNCB (1) increased between the first and second exposure and (2) reached a plateau between the second and third exposure. Collectively, these data suggest that the metabolic capacity of skin may not be fixed in time but defence mechanisms might be activated in response to exposure to exogenous compounds, resulting in their accelerated clearance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandrine Spriggs
- *Unilever, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ, UK;
| | - David Sheffield
- *Unilever, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ, UK
| | - Adedamola Olayanju
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, the University of Liverpool, Sherrington Building, Ashton Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK
| | - Neil R Kitteringham
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, the University of Liverpool, Sherrington Building, Ashton Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK
| | - Dean J Naisbitt
- Department of Molecular and Clinical Pharmacology, MRC Centre for Drug Safety Science, the University of Liverpool, Sherrington Building, Ashton Street, Liverpool L69 3GE, UK
| | - Maja Aleksic
- *Unilever, Safety and Environmental Assurance Centre, Colworth Science Park, Sharnbrook, Bedfordshire MK44 1LQ, UK
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Pot LM, Coenraads PJ, Blömeke B, Puppels GJ, Caspers PJ. Real-time detection of p-phenylenediamine penetration into human skin by in vivo Raman spectroscopy. Contact Dermatitis 2016; 74:152-8. [PMID: 26778536 DOI: 10.1111/cod.12523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2015] [Revised: 10/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Penetration, autoxidation and N-acetylation of p-phenylenediamine (PPD) have been studied in vitro and ex vivo. However, a clear understanding of in vivo PPD penetration and the formation of PPD derivatives is lacking. OBJECTIVES To obtain insights into the in vivo penetration, clearance and formation of PPD derivatives in human skin. METHODS Patch test chambers containing PPD 1% pet. were applied to the forearms of two human volunteers, with increasing application times. Non-invasive Raman microspectroscopy was used for detection of PPD (derivatives) in skin at several follow-up times. RESULTS Application of a PPD 1% pet. patch for 30 min resulted in substantial amounts of PPD in the stratum corneum of 90 mg PPD/g keratin. PPD contents were highest after three applications for 1 h each (330 mg PPD/g keratin), followed by single applications for 2 h 40 min, 2 h, and 23 h. The PPD half-time in the skin was 3 h. No spectral contributions of Bandrowski's base, monoacetyl-PPD and diacetyl-PPD were detected. CONCLUSIONS We have gained insights into the in vivo penetration of PPD in human skin by using non-invasive Raman spectroscopy. Penetration into the skin was fast, and the PPD concentrations detected in the stratum corneum were high. PPD was detected in both the stratum corneum and the viable epidermis. Oxidized or acetylated PPD derivatives could not be detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Marjolijn Pot
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, 9700, RB, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Pieter-Jan Coenraads
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, 9700, RB, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Brunhilde Blömeke
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University of Trier, D-54296, Trier, Germany
| | - Gerwin J Puppels
- Department of Dermatology, Centre for Optical Diagnostics and Therapy, Erasmus MC, 3015, CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,RiverD International B.V., 3029, AK, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Peter J Caspers
- Department of Dermatology, Centre for Optical Diagnostics and Therapy, Erasmus MC, 3015, CE, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.,RiverD International B.V., 3029, AK, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
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Manwaring J, Rothe H, Obringer C, Foltz DJ, Baker TR, Troutman JA, Hewitt NJ, Goebel C. Extrapolation of systemic bioavailability assessing skin absorption and epidermal and hepatic metabolism of aromatic amine hair dyes in vitro. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2015; 287:139-148. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2015.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Revised: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Nohynek GJ, Skare JA, Meuling WJ, Wehmeyer KR, de Bie ATH, Vaes WH, Dufour EK, Fautz R, Steiling W, Bramante M, Toutain H. Human systemic exposure to [ 14 C]-paraphenylenediamine-containing oxidative hair dyes: Absorption, kinetics, metabolism, excretion and safety assessment. Food Chem Toxicol 2015; 81:71-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2015.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2015] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/01/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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25
