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Rajput R, Naik J, Stracke R, Pandey A. Interplay between R2R3 MYB-type activators and repressors regulates proanthocyanidin biosynthesis in banana (Musa acuminata). THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2022; 236:1108-1127. [PMID: 35842782 DOI: 10.1111/nph.18382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Proanthocyanidins are oligomeric flavonoids that promote plant disease resistance and benefit human health. Banana is one of the world's most extensively farmed crops and its fruit pulp contain proanthocyanidins. However, the transcriptional regulatory network that fine tunes proanthocyanidin biosynthesis in banana remains poorly understood. We characterised two proanthocyanidin-specific R2R3 MYB activators (MaMYBPA1-MaMYBPA2) and four repressors (MaMYBPR1-MaMYBPR4) to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the transcriptional regulation of proanthocyanidin biosynthesis in banana. Heterologous expression of MaMYBPA1 and MaMYBPA2 partially complemented the Arabidopsis thaliana proanthocyanidin-deficient transparent testa2 mutant. MaMYBPA1 and MaMYBPA2 interacted physically with MaMYCs to transactivate anthocyanin synthase, leucoanthocyanidin reductase, and anthocyanidin reductase genes in vitro and form functional MYB-bHLH-WD Repeat (MBW) complexes with MaTTG1 to transactivate these promoters in vivo. Overexpression of MaMYBPAs alone or with MaMYC in banana fruits induced proanthocyanidin accumulation and transcription of proanthocyanidin biosynthesis-related genes. MaMYBPR repressors are also shown to interact with MaMYCs forming repressing MBW complexes, and diminished proanthocyanidin accumulation. Interestingly overexpression of MaMYBPA induces the expression of MaMYBPR, indicating an agile regulation of proanthocyanidin biosynthesis through the formation of competitive MBW complexes. Our results reveal regulatory modules of R2R3 MYB- that fine tune proanthocyanidin biosynthesis and offer possible targets for genetic manipulation for nutritional improvement of banana.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruchika Rajput
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Jogindra Naik
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India
| | - Ralf Stracke
- Chair of Genetics and Genomics of Plants, Bielefeld University, 33615, Bielefeld, Germany
| | - Ashutosh Pandey
- National Institute of Plant Genome Research, Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi, 110067, India
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2
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Zhang Y, Tan Q, Wang N, Meng X, He H, Wen B, Xiao W, Chen X, Li D, Fu X, Li L. PpMYB52 negatively regulates peach bud break through the gibberellin pathway and through interactions with PpMIEL1. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:971482. [PMID: 36035719 PMCID: PMC9413399 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.971482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Bud dormancy, which enables damage from cold temperatures to be avoided during winter and early spring, is an important adaptive mechanism of deciduous fruit trees to cope with seasonal environmental changes and temperate climates. Understanding the regulatory mechanism of bud break in fruit trees is highly important for the artificial control of bud break and the prevention of spring frost damage. However, the molecular mechanism underlying the involvement of MYB TFs during the bud break of peach is still unclear. In this study, we isolated and identified the PpMYB52 (Prupe.5G240000.1) gene from peach; this gene is downregulated in the process of bud break, upregulated in response to ABA and downregulated in response to GA. Overexpression of PpMYB52 suppresses the germination of transgenic tomato seeds. In addition, Y2H, Bimolecular fluorescence complementation (BiFC) assays verified that PpMYB52 interacts with a RING-type E3 ubiquitin ligase, PpMIEL1, which is upregulated during bud break may positively regulate peach bud break by ubiquitination-mediated degradation of PpMYB52. Our findings are the first to characterize the molecular mechanisms underlying the involvement of MYB TFs in peach bud break, increasing awareness of dormancy-related molecules to avoid bud damage in perennial deciduous fruit trees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzheng Zhang
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Qiuping Tan
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Ning Wang
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Xiangguang Meng
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Huajie He
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Binbin Wen
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Wei Xiao
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Xiude Chen
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Dongmei Li
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Xiling Fu
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
| | - Ling Li
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Biology, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
- Shandong Collaborative Innovation Center for Fruit and Vegetable Production with High Quality and Efficiency, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai’an, China
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3
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Moison M, Pacheco JM, Lucero L, Fonouni-Farde C, Rodríguez-Melo J, Mansilla N, Christ A, Bazin J, Benhamed M, Ibañez F, Crespi M, Estevez JM, Ariel F. The lncRNA APOLO interacts with the transcription factor WRKY42 to trigger root hair cell expansion in response to cold. MOLECULAR PLANT 2021; 14:937-948. [PMID: 33689931 DOI: 10.1016/j.molp.2021.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Plant long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have emerged as important regulators of chromatin dynamics, impacting on transcriptional programs leading to different developmental outputs. The lncRNA AUXIN-REGULATED PROMOTER LOOP (APOLO) directly recognizes multiple independent loci across the Arabidopsis genome and modulates their three-dimensional chromatin conformation, leading to transcriptional shifts. Here, we show that APOLO recognizes the locus encoding the root hair (RH) master regulator ROOT HAIR DEFECTIVE 6 (RHD6) and controls RHD6 transcriptional activity, leading to cold-enhanced RH elongation through the consequent activation of the transcription factor gene RHD6-like RSL4. Furthermore, we demonstrate that APOLO interacts with the transcription factor WRKY42 and modulates its binding to the RHD6 promoter. WRKY42 is required for the activation of RHD6 by low temperatures and WRKY42 deregulation impairs cold-induced RH expansion. Collectively, our results indicate that a novel ribonucleoprotein complex with APOLO and WRKY42 forms a regulatory hub to activate RHD6 by shaping its epigenetic environment and integrate signals governing RH growth and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaël Moison