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Alépée N, Bahinski A, Daneshian M, De Wever B, Fritsche E, Goldberg A, Hansmann J, Hartung T, Haycock J, Hogberg H, Hoelting L, Kelm JM, Kadereit S, McVey E, Landsiedel R, Leist M, Lübberstedt M, Noor F, Pellevoisin C, Petersohn D, Pfannenbecker U, Reisinger K, Ramirez T, Rothen-Rutishauser B, Schäfer-Korting M, Zeilinger K, Zurich MG. State-of-the-art of 3D cultures (organs-on-a-chip) in safety testing and pathophysiology. ALTEX-ALTERNATIVES TO ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION 2014. [PMID: 25027500 DOI: 10.14573/altex1406111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Integrated approaches using different in vitro methods in combination with bioinformatics can (i) increase the success rate and speed of drug development; (ii) improve the accuracy of toxicological risk assessment; and (iii) increase our understanding of disease. Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models are important building blocks of this strategy which has emerged during the last years. The majority of these models are organotypic, i.e., they aim to reproduce major functions of an organ or organ system. This implies in many cases that more than one cell type forms the 3D structure, and often matrix elements play an important role. This review summarizes the state of the art concerning commonalities of the different models. For instance, the theory of mass transport/metabolite exchange in 3D systems and the special analytical requirements for test endpoints in organotypic cultures are discussed in detail. In the next part, 3D model systems for selected organs--liver, lung, skin, brain--are presented and characterized in dedicated chapters. Also, 3D approaches to the modeling of tumors are presented and discussed. All chapters give a historical background, illustrate the large variety of approaches, and highlight up- and downsides as well as specific requirements. Moreover, they refer to the application in disease modeling, drug discovery and safety assessment. Finally, consensus recommendations indicate a roadmap for the successful implementation of 3D models in routine screening. It is expected that the use of such models will accelerate progress by reducing error rates and wrong predictions from compound testing.
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Onn LC, Ching CS, Lian TY, Foon LV, Chew Hee N, Moi CS. 4-chloro-1,2-phenylenediamine induces apoptosis in Mardin-Darby canine kidney cells via activation of caspases. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2014; 29:655-664. [PMID: 22778066 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2010] [Accepted: 06/10/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
4-Chloro-1,2-phenylenediamine (4-Cl-o-PD) is a halogenated aromatic diamine that was used as a precursor for manufacturing permanent hair dyes. Despite its well-documented mutagenic and carcinogenic effects in a number of in vitro and in vivo models, its cytotoxicity and mode of action have not received similar attention. Here, we investigated the effect of 4-Cl-o-PD on Mardin-Darby canine kidney cells. It induced apoptosis and the evidence suggests its initiation by reactive oxygen species (ROS). The results of various assays used show a dose-dependent (i) decrease in cell viability, (ii) increase in cells at sub-G1 phase and the G0/G1 phase arrested in cell cycle, (iii) increase in intracellular ROS accompanied by depletion of glutathione, and (iv) that apoptotic cell death probably involves activation of both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leong Chee Onn
- Department of Life Science, School of Pharmacy and Health Science, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan 19/155B, Bukit Jalil, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Chapman KE, Thomas AD, Wills JW, Pfuhler S, Doak SH, Jenkins GJS. Automation and validation of micronucleus detection in the 3D EpiDerm™ human reconstructed skin assay and correlation with 2D dose responses. Mutagenesis 2014; 29:165-75. [PMID: 24675152 PMCID: PMC3983754 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/geu011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent restrictions on the testing of cosmetic ingredients in animals have resulted in the need to test the genotoxic potential of chemicals exclusively in vitro prior to licensing. However, as current in vitro tests produce some misleading positive results, sole reliance on such tests could prevent some chemicals with safe or beneficial exposure levels from being marketed. The 3D human reconstructed skin micronucleus (RSMN) assay is a promising new in vitro approach designed to assess genotoxicity of dermally applied compounds. The assay utilises a highly differentiated in vitro model of the human epidermis. For the first time, we have applied automated micronucleus detection to this assay using MetaSystems Metafer Slide Scanning Platform (Metafer), demonstrating concordance with manual scoring. The RSMN assay’s fixation protocol was found to be compatible with the Metafer, providing a considerably shorter alternative to the recommended Metafer protocol. Lowest observed genotoxic effect levels (LOGELs) were observed for mitomycin-C at 4.8 µg/ml and methyl methanesulfonate (MMS) at 1750 µg/ml when applied topically to the skin surface. In-medium dosing with MMS produced a LOGEL of 20 µg/ml, which was very similar to the topical LOGEL when considering the total mass of MMS added. Comparisons between 3D medium and 2D LOGELs resulted in a 7-fold difference in total mass of MMS applied to each system, suggesting a protective function of the 3D microarchitecture. Interestingly, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), a positive clastogen in 2D systems, tested negative in this assay. A non-genotoxic carcinogen, methyl carbamate, produced negative results, as expected. We also demonstrated expression of the DNA repair protein N-methylpurine-DNA glycosylase in EpiDerm™. Our preliminary validation here demonstrates that the RSMN assay may be a valuable follow-up to the current in vitro test battery, and together with its automation, could contribute to minimising unnecessary in vivo tests by reducing in vitro misleading positives.
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Affiliation(s)
- K E Chapman
- DNA Damage Research Group, Institute of Life Science, College of Medicine, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea, Wales, SA2 8PP, UK
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Gundert-Remy U, Bernauer U, Blömeke B, Döring B, Fabian E, Goebel C, Hessel S, Jäckh C, Lampen A, Oesch F, Petzinger E, Völkel W, Roos PH. Extrahepatic metabolism at the body's internal–external interfaces. Drug Metab Rev 2014; 46:291-324. [DOI: 10.3109/03602532.2014.900565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Alépée N, Bahinski A, Daneshian M, De Wever B, Fritsche E, Goldberg A, Hansmann J, Hartung T, Haycock J, Hogberg HT, Hoelting L, Kelm JM, Kadereit S, McVey E, Landsiedel R, Leist M, Lübberstedt M, Noor F, Pellevoisin C, Petersohn D, Pfannenbecker U, Reisinger K, Ramirez T, Rothen-Rutishauser B, Schäfer-Korting M, Zeilinger K, Zurich MG. State-of-the-art of 3D cultures (organs-on-a-chip) in safety testing and pathophysiology. ALTEX 2014; 31:441-77. [PMID: 25027500 PMCID: PMC4783151 DOI: 10.14573/altex.1406111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/30/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
Integrated approaches using different in vitro methods in combination with bioinformatics can (i) increase the success rate and speed of drug development; (ii) improve the accuracy of toxicological risk assessment; and (iii) increase our understanding of disease. Three-dimensional (3D) cell culture models are important building blocks of this strategy which has emerged during the last years. The majority of these models are organotypic, i.e., they aim to reproduce major functions of an organ or organ system. This implies in many cases that more than one cell type forms the 3D structure, and often matrix elements play an important role. This review summarizes the state of the art concerning commonalities of the different models. For instance, the theory of mass transport/metabolite exchange in 3D systems and the special analytical requirements for test endpoints in organotypic cultures are discussed in detail. In the next part, 3D model systems for selected organs--liver, lung, skin, brain--are presented and characterized in dedicated chapters. Also, 3D approaches to the modeling of tumors are presented and discussed. All chapters give a historical background, illustrate the large variety of approaches, and highlight up- and downsides as well as specific requirements. Moreover, they refer to the application in disease modeling, drug discovery and safety assessment. Finally, consensus recommendations indicate a roadmap for the successful implementation of 3D models in routine screening. It is expected that the use of such models will accelerate progress by reducing error rates and wrong predictions from compound testing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anthony Bahinski
- Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering, Harvard University, Boston, USA
| | - Mardas Daneshian