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB/FHUC, Centro Científico Tecnológico CONICET Santa Fe, Colectora Ruta Nacional No 168 km. 0, Paraje El Pozo, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Javier Martínez Pacheco
- Fundación Instituto Leloir and IIBBA-CONICET, Av. Patricias Argentinas 435, Buenos Aires CP C1405BWE, Argentina
| | - Leandro Lucero
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB/FHUC, Centro Científico Tecnológico CONICET Santa Fe, Colectora Ruta Nacional No 168 km. 0, Paraje El Pozo, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Camille Fonouni-Farde
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB/FHUC, Centro Científico Tecnológico CONICET Santa Fe, Colectora Ruta Nacional No 168 km. 0, Paraje El Pozo, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Johan Rodríguez-Melo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Agrobiotecnológicas, CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto 5800, Argentina
| | - Natanael Mansilla
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB/FHUC, Centro Científico Tecnológico CONICET Santa Fe, Colectora Ruta Nacional No 168 km. 0, Paraje El Pozo, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina
| | - Aurélie Christ
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), CNRS, INRA, University Paris-Saclay and University of Paris Bâtiment 630, 91192 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Jérémie Bazin
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), CNRS, INRA, University Paris-Saclay and University of Paris Bâtiment 630, 91192 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Moussa Benhamed
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), CNRS, INRA, University Paris-Saclay and University of Paris Bâtiment 630, 91192 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - Fernando Ibañez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Agrobiotecnológicas, CONICET, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Río Cuarto 5800, Argentina
| | - Martin Crespi
- Institute of Plant Sciences Paris-Saclay (IPS2), CNRS, INRA, University Paris-Saclay and University of Paris Bâtiment 630, 91192 Gif sur Yvette, France
| | - José M Estevez
- Fundación Instituto Leloir and IIBBA-CONICET, Av. Patricias Argentinas 435, Buenos Aires CP C1405BWE, Argentina; Centro de Biotecnología Vegetal (CBV), Facultad de Ciencias de la Vida (FCsV), Universidad Andres Bello, Santiago, Chile and Millennium Institute for Integrative Biology (iBio), Santiago, Chile.
| | - Federico Ariel
- Instituto de Agrobiotecnología del Litoral, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, CONICET, FBCB/FHUC, Centro Científico Tecnológico CONICET Santa Fe, Colectora Ruta Nacional No 168 km. 0, Paraje El Pozo, Santa Fe 3000, Argentina.
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4
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Arteaga N, Savic M, Méndez-Vigo B, Fuster-Pons A, Torres-Pérez R, Oliveros JC, Picó FX, Alonso-Blanco C. MYB transcription factors drive evolutionary innovations in Arabidopsis fruit trichome patterning. THE PLANT CELL 2021; 33:548-565. [PMID: 33955486 PMCID: PMC8136876 DOI: 10.1093/plcell/koaa041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Both inter- and intra-specific diversity has been described for trichome patterning in fruits, which is presumably involved in plant adaptation. However, the mechanisms underlying this developmental trait have been hardly addressed. Here we examined natural populations of Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) that develop trichomes in fruits and pedicels, phenotypes previously not reported in the Arabidopsis genus. Genetic analyses identified five loci, MALAMBRUNO 1-5 (MAU1-5), with MAU2, MAU3, and MAU5 showing strong epistatic interactions that are necessary and sufficient to display these traits. Functional characterization of these three loci revealed cis-regulatory mutations in TRICHOMELESS1 and TRIPTYCHON, as well as a structural mutation in GLABRA1. Therefore, the multiple mechanisms controlled by three MYB transcription factors of the core regulatory network for trichome patterning have jointly been modulated to trigger trichome development in fruits. Furthermore, analyses of worldwide accessions showed that these traits and mutations only occur in a highly differentiated relict lineage from the Iberian Peninsula. In addition, these traits and alleles were associated with low spring precipitation, which suggests that trichome development in fruits and pedicels might be involved in climatic adaptation. Thus, we show that the combination of synergistic mutations in a gene regulatory circuit has driven evolutionary innovations in fruit trichome patterning in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia Arteaga
- Departamento de Genética Molecular de Plantas, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Marija Savic
- Departamento de Genética Molecular de Plantas, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Belén Méndez-Vigo
- Departamento de Genética Molecular de Plantas, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Alberto Fuster-Pons
- Departamento de Genética Molecular de Plantas, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Rafael Torres-Pérez
- Departamento de Genética Molecular de Plantas, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Juan Carlos Oliveros
- Departamento de Genética Molecular de Plantas, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - F Xavier Picó
- Departamento de Ecología Integrativa, Estación Biológica de Doñana (EBD), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Sevilla 41092, Spain
| | - Carlos Alonso-Blanco
- Departamento de Genética Molecular de Plantas, Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB), Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Madrid 28049, Spain
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5
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Wang L, Zhou CM, Mai YX, Li LZ, Gao J, Shang GD, Lian H, Han L, Zhang TQ, Tang HB, Ren H, Wang FX, Wu LY, Liu XL, Wang CS, Chen EW, Zhang XN, Liu C, Wang JW. A spatiotemporally regulated transcriptional complex underlies heteroblastic development of leaf hairs in Arabidopsis thaliana. EMBO J 2019; 38:embj.2018100063. [PMID: 30842098 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2018100063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 02/08/2019] [Accepted: 02/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Heteroblasty refers to a phenomenon that a plant produces morphologically or functionally different lateral organs in an age-dependent manner. In the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana, the production of trichomes (epidermal leaf hairs) on the abaxial (lower) side of leaves is a heteroblastic mark for the juvenile-to-adult transition. Here, we show that the heteroblastic development of abaxial trichomes is regulated by a spatiotemporally regulated complex comprising the leaf abaxial fate determinant (KAN1) and the developmental timer (miR172-targeted AP2-like proteins). We provide evidence that a short-distance chromatin loop brings the downstream enhancer element into close association with the promoter elements of GL1, which encodes a MYB transcription factor essential for trichome initiation. During juvenile phase, the KAN1-AP2 repressive complex binds to the downstream sequence of GL1 and represses its expression through chromatin looping. As plants age, the gradual reduction in AP2-like protein levels leads to decreased amount of the KAN1-AP2 complex, thereby licensing GL1 expression and the abaxial trichome initiation. Our results thus reveal a novel molecular mechanism by which a heteroblastic trait is governed by integrating age and leaf polarity cue in plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Long Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China