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing – Europe (CAAT-Europe), University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | | | - Ellen Fritsche
- Leibniz Research Institute for Environmental Medicine, Duesseldorf, Germany
| | - Alan Goldberg
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, USA
| | - Jan Hansmann
- Department of Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Thomas Hartung
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing – Europe (CAAT-Europe), University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany,Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, USA
| | - John Haycock
- Department of Materials Science of Engineering, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Helena T. Hogberg
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing (CAAT), Johns Hopkins University, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, USA
| | - Lisa Hoelting
- Doerenkamp-Zbinden Chair of in vitro Toxicology and Biomedicine, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | | | - Suzanne Kadereit
- Doerenkamp-Zbinden Chair of in vitro Toxicology and Biomedicine, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Emily McVey
- Board for the Authorization of Plant Protection Products and Biocides, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Marcel Leist
- Center for Alternatives to Animal Testing – Europe (CAAT-Europe), University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany,Doerenkamp-Zbinden Chair of in vitro Toxicology and Biomedicine, University of Konstanz, Konstanz, Germany
| | - Marc Lübberstedt
- Bioreactor Group, Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies (BCRT), Charité Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - Fozia Noor
- Biochemical Engineering, Saarland University, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | - Tzutzuy Ramirez
- BASF SE, Experimental Toxicology and Ecology, Ludwigshafen, Germany
| | | | - Monika Schäfer-Korting
- Institute for Pharmacy (Pharmacology and Toxicology), Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katrin Zeilinger
- Bioreactor Group, Berlin-Brandenburg Center for Regenerative Therapies (BCRT), Charité Campus Virchow-Klinikum, Berlin, Germany
| | - Marie-Gabriele Zurich
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland,Swiss Center for Applied Human Toxicology (SCAHT), University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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Zeller A, Pfuhler S. N-acetylation of three aromatic amine hair dye precursor molecules eliminates their genotoxic potential. Mutagenesis 2013; 29:37-48. [PMID: 24275315 DOI: 10.1093/mutage/get053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
N-acetylation has been described as a detoxification reaction for aromatic amines; however, there is only limited data available showing that this metabolic conversion step changes their genotoxicity potential. To extend this database, three aromatic amines, all widely used as precursors in oxidative hair dye formulations, were chosen for this study: p-phenylenediamine (PPD), 2,5-diaminotoluene (DAT) and 4-amino-2-hydroxytoluene (AHT). Aiming at a deeper mechanistic understanding of the interplay between activation and detoxification for this chemical class, we compared the genotoxicity profiles of the parent compounds with those of their N-acetylated metabolites. While PPD, DAT and AHT all show genotoxic potential in vitro, their N-acetylated metabolites completely lack genotoxic potential as shown in the Salmonella typhimurium reversion assay, micronucleus test with cultured human lymphocytes (AHT), chromosome aberration assay with V79 cells (DAT) and Comet assay performed with V79 cells. For the bifunctional aromatic amines studied (PPD and DAT), monoacetylation was sufficient to completely abolish their genotoxic potential. Detoxification through N-acetylation was further confirmed by comparing PPD, DAT and AHT in the Comet assay using standard V79 cells (N-acetyltransferase (NAT) deficient) and two NAT-proficient cell lines,V79NAT1*4 and HaCaT (human keratinocytes). Here we observed a clear shift of dose-response curves towards decreased genotoxicity of the parent aromatic amines in the NAT-proficient cells. These findings suggest that genotoxic effects will only be found at concentrations where the N-acetylation (detoxifying) capacity of the cells is overwhelmed, indicating that a 'first-pass' effect in skin could be taken into account for risk assessment of these topically applied aromatic amines. The findings also indicate that the use of liver S-9 preparations, which generally underestimate Phase II reactions, contributes to the generation of irrelevant positive results in standard genotoxicity tests for this chemical class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Zeller