| | - Chuan-Miao Zhou
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China
| | - Yan-Xia Mai
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China
| | - Ling-Zi Li
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Jian Gao
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Guang-Dong Shang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Heng Lian
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China
| | - Lin Han
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Tian-Qi Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China
| | - Hong-Bo Tang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Hang Ren
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Fu-Xiang Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Lian-Yu Wu
- ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China
| | | | - Chang-Sheng Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Er-Wang Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Xue-Ning Zhang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Chang Liu
- Center for Plant Molecular Biology (ZMBP), University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Jia-Wei Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics (NKLPMG), CAS Center for Excellence in Molecular Plant Sciences, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology (SIPPE), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Shanghai, China .,ShanghaiTech University, Shanghai, China
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6
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Zhou H, Lin-Wang K, Wang F, Espley RV, Ren F, Zhao J, Ogutu C, He H, Jiang Q, Allan AC, Han Y. Activator-type R2R3-MYB genes induce a repressor-type R2R3-MYB gene to balance anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin accumulation. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2019; 221:1919-1934. [PMID: 30222199 DOI: 10.1111/nph.15486] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2018] [Accepted: 09/12/2018] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Anthocyanin and proanthocyanidin (PA) accumulation is regulated by both myeloblastosis (MYB) activators and repressors, but little information is available on hierarchical interactions between the positive and negative regulators. Here, we report on a R2R3-MYB repressor in peach, designated PpMYB18, which acts as a negative regulator of anthocyanin and PA accumulation. PpMYB18 can be activated by both anthocyanin- and PA-related MYB activators, and is expressed both at fruit ripening and juvenile stages when anthocyanins or PAs, respectively, are being synthesized. The PpMYB18 protein competes with MYB activators for binding to basic Helix Loop Helixes (bHLHs), which develops a fine-tuning regulatory loop to balance PA and anthocyanin accumulation. In addition, the bHLH binding motif in the R3 domain and the C1 and C2 repression motifs in the C-terminus of PpMYB18 both confer repressive activity of PpMYB18. Our study also demonstrates a modifying negative feedback loop, which prevents cells from excess accumulation of anthocyanin and PAs, and serves as a model for balancing secondary metabolite accumulation at the transcriptional level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- Institute of Horticulture, Anhui Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Hefei, 230031, China
| | - Kui Lin-Wang
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd, Mt Albert Research Centre, Private Bag, Auckland, 92169, New Zealand
| | - Furong Wang
- Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430209, China
| | - Richard V Espley
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd, Mt Albert Research Centre, Private Bag, Auckland, 92169, New Zealand
| | - Fei Ren
- Institute of Forestry and Pomology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, 100097, China
| | - Jianbo Zhao
- Institute of Forestry and Pomology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, 100097, China
| | - Collins Ogutu
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- Sino-African Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
| | - Huaping He
- Institute of Fruit Tree and Tea, Hubei Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Wuhan, 430209, China
| | - Quan Jiang
- Institute of Forestry and Pomology, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Beijing, 100097, China
| | - Andrew C Allan
- The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Ltd, Mt Albert Research Centre, Private Bag, Auckland, 92169, New Zealand
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, 1020, New Zealand
| | - Yuepeng Han
- Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm Enhancement and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- Sino-African Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, 430074, China
- College of Horticulture Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai-An, 271018, China
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7
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Abstract
Diverse environmental stimuli largely affect the ionic balance of soil, which have a direct effect on growth and crop yield. Details are fast emerging on the genetic/molecular regulators, at whole-genome levels, of plant responses to mineral deficiencies in model and crop plants. These genetic regulators determine the root architecture and physiological adaptations for better uptake and utilization of minerals from soil. Recent evidence also shows the potential roles of epigenetic mechanisms in gene regulation, driven by minerals imbalance. Mineral deficiency or sufficiency leads to developmental plasticity in plants for adaptation, which is preceded by a change in the pattern of gene expression. Notably, such changes at molecular levels are also influenced by altered chromatin structure and methylation patterns, or involvement of other epigenetic components. Interestingly, many of the changes induced by mineral deficiency are also inheritable in the form of epigenetic memory. Unravelling these mechanisms in response to mineral deficiency would further advance our understanding of this complex plant response. Further studies on such approaches may serve as an exciting interaction model of epigenetic and genetic regulations of mineral homeostasis in plants and designing strategies for crop improvement.
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8
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Zhou W, Wang Y, Wu Z, Luo L, Liu P, Yan L, Hou S. Homologs of SCAR/WAVE complex components are required for epidermal cell morphogenesis in rice. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2016; 67:4311-23. [PMID: 27252469 PMCID: PMC5301933 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/erw214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Filamentous actins (F-actins) play a vital role in epidermal cell morphogenesis. However, a limited number of studies have examined actin-dependent leaf epidermal cell morphogenesis events in rice. In this study, two recessive mutants were isolated: less pronounced lobe epidermal cell2-1 (lpl2-1) and lpl3-1, whose leaf and stem epidermis developed a smooth surface, with fewer serrated pavement cell (PC) lobes, and decreased papillae. The lpl2-1 also exhibited irregular stomata patterns, reduced plant height, and short panicles and roots. Molecular genetic studies demonstrated that LPL2 and LPL3 encode the PIROGI/Specifically Rac1-associated protein 1 (PIR/SRA1)-like and NCK-associated protein 1 (NAP1)-like proteins, respectively, two components of the suppressor of cAMP receptor/Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein-family verprolin-homologous protein (SCAR/WAVE) regulatory complex involved in actin nucleation and function. Epidermal cells exhibited abnormal arrangement of F-actins in both lpl2 and lpl3 expanding leaves. Moreover, the distorted trichomes of Arabidopsis pir could be partially restored by an overexpression of LPL2 A yeast two-hybrid assay revealed that LPL2 can directly interact with LPL3 in vitro Collectively, the results indicate that LPL2 and LPL3 are two functionally conserved homologs of the SCAR/WAVE complex components, and that they play an important role in controlling epidermal cell morphogenesis in rice by organising F-actin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenqi Zhou
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Yuchuan Wang
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Zhongliang Wu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Liang Luo
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Ping Liu
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Longfeng Yan
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Suiwen Hou
- Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Cell Activities and Stress Adaptations, School of Life Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
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9
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Wan Q, Guan X, Yang N, Wu H, Pan M, Liu B, Fang L, Yang S, Hu Y, Ye W, Zhang H, Ma P, Chen J, Wang Q, Mei G, Cai C, Yang D, Wang J, Guo W, Zhang W, Chen X, Zhang T. Small interfering RNAs from bidirectional transcripts of GhMML3_A12 regulate cotton fiber development. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2016; 210:1298-310. [PMID: 26832840 DOI: 10.1111/nph.13860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2015] [Accepted: 12/09/2015] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Natural antisense transcripts (NATs) are commonly observed in eukaryotic genomes, but only a limited number of such genes have been identified as being involved in gene regulation in plants. In this research, we investigated the function of small RNA derived from a NAT in fiber cell development. Using a map-based cloning strategy for the first time in tetraploid cotton, we cloned a naked seed mutant gene (N1 ) encoding a MYBMIXTA-like transcription factor 3 (MML3)/GhMYB25-like in chromosome A12, GhMML3_A12, that is associated with fuzz fiber development. The extremely low expression of GhMML3_A12 in N1 is associated with NAT production, driven by its 3' antisense promoter, as indicated by the promoter-driven histochemical staining assay. In addition, small RNA deep sequencing analysis suggested that the bidirectional transcriptions of GhMML3_A12 form double-stranded RNAs and generate 21-22 nt small RNAs. Therefore, in a fiber-specific manner, small RNA derived from the GhMML3_A12 locus can mediate GhMML3_A12 mRNA self-cleavage and result in the production of naked seeds followed by lint fiber inhibition in N1 plants. The present research reports the first observation of gene-mediated NATs and siRNA directly controlling fiber development in cotton.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qun Wan
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Xueying Guan
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Nannan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Huaitong Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Mengqiao Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Bingliang Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Lei Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Shouping Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Yan Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Wenxue Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Hua Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Peiyong Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Jiedan Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Qiong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Gaofu Mei
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Caiping Cai
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Donglei Yang
- National Laboratory of Plant Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Jiawei Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, National Plant Gene Research Center, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Wangzhen Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Wenhua Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
| | - Xiaoya Chen
- National Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Genetics, National Plant Gene Research Center, Institute of Plant Physiology and Ecology, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, 200032, China
| | - Tianzhen Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Crop Genetics and Germplasm Enhancement, Cotton Hybrid R&D Engineering Center (the Ministry of Education), College of Agriculture, Nanjing Agricultural University, Nanjing, 210095, China
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10
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Pietra S, Lang P, Grebe M. SABRE is required for stabilization of root hair patterning in Arabidopsis thaliana. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2015; 153:440-453. [PMID: 25124848 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.12257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2014] [Revised: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Patterned differentiation of distinct cell types is essential for the development of multicellular organisms. The root epidermis of Arabidopsis thaliana is composed of alternating files of root hair and non-hair cells and represents a model system for studying the control of cell-fate acquisition. Epidermal cell fate is regulated by a network of genes that translate positional information from the underlying cortical cell layer into a specific pattern of differentiated cells. While much is known about the genes of this network, new players continue to be discovered. Here we show that the SABRE (SAB) gene, known to mediate microtubule organization, anisotropic cell growth and planar polarity, has an effect on root epidermal hair cell patterning. Loss of SAB function results in ectopic root hair formation and destabilizes the expression of cell fate and differentiation markers in the root epidermis, including expression of the WEREWOLF (WER) and GLABRA2 (GL2) genes. Double mutant analysis reveal that wer and caprice (cpc) mutants, defective in core components of the epidermal patterning pathway, genetically interact with sab. This suggests that SAB may act on epidermal patterning upstream of WER and CPC. Hence, we provide evidence for a role of SAB in root epidermal patterning by affecting cell-fate stabilization. Our work opens the door for future studies addressing SAB-dependent functions of the cytoskeleton during root epidermal patterning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Pietra
- Umeå Plant Science Centre, Department of Plant Physiology, Umeå University, Umeå, SE-90187, Sweden
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11
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Petti C, Nair M, DeBolt S. The involvement of J-protein AtDjC17 in root development in Arabidopsis. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2014; 5:532. [PMID: 25339971 PMCID: PMC4189540 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2014.00532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2014] [Accepted: 09/18/2014] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
In a screen for root hair morphogenesis mutants in Arabidopsis thaliana L. we identified a T-DNA insertion within a type III J-protein AtDjC17 caused altered root hair development and reduced hair length. Root hairs were observed to develop from trichoblast and atrichoblast cell files in both Atdjc17 and 35S::AtDJC17. Localization of gene expression in the root using transgenic plants expressing proAtDjC17::GUS revealed constitutive expression in stele cells. No AtDJC17 expression was observed in epidermal, endodermal, or cortical layers. To explore the contrast between gene expression in the stele and epidermal phenotype, hand cut transverse sections of Atdjc17 roots were examined showing that the endodermal and cortical cell layers displayed increased anticlinal cell divisions. Aberrant cortical cell division in Atdjc17 is proposed as causal in ectopic root hair formation via the positional cue requirement that exists between cortical and epidermal cell in hair cell fate determination. Results indicate a requirement for AtDJC17 in position-dependent cell fate determination and illustrate an intriguing requirement for molecular co-chaperone activity during root development.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Seth DeBolt