- The Procter and Gamble Co., Cosmital SA, Route de Chésalles 21, 1723 Marly, Switzerland
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Reus AA, Maas WJM, Jansen HT, Constant S, Staal YCM, van Triel JJ, Kuper CF. Feasibility of a 3D human airway epithelial model to study respiratory absorption. Toxicol In Vitro 2013; 28:258-64. [PMID: 24216300 DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2013.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2013] [Revised: 09/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/23/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The respiratory route is an important portal for human exposure to a large variety of substances. Consequently, there is an urgent need for realistic in vitro strategies for evaluation of the absorption of airborne substances with regard to safety and efficacy assessment. The present study investigated feasibility of a 3D human airway epithelial model to study respiratory absorption, in particular to differentiate between low and high absorption of substances. Bronchial epithelial models (MucilAir™), cultured at the air-liquid interface, were exposed to eight radiolabeled model substances via the apical epithelial surface. Absorption was evaluated by measuring radioactivity in the apical compartment, the epithelial cells and the basolateral culture medium. Antipyrine, caffeine, naproxen and propranolol were highly transported across the epithelial cell layer (>5%), whereas atenolol, mannitol, PEG-400 and insulin were limitedly transported (<5%). Results indicate that the 3D human airway epithelial model used in this study is able to differentiate between substances with low and high absorption. The intra-experimental reproducibility of the results was considered adequate based on an average coefficient of variation (CV) of 15%. The inter-experimental reproducibility of highly absorbed compounds was in a similar range (CV of 15%), but this value was considerably higher for those compounds that were limitedly absorbed. No statistical significant differences between different donors and experiments were observed. The present study provides a simple method transposable in any lab, which can be used to rank the absorption of chemicals and pharmaceuticals, and is ready for further validation with respect to reproducibility and capacity of the method to predict respiratory transport in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid A Reus
- TNO Triskelion, Utrechtseweg 48, 3704 HE Zeist, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Harm T Jansen
- TNO, Utrechtseweg 48, 3704 HE Zeist, The Netherlands
| | - Samuel Constant
- Epithelix SàRL, 14 chemin des Aulx, CH-1228 Plan-Les-Ouates, Genève, Switzerland
| | | | - Jos J van Triel
- TNO Triskelion, Utrechtseweg 48, 3704 HE Zeist, The Netherlands
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The reconstructed skin micronucleus assay in EpiDerm™: Reduction of false-positive results – a mechanistic study with epigallocatechin gallate. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2013; 757:148-57. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2013.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 07/26/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Pot LM, Scheitza SM, Coenraads PJ, Blömeke B. Penetration and haptenation of p-phenylenediamine. Contact Dermatitis 2013; 68:193-207. [PMID: 23510340 DOI: 10.1111/cod.12032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Although p-phenylenediamine (PPD) has been recognized as an extreme sensitizer for many years, the exact mechanism of sensitization has not been elucidated yet. Penetration and the ability to bind to proteins are the first two hurdles that an allergen has to overcome to be able to sensitize. This review is an overview of studies regarding PPD penetration through skin (analogues) and studies on the amino acids that are targeted by PPD. To complete this review, the auto-oxidation and N-acetylation steps involved in PPD metabolism are described. In summary, under normal hair dyeing exposure conditions, <1% of the applied PPD dose penetrates the skin. The majority (>80%) of PPD that penetrates will be converted into the detoxification products monoacetyl-PPD and diacetyl-PPD by the N-acetyltransferase enzymes. The small amount of PPD that does not become N-acetylated is susceptible to auto-oxidation reactions, yielding protein-reactive PPD derivatives. These derivatives may bind to specific amino acids, and some of the formed adducts might be the complexes responsible for sensitization. However, true in vivo evidence is lacking, and further research to unravel the definite mechanism of sensitization is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura M Pot
- Department of Dermatology, University Medical Centre Groningen, University of Groningen, 9700 RB Groningen, The Netherlands