- Department of Horticulture, University of KentuckyLexington, KY, USA
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12
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Jiao J, Jia Y, Lv Z, Sun C, Gao L, Yan X, Cui L, Tang Z, Yan B. Analysis of methylated patterns and quality-related genes in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) cultivars. Biochem Genet 2014; 52:372-86. [PMID: 24816541 DOI: 10.1007/s10528-014-9654-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Methylation-sensitive amplified polymorphism was used in this study to investigate epigenetic information of four tobacco cultivars: Yunyan 85, NC89, K326, and Yunyan 87. The DNA fragments with methylated information were cloned by reamplified PCR and sequenced. The results of Blast alignments showed that the genes with methylation information included chitinase, nitrate reductase, chloroplast DNA, mitochondrial DNA, ornithine decarboxylase, ribulose carboxylase, and promoter sequences. Homologous comparison in three cloned gene sequences (nitrate reductase, ornithine decarboxylase, and ribulose decarboxylase) indicated that geographic factors had significant influence on the whole genome methylation. Introns also contained different information in different tobacco cultivars. These findings suggest that synthetic mechanisms for tobacco aromatic components could be affected by different environmental factors leading to variation of noncoding regions in the genome, which finally results in different fragrance and taste in different tobacco cultivars.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junna Jiao
- School of Basic Medicine, Xinxiang Medical University, Xinxiang, 453003, Henan, China,
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13
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Grierson C, Nielsen E, Ketelaarc T, Schiefelbein J. Root hairs. THE ARABIDOPSIS BOOK 2014; 12:e0172. [PMID: 24982600 PMCID: PMC4075452 DOI: 10.1199/tab.0172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 135] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Roots hairs are cylindrical extensions of root epidermal cells that are important for acquisition of nutrients, microbe interactions, and plant anchorage. The molecular mechanisms involved in the specification, differentiation, and physiology of root hairs in Arabidopsis are reviewed here. Root hair specification in Arabidopsis is determined by position-dependent signaling and molecular feedback loops causing differential accumulation of a WD-bHLH-Myb transcriptional complex. The initiation of root hairs is dependent on the RHD6 bHLH gene family and auxin to define the site of outgrowth. Root hair elongation relies on polarized cell expansion at the growing tip, which involves multiple integrated processes including cell secretion, endomembrane trafficking, cytoskeletal organization, and cell wall modifications. The study of root hair biology in Arabidopsis has provided a model cell type for insights into many aspects of plant development and cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Claire Grierson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK BS8 1UG
| | - Erik Nielsen
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA 48109
| | - Tijs Ketelaarc
- Laboratory of Cell Biology, Wageningen University, 6708 PB Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - John Schiefelbein
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA 48109
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14
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Bhargava A, Ahad A, Wang S, Mansfield SD, Haughn GW, Douglas CJ, Ellis BE. The interacting MYB75 and KNAT7 transcription factors modulate secondary cell wall deposition both in stems and seed coat in Arabidopsis. PLANTA 2013; 237:1199-211. [PMID: 23328896 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-012-1821-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 11/20/2012] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The Arabidopsis thaliana KNAT7 (KNOX family) and MYB75 (MYB family) transcription factors were each shown earlier to interact in yeast two-hybrid assays, and to modulate secondary cell wall formation in inflorescence stems. We demonstrate here that their interaction also occurs in vivo, and that specific domains of each protein mediate this process. The participation of these interacting transcription factors in secondary cell wall formation was then extended to the developing seed coat through the use of targeted transcript analysis and SEM in single loss-of-function mutants. Novel genetic and protein-protein interactions of MYB75 and KNAT7 with other transcription factors known to be involved in seed coat regulation were also identified. We propose that a MYB75-associated protein complex is likely to be involved in modulating secondary cell wall biosynthesis in both the Arabidopsis inflorescence stem and seed coat, and that at least some parts of the transcriptional regulatory network in the two tissues are functionally conserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Apurva Bhargava
- Michael Smith Laboratories, University of British Columbia, 2185 East Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
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15
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An L, Zhou Z, Sun L, Yan A, Xi W, Yu N, Cai W, Chen X, Yu H, Schiefelbein J, Gan Y. A zinc finger protein gene ZFP5 integrates phytohormone signaling to control root hair development in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2012; 72:474-90. [PMID: 22762888 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2012.05094.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
Although root hair development in Arabidopsis thaliana has been extensively studied, it remains unknown whether the zinc finger proteins, the largest family of transcription factors in plants, are involved in this process. Here we report that the C2H2 zinc finger protein ZINC FINGER PROTEIN 5 (ZFP5) is a key regulator of root hair initiation and morphogenesis in Arabidopsis. ZFP5 is mainly expressed in root and preferentially in root hair cells. Using both zfp5 mutants and ZFP5 RNAi lines, we show that reduction in ZFP5 function leads to fewer and much shorter root hairs compared to wild-type. Genetic and molecular experiments demonstrate that ZFP5 exerts its effect on root hair development by directly promoting expression of the CAPRICE (CPC) gene. Furthermore, we show that ZFP5 expression is induced by cytokinin, and that ZFP5 mediates cytokinin and ethylene effects on the formation and growth of root hairs. These results suggest that ZFP5 integrates various plant hormone cues to control root epidermal cell development in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijun An
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Zhejiang University, 866 Yuhangtang Rd, Hangzhou 310058, China
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16
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Hayot CM, Forouzesh E, Goel A, Avramova Z, Turner JA. Viscoelastic properties of cell walls of single living plant cells determined by dynamic nanoindentation. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:2525-40. [PMID: 22291130 PMCID: PMC3346220 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/err428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2011] [Revised: 11/29/2011] [Accepted: 12/05/2011] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant development results from controlled cell divisions, structural modifications, and reorganizations of the cell wall. Thereby, regulation of cell wall behaviour takes place at multiple length scales involving compositional and architectural aspects in addition to various developmental and/or environmental factors. The physical properties of the primary wall are largely determined by the nature of the complex polymer network, which exhibits time-dependent behaviour representative of viscoelastic materials. Here, a dynamic nanoindentation technique is used to measure the time-dependent response and the viscoelastic behaviour of the cell wall in single living cells at a micron or sub-micron scale. With this approach, significant changes in storage (stiffness) and loss (loss of energy) moduli are captured among the tested cells. The results reveal hitherto unknown differences in the viscoelastic parameters of the walls of same-age similarly positioned cells of the Arabidopsis ecotypes (Col 0 and Ws 2). The technique is also shown to be sensitive enough to detect changes in cell wall properties in cells deficient in the activity of the chromatin modifier ATX1. Extensive computational modelling of the experimental measurements (i.e. modelling the cell as a viscoelastic pressure vessel) is used to analyse the influence of the wall thickness, as well as the turgor pressure, at the positions of our measurements. By combining the nanoDMA technique with finite element simulations quantifiable measurements of the viscoelastic properties of plant cell walls are achieved. Such techniques are expected to find broader applications in quantifying the influence of genetic, biological, and environmental factors on the nanoscale mechanical properties of the cell wall.
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Affiliation(s)
- Céline M. Hayot
- Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, W342 Nebraska Hall, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0526, USA
| | - Elham Forouzesh
- Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, W342 Nebraska Hall, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0526, USA
| | - Ashwani Goel
- Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, W342 Nebraska Hall, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0526, USA
| | - Zoya Avramova
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-2118, USA
| | - Joseph A. Turner
- Mechanical and Materials Engineering, University of Nebraska-Lincoln, W342 Nebraska Hall, Lincoln, Nebraska 68588-0526, USA
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail
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17
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Baklanov IA. Heterogeneity of epidermal cells in relation to nickel accumulation in hyperaccumulator plants belonging to the genus Alyssum L. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990519x11060034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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18
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An L, Zhou Z, Yan A, Gan Y. Progress on trichome development regulated by phytohormone signaling. PLANT SIGNALING & BEHAVIOR 2011; 6:1959-62. [PMID: 22105030 PMCID: PMC3337187 DOI: 10.4161/psb.6.12.18120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Trichomes are specialized structures that develop from epidermal cells in the aerial parts of plants, and are an excellent model system to study all aspects of cell differentiation including cell fate determination, cell cycle regulation, cell polarity and cell expansion. The development of the trichome is a process of integration of both external signals and endogenous developmental programs. During recent years, molecular analysis of trichome development at different stages has been well studied, and through the mutant phenotypes and the function of corresponding genes, the underlying mechanism has been revealed in a first glimpse. This paper offers a mini-view on this integration process with emphasis on the effects of plant hormone signaling on trichome development in plants through GLABROUS INFLORESCENCE STEMS (GIS) family and subfamily genes.
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19
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Abstract
Inheritable variation induced by plant grafting is a universal phenomenon; however, its mechanism has always been a controversial subject. In recent years, research on horizontal transfer of genetic materials between stock and scion has made great progress. The latest studies have found that genetic information in grafted plants is transported through plasmodesma and phloem to modulate the growth and development of the scion plants. Furthermore, non-coding RNAs could induce epigenetic modification, which facilitates plants to adapt to the grafting-caused stress. This article focuses on the review of recent advances in the induction and maintenance of the graft-induced genetic variation and could be helpful in thoroughly understanding the mechanism.
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20
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Karas B, Amyot L, Johansen C, Sato S, Tabata S, Kawaguchi M, Szczyglowski K. Conservation of lotus and Arabidopsis basic helix-loop-helix proteins reveals new players in root hair development. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2009; 151:1175-85. [PMID: 19675148 PMCID: PMC2773103 DOI: 10.1104/pp.109.143867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2009] [Accepted: 08/03/2009] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) proteins constitute a large family of transcriptional regulators in plants. Although they have been shown to play important roles in a wide variety of developmental processes, relatively few have been functionally characterized. Here, we describe the map-based cloning of the Lotus japonicus ROOTHAIRLESS1 (LjRHL1) locus. Deleterious mutations in this locus prevent root hair development, which also aborts root hair-dependent colonization of the host root by nitrogen-fixing bacteria. We show that the LjRHL1 gene encodes a presumed bHLH transcription factor that functions in a nonredundant manner to control root hair development in L. japonicus. Homology search and cross-species complementation experiments defined three members of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) bHLH protein family, At2g24260, At4g30980, and At5g58010, as functionally equivalent to LjRHL1. Curiously, At2g24260 and At4g30980 mRNA species accumulate independently from the known positive regulators of root hair cell fate, while all three genes act in a partially redundant manner to regulate root hair development in Arabidopsis.
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21
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Ndamukong I, Chetram A, Saleh A, Avramova Z. Wall-modifying genes regulated by the Arabidopsis homolog of trithorax, ATX1: repression of the XTH33 gene as a test case. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2009; 58:541-53. [PMID: 19154201 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2009.03798.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The plant cell wall is a dynamic structure playing important roles in the control of plant cell growth and differentiation. These processes involve global reprogramming of the genome driven by dynamic changes in chromatin structure. The chromatin modifier ARABIDOPSIS HOMOLOG OF TRITHORAX (ATX1) methylates lysine residue 4 on histone H3 (H3K4me), acting as an epigenetic mark on associated genes. The remarkable overrepresentation in the ATX1-regulated gene fraction of genes encoding plasma membrane and cell wall-remodeling activities suggested a link between two separate factors affecting growth, development and adaptation in Arabidopsis: the wall-modifying activities regulating cell extension, growth and fate, and the epigenetic mechanisms regulating chromatin structure and gene expression. A co-regulated fraction of specific wall-modifying proteins suggests that they may function together. Here, we study the ATX1-dependent expression of the gene encoding the wall-loosening factor XTH33 as a test case for development- and tissue-specific effects displayed by the chromatin modifier. In addition, we show that XTH33 is, most likely, an integral plasma membrane protein. A putative transmembrane domain is conserved in some, but not all, XTH family members, suggesting that they may be differently positioned when functioning as wall modifiers.