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Sarmento B, Andrade F, da Silva SB, Rodrigues F, das Neves J, Ferreira D. Cell-based in vitro models for predicting drug permeability. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2012; 8:607-21. [PMID: 22424145 DOI: 10.1517/17425255.2012.673586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION In vitro cell models have been used to predict drug permeation in early stages of drug development, since they represent an easy and reproducible method, allowing the tracking of drug absorption rate and mechanism, with an advantageous cost-benefit ratio. Such cell-based models are mainly composed of immortalized cells with an intrinsic ability to grow in a monolayer when seeded in permeable supports, maintaining their physiologic characteristics regarding epithelium cell physiology and functionality. AREAS COVERED This review summarizes the most important intestinal, pulmonary, nasal, vaginal, rectal, ocular and skin cell-based in vitro models for predicting the permeability of drugs. Moreover, the similitude between in vitro cell models and in vivo conditions are discussed, providing evidence that each model may provisionally resemble different drug absorption route. EXPERT OPINION Despite the widespread use of in vitro cell models for drug permeability and absorption evaluation purposes, a detailed study on the properties of these models and their in vitro-in vivo correlation compared with human data are required to further use in order to consider a future drug discovery optimization and clinical development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Sarmento
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, LTF/CICF, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, Portugal.
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Götz C, Hewitt NJ, Jermann E, Tigges J, Kohne Z, Hübenthal U, Krutmann J, Merk HF, Fritsche E. Effects of the genotoxic compounds, benzo[a]pyrene and cyclophosphamide on phase 1 and 2 activities in EpiDerm™ models. Xenobiotica 2011; 42:526-37. [DOI: 10.3109/00498254.2011.643255] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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Hooff GP, van Huizen NA, Meesters RJW, Zijlstra EE, Abdelraheem M, Abdelraheem W, Hamdouk M, Lindemans J, Luider TM. Analytical investigations of toxic p-phenylenediamine (PPD) levels in clinical urine samples with special focus on MALDI-MS/MS. PLoS One 2011; 6:e22191. [PMID: 21829608 PMCID: PMC3150356 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0022191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2011] [Accepted: 06/17/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Para-phenylenediamine (PPD) is a common chromophoric ingredient in oxidative hair-dyes. In some African countries like Sudan, Egypt and Morocco but also in India this chemical is used alone or in combination with colouring extracts like Henna for dyeing of the hair or the skin. Excessive dermal exposure to PPD mainly leads to the N-mono- and N,N′-diacetylated products (MAPPD, DAPPD) by N-acetyltransferase 1 and 2 (NAT1 and 2) catalyzed reactions. Metabolites and PPD are mainly excreted via renal clearance. Despite a low risk of intoxication when used in due form, there are numerous cases of acute intoxication in those countries every year. At the ENT Hospital - Khartoum (Sudan) alone more than 300 cases are reported every year (∼10% fatal), mostly caused by either an accidental or intended (suicidal) high systemic exposure to pure PPD. Intoxication leads to a severe clinical syndrome including laryngeal edema, rhabdomyolysis and subsequent renal failure, neurotoxicity and acute toxic hepatitis. To date, there is no defined clinical treatment or antidote available and treatment is largely supportive. Herein, we show the development of a quick on-site identification assay to facilitate differential diagnosis in the clinic and, more importantly, the implementation of an advanced analytical platform for future in-depth investigations of PPD intoxication and metabolism is described. The current work shows a sensitive (∼25 µM) wet chemistry assay, a validated MALDI-MS/MS and HPLC-UV assay for the determination of PPD and its metabolites in human urine. We show the feasibility of the methods for measuring PPD over a range of 50–1000 µM. The validation criteria included linearity, lower limit of quantification (LLOQ), accuracy and precision, recovery and stability. Finally, PPD concentrations were determined in clinical urine samples of cases of acute intoxication and the applied technique was expanded to identify MAPPD and DAPPD in the identical samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gero P Hooff