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22
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Li SF, Milliken ON, Pham H, Seyit R, Napoli R, Preston J, Koltunow AM, Parish RW. The Arabidopsis MYB5 transcription factor regulates mucilage synthesis, seed coat development, and trichome morphogenesis. THE PLANT CELL 2009; 21:72-89. [PMID: 19136646 PMCID: PMC2648076 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.108.063503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2008] [Revised: 12/02/2008] [Accepted: 12/20/2008] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The Arabidopsis thaliana MYB5 gene is expressed in trichomes and seeds, including the seed coat. Constitutive expression of MYB5 resulted in the formation of more small trichomes and ectopic trichomes and a reduction in total leaf trichome numbers and branching. A myb5 mutant displayed minimal changes in trichome morphology, while a myb23 mutant produced increased numbers of small trichomes and two-branched trichomes. A myb5 myb23 double mutant developed more small rosette trichomes and two-branched trichomes than the single mutants. These results indicate that MYB5 and MYB23 regulate trichome extension and branching. The seed coat epidermal cells of myb5 and myb5 myb23 were irregular in shape, developed flattened columellae, and produced less mucilage than those of the wild type. Among the downregulated genes identified in the myb5 seeds using microarray analysis were ABE1 and ABE4 (alpha/beta fold hydrolase/esterase genes), MYBL2, and GLABRA2. The same genes were also downregulated in transparent testa glabra1 (ttg1) seeds, suggesting that MYB5 collaborates with TTG1 in seed coat development. These genes were upregulated in leaves and roots by ectopically expressed MYB5. The MYBL2, ABE1, and ABE4 promoters were active in seeds, including seed coats, and the latter two also in trichomes. Models of the MYB5 regulatory networks involved in seed coat and trichome development are presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Feng Li
- Department of Botany, School of Life Sciences, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Victoria 3086, Australia
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Iyer-Pascuzzi AS, Benfey PN. Transcriptional networks in root cell fate specification. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-GENE REGULATORY MECHANISMS 2008; 1789:315-25. [PMID: 18973837 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagrm.2008.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2008] [Revised: 09/09/2008] [Accepted: 09/25/2008] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cell fate in the Arabidopsis root is determined by positional information mediated by plant hormones and interpreted by transcriptional networks. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of the regulatory networks that control cell fate within the root meristem, and in the interplay of these networks with phytohormones. Recent work describing the importance of chromatin organization in tissue patterning is also highlighted. A new, high resolution root expression map detailing the transciptome of nearly all cell types in the Arabidopsis root across developmental timepoints will provide a framework for understanding these networks.
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24
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Yoshida K, Ohtani A, Mimura T, Shimmen T. Adjustment of osmotic pressure coupled with change of growth mode in Spirogyra. FUNCTIONAL PLANT BIOLOGY : FPB 2008; 35:580-584. [PMID: 32688813 DOI: 10.1071/fp08138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2008] [Accepted: 07/01/2008] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Spirogyra living in running water forms a rhizoid which anchors it to the substratum. Rhizoid differentiation can be induced in the laboratory by severing algal filaments. The terminal cell changes the growth mode from diffuse growth to tip growth, and finally differentiates to be a rhizoid. We found that the intracellular osmolarity of the rhizoid was significantly lower than that of other interjacent cells which did not form rhizoids. The decrease in the intracellular osmolarity began before the start of tip growth. TEA, a K+ channel blocker, inhibited the decrease in the intracellular osmolarity of the terminal cells; increase in the external K+ also inhibited this. It was suggested that K+ efflux through K+ channel is involved in the adjustment of osmotic pressure. When the adjustment of osmotic pressure was inhibited, tip growth did not start, inevitably, no rhizoid was formed. In Spirogyra sp. which was unable to form rhizoids, the terminal cell did not show the adjustment of osmotic pressure. Thus, this adjustment seems to be intimately coupled with the rhizoid differentiation. Possible roles of the adjustment of osmotic pressure in rhizoid differentiation are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsuhisa Yoshida
- Department of Life Science, Graduate School of Life Science, University of Hyogo, Kouto 3-2-1, Harima Science Park City, Hyogo 678-1297, Japan
| | - Ai Ohtani
- Department of Life Science, Graduate School of Life Science, University of Hyogo, Kouto 3-2-1, Harima Science Park City, Hyogo 678-1297, Japan
| | - Tetsuro Mimura
- Graduate School of Science, Kobe University, Rokkodai 1-1, Nada, Kobe 678-8501, Japan
| | - Teruo Shimmen
- Department of Life Science, Graduate School of Life Science, University of Hyogo, Kouto 3-2-1, Harima Science Park City, Hyogo 678-1297, Japan
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Furumizu C, Komeda Y. A novel mutation in KNOPF uncovers the role of alpha-glucosidase I during post-embryonic development in Arabidopsis thaliana. FEBS Lett 2008; 582:2237-41. [PMID: 18503769 DOI: 10.1016/j.febslet.2008.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2008] [Revised: 04/19/2008] [Accepted: 05/14/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
N-glycosylation is a common protein modification. Joining of polypeptide and carbohydrate elements into hybrid molecules provides an opportunity to fine-tune protein properties. However, the role of N-glycosylation on the development of multicellular organisms remains elusive. Here we report a hypomorphic allele of KNOPF/GLUCOSIDASE 1, which allows us to describe the effects of impaired alpha-glucosidase I on post-embryonic development of plants for the first time. This knf-101 mutation alters cell shape but does not affect cell arrangements, except for the patterning of specialized epidermal cells, delineating the significance of N-glycan processing during epidermal development in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chihiro Furumizu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, Japan
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Dupuy L, Mackenzie J, Rudge T, Haseloff J. A system for modelling cell-cell interactions during plant morphogenesis. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2008; 101:1255-65. [PMID: 17921524 PMCID: PMC2710276 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcm235] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2007] [Revised: 05/09/2007] [Accepted: 07/11/2007] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS During the development of multicellular organisms, cells are capable of interacting with each other through a range of biological and physical mechanisms. A description of these networks of cell-cell interactions is essential for an understanding of how cellular activity is co-ordinated in regionalized functional entities such as tissues or organs. The difficulty of experimenting on living tissues has been a major limitation to describing such systems, and computer modelling appears particularly helpful to characterize the behaviour of multicellular systems. The experimental difficulties inherent to the multitude of parallel interactions that underlie cellular morphogenesis have led to the need for computer models. METHODS A new generic model of plant cellular morphogenesis is described that expresses interactions amongst cellular entities explicitly: the plant is described as a multi-scale structure, and interactions between distinct entities is established through a topological neighbourhood. Tissues are represented as 2D biphasic systems where the cell wall responds to turgor pressure through a viscous yielding of the cell wall. KEY RESULTS This principle was used in the development of the CellModeller software, a generic tool dedicated to the analysis and modelling of plant morphogenesis. The system was applied to three contrasting study cases illustrating genetic, hormonal and mechanical factors involved in plant morphogenesis. CONCLUSIONS Plant morphogenesis is fundamentally a cellular process and the CellModeller software, through its underlying generic model, provides an advanced research tool to analyse coupled physical and biological morphogenetic mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lionel Dupuy
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EA, UK.
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27
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Zhang Y, Liu Z, Liu C, Yang Z, Deng K, Peng J, Zhou J, Li G, Tang Z, Ren Z. Analysis of DNA methylation variation in wheat genetic background after alien chromatin introduction based on methylation-sensitive amplification polymorphism. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s11434-008-0049-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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28
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Abstract
Stomata play a pivotal role in the regulation of gas exchange in flowering plants and are distributed throughout the aerial epidermis. In leaves, the pattern of stomatal distribution is highly variable between species but is regulated by a mechanism that maintains a minimum of one cell spacing between stomata. In Arabidopsis, a number of the genetic components of this mechanism have been identified and include, SDD1, EPF1 and the putative receptors TMM and the ERECTA-gene family. A mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase signalling cascade is believed to act downstream of these putative receptors while a number of transcription factors including SPCH, MUTE and FAMA have been identified that control consecutive steps of stomatal development. The environment also has significant effects on stomatal development. In a number of species both light intensity and CO(2) concentrations have been shown to influence the frequency at which stomata develop on leaves. Long-distance signalling mechanisms have been implicated in these environmental responses with the conditions sensed by mature leaves determining the stomatal frequency in developing leaves. Thus, changes in the environment appear to act by modulating the developmental and patterning pathways to determine stomatal frequency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stuart Casson
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, Woodland Road, Bristol, BS8 1UG, UK
| | - Julie E Gray
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, University of Sheffield, Sheffield S10 2TN, UK
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29
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Caro E, Gutierrez C. A green GEM: intriguing analogies with animal geminin. Trends Cell Biol 2007; 17:580-5. [PMID: 17997094 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2007.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2007] [Revised: 09/21/2007] [Accepted: 09/24/2007] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The transition of precursor cells from an undifferentiated proliferative state to differentiated cells with specific fates is of primary importance for multicellular organisms. Animals and plants have evolved two unrelated proteins, geminin and GEM, respectively, that play analogous roles in regulating this transition. These proteins are involved, probably in early G1 phase of the cell cycle, in regulating the expression of genes involved in cell fate and initiation of differentiation. They also interact with Cdt1, a component of the pre-replication complexes involved in DNA replication licensing in early G1 phase. The interaction of geminin and GEM with Cdt1 and transcriptional regulators is competitive, suggesting that these interactions can play a pivotal role in coordinating DNA replication, cell division and cell fate decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Caro
- Centro de Biologia Molecular "Severo Ochoa", Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, Universidad Autonoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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Wildwater M, The I, van den Heuvel S. Coordination of cell proliferation and differentiation: finding a GEM in the root? Dev Cell 2007; 12:841-2. [PMID: 17543854 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2007.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
How cells acquire specific fates in conjunction with cell division is a major developmental question. In a recent issue of Nature, Caro and colleagues describe the Arabidopsis protein GEM, which interacts both with DNA-replication and transcriptional regulators (Caro et al., 2007). The results are surprisingly reminiscent of the dual functions reported for Geminin in animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marjolein Wildwater
- Division of Developmental Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University, Padualaan 8, 3584 CH Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Caro E, Castellano MM, Gutierrez C. A chromatin link that couples cell division to root epidermis patterning in Arabidopsis. Nature 2007; 447:213-7. [PMID: 17450124 DOI: 10.1038/nature05763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2006] [Accepted: 03/21/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Cell proliferation and cell fate decisions are strictly coupled processes during plant embryogenesis and organogenesis. In the Arabidopsis thaliana root epidermis, expression of the homeobox GLABRA2 (GL2) gene determines hair/non-hair cell fate. This requires signalling of positional information from the underlying cortical layer, complex transcriptional regulation and a change in chromatin accessibility. However, the molecular connections among these factors and with cell division are not known. Here we have identified a GL2-expression modulator, GEM, as an interactor of CDT1, a DNA replication protein. GEM also interacts with TTG1 (TRANSPARENT TESTA GLABRA1), a WD40-repeat protein involved in GL2-dependent cell fate decision, and modulates both cell division and GL2 expression. Here we show that GEM participates in the maintenance of the repressor histone H3K9 methylation status of root patterning genes, providing a link between cell division, fate and differentiation during Arabidopsis root development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Caro
- Centro de Biologia Molecular Severo Ochoa, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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32
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Savage NS, Schmidt W. From priming to plasticity: the changing fate of rhizodermic cells. Bioessays 2007; 30:75-81. [DOI: 10.1002/bies.20693] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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