- Department of Neurology, Laboratory of Neuro-Oncology and Clinical and Cancer Proteomics, University Medical Center Rotterdam, ErasmusMC, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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Kirsch-Volders M, Decordier I, Elhajouji A, Plas G, Aardema MJ, Fenech M. In vitro genotoxicity testing using the micronucleus assay in cell lines, human lymphocytes and 3D human skin models. Mutagenesis 2010; 26:177-84. [DOI: 10.1093/mutage/geq068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
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Xenobiotic metabolism gene expression in the EpiDerm™ in vitro 3D human epidermis model compared to human skin. Toxicol In Vitro 2010; 24:1450-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tiv.2010.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2010] [Revised: 03/19/2010] [Accepted: 03/23/2010] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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International prevalidation studies of the EpiDerm™ 3D human reconstructed skin micronucleus (RSMN) assay: Transferability and reproducibility. MUTATION RESEARCH-GENETIC TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MUTAGENESIS 2010; 701:123-31. [DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2010.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2009] [Revised: 05/12/2010] [Accepted: 05/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Pfuhler S, Kirst A, Aardema M, Banduhn N, Goebel C, Araki D, Costabel-Farkas M, Dufour E, Fautz R, Harvey J, Hewitt NJ, Hibatallah J, Carmichael P, Macfarlane M, Reisinger K, Rowland J, Schellauf F, Schepky A, Scheel J. A tiered approach to the use of alternatives to animal testing for the safety assessment of cosmetics: Genotoxicity. A COLIPA analysis. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2010; 57:315-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2010.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2010] [Revised: 03/31/2010] [Accepted: 03/31/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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McKim JM, Keller DJ, Gorski JR. A newin vitromethod for identifying chemical sensitizers combining peptide binding with ARE/EpRE-mediated gene expression in human skin cells. Cutan Ocul Toxicol 2010; 29:171-92. [DOI: 10.3109/15569527.2010.483869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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Bonifas J, Scheitza S, Clemens J, Blömeke B. Characterization of N-acetyltransferase 1 activity in human keratinocytes and modulation by para-phenylenediamine. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2010; 334:318-26. [PMID: 20406859 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.110.167874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
N-acetyltransferase 1 (NAT1)-mediated N-acetylation in keratinocytes is an important detoxification pathway for the hair dye ingredient para-phenylenediamine (PPD). Because NAT1 can be regulated by various exogenous compounds, including some NAT1 substrates themselves, we investigated NAT1 expression in keratinocytes and the interactions between PPD and NAT1. NAT1 activity was found to be cell-cycle phase-dependent. Maximum NAT1 activities (mean: 49.7 nmol/mg/min) were estimated when HaCaT keratinocytes were arrested in G(0)/G(1) phase, whereas nonsynchronized cells showed the lowest activities (mean: 28.9 nmol/mg/min). It is noteworthy that we also found an accelerated progression through the cell cycle in HaCaT cells with high NAT1 activities. This evidence suggests an association between NAT1 and proliferation in keratinocytes. Regarding the interaction between NAT1 and PPD, we found that keratinocytes N-acetylate PPD; however, this N-acetylation was saturated with increasing PPD concentrations. HaCaT cultured in medium supplemented with PPD (10-200 microM) for 24 h showed a significant concentration-dependent decrease (17-50%) in NAT1 activity. PPD also induced down-regulation of NAT1 activity in human primary keratinocytes. Western blot studies using a NAT1-specific antibody in HaCaT showed that the loss of enzyme activity was associated with a decline in the amount of NAT1 protein, whereas no changes in the amounts of NAT1 P1 (NATb)-dependent mRNA were found by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis, suggesting the involvement of a substrate-dependent mechanism of NAT1 down-regulation. In conclusion, these data show that overall N-acetylation capacity of keratinocytes and consequently detoxification capacities of human skin is modulated by the presence of NAT1 substrates and endogenously by the cell proliferation status of keratinocytes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jutta Bonifas
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, University Trier, Trier, Germany
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