Disease threats to the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Seroprevalence of zoonotic pathogens in stray cats in an urban area of northeast Spain

The feline population is extensive in urban areas worldwide, comprising stray and domestic cats. Cats, acting as reservoirs, can transmit various zoonotic organisms to humans, which can cause significant public health issues. We evaluated the seroprevalence of zoonotic pathogens in stray cats in an urban area of northeast Spain (the city of Zaragoza) to assess potential risks to human health. A total of 88 sampled cats (52 females and 36 males) underwent antibody evaluation using the indirect immunofluorescence technique. Seroprevalence rates were determined for IgG antibodies to Bartonella henselae (36.3%), Toxoplasma gondii (31.8%), Rickettsia felis (14.7%), Rickettsia typhi (9%), and Leishmania infantum (10.2%). Our results confirmed the presence in stray cats of antibodies against all those pathogens, indicating that they all circulate in the feline population in Zaragoza. Male cats exhibited a higher predisposition to T. gondii, whereas females showed an increased likelihood of contracting B. henselae. This difference may be attributed to distinct behaviors according to sex. Our findings underscore the importance of maintaining and intensifying surveillance coupled with preventive measures against zoonotic pathogens in cats. They highlight the need for comprehensive control strategies designed to mitigate public health risks associated with feline populations.

Detection and genotyping of zoonotic microsporidia in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Microsporidia is a diverse group of obligate, intracellular, and spore-forming parasites that infect a wide range of animals. Among them, Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. are the most frequently reported species in humans. Limited information is available about the presence and molecular diversity of microsporidian species in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus). Presence of Enterocytozoon bieneusi and Encephalitozoon spp. was investigated by molecular methods in wild and captive Iberian lynxes from Spain. Overall, E. bieneusi was detected in 3.2% (8/251) of the animals examined. None of the samples tested were positive for Encephalitozoon spp. Four known (D, EbfelA, PigEBITS7, and Type IV) and a novel (named as LynxSpEb1) E. bieneusi genotypes were identified. All the genotypes found belonged to the zoonotic Group 1 of E. bieneusi. This study provides the first genotyping data of E. bieneusi in Iberian lynx in Spain. Our result indicate that the Iberian lynx does not seem to play a relevant role in the epidemiology of Encephalitozoon spp., and that this endangered felid is likely acting as spillover host rather than a true reservoir of E. bieneusi. Additional studies should be conducted to assess the impact of this parasite in the health status of the endangered Iberian lynx.

Long-term surveillance of the feline leukemia virus in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in Andalusia, Spain (2008-2021)

Feline leukemia virus (FeLV) infection is considered one of the most serious disease threats for the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) Over 14 years (2008-2021), we investigated FeLV infection using point-of-care antigen test and quantitative real-time TaqMan qPCR for provirus detection in blood and tissues in lynxes from Andalusia (Southern Spain). A total of 776 samples from 586 individuals were included in this study. The overall prevalence for FeLV antigen in blood/serum samples was 1.4% (5/360) (95% CI: 0.2-2.6), FeLV proviral DNA prevalence in blood samples was 6.2% (31/503) (95% CI: 4.1-8.6), and FeLV proviral DNA in tissues samples was 10.2% (34/333) (95% CI: 7-13.5). From a subset of 129 longitudinally sampled individuals, 9.3% (12/129) PCR-converted during the study period. Our results suggest that FeLV infection in the Andalusian population is enzootic, with circulation of the virus at low levels in almost all the sampling years. Moreover, since only one viremic individual succumbed to the infection, this study suggests that lynxes may therefore control the infection decreasing the possibility of developing a more aggressive outcome. Although our results indicate that the FeLV infection in the Iberian lynx from Andalusia tends to stay within the regressive stage, continuous FeLV surveillance is paramount to predict potential outbreaks and ensure the survival of this population.

Detection and Molecular Diversity of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in the Endangered Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus), Spain

Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis are the main non-viral causes of diarrhoea in humans and domestic animals globally. Comparatively, much less information is currently available in free-ranging carnivore species in general and in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) in particular. Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were investigated with molecular (PCR and Sanger sequencing) methods in individual faecal DNA samples of free-ranging and captive Iberian lynxes from the main population nuclei in Spain. Overall, Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis were detected in 2.4% (6/251) and 27.9% (70/251) of the animals examined, respectively. Positive animals to at least one of them were detected in each of the analysed population nuclei. The analysis of partial ssu rRNA gene sequences revealed the presence of rodent-adapted C. alticolis (n = 1) and C. occultus (n = 1), leporid-adapted C. cuniculus (n = 2), and zoonotic C. parvum (n = 2) within Cryptosporidium, and zoonotic assemblages A (n = 5) and B (n = 3) within G. duodenalis. Subgenotyping analyses allowed for the identification of genotype VaA19 in C. cuniculus (gp60 locus) and sub-assemblages AI and BIII/BIV in G. duodenalis (gdh, bg, and tpi loci). This study represents the first molecular description of Cryptosporidium spp. and G. duodenalis in the Iberian lynx in Spain. The presence of rodent/leporid-adapted Cryptosporidium species in the surveyed animals suggests spurious infections associated to the Iberian lynx's diet. The Iberian lynx seems a suitable host for zoonotic genetic variants of Cryptosporidium (C. parvum) and G. duodenalis (assemblages A and B), although the potential risk of human transmission is regarded as limited due to light parasite burdens and suspected low excretion of infective (oo)cysts to the environment by infected animals. More research should be conducted to ascertain the true impact of these protozoan parasites in the health status of the endangered Iberian lynx.

Leptospirosis and the Environment: A Review and Future Directions

Leptospirosis is a zoonotic disease of global importance with significant morbidity and mortality. However, the disease is frequently overlooked and underdiagnosed, leading to uncertainty of the true scale and severity of the disease. A neglected tropical disease, leptospirosis disproportionately impacts disadvantaged socioeconomic communities most vulnerable to outbreaks of zoonotic disease, due to contact with infectious animals and contaminated soils and waters. With growing evidence that Leptospira survives, persists, and reproduces in the environment, this paper reviews the current understanding of the pathogen in the environment and highlights the unknowns that are most important for future study. Through a systematic Boolean review of the literature, our study finds that detailed field-based study of Leptospira prevalence, survival, and transmission in natural waters and soils is lacking from the current literature. This review identified a strong need for assessment of physical characteristics and biogeochemical processes that support long-term viability of Leptospira in the environment followed by epidemiological assessment of the transmission and movement of the same strains of Leptospira in the present wildlife and livestock as the first steps in improving our understanding of the environmental stage of the leptospirosis transmission cycle.

Case report: Canine distemper virus infection as a cause of central nervous system disease in a Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx)

The Eurasian lynx (Lynx lynx) represents an endangered species with only small populations remaining in Central Europe. Knowledge about the threat posed by potential infectious agents to these animals is crucial for informing ongoing protection measures. Canine distemper virus (CDV) is known to have a wide host range with infection reported in many mammalian species including several lynx species (Lynx pardinus, Lynx canadensis, Lynx rufus), but is an extremely rare finding in the Eurasian lynx. The present report describes a case of a Eurasian lynx showing central nervous signs, including apathy and ataxia. A CT scan revealed multiple hypodense areas in different localizations within the brain as well as enlarged liquid filled areas, leading to the suspicion of a degenerative process. Due to clinical deterioration, the animal was euthanized and submitted for macroscopical and histological investigations. Histological investigations revealed multifocal demyelinations in the cerebellum, brain stem and cervical spinal cord as well as a multifocal, perivascular, lymphohistiocytic meningoencephalitis. A CDV infection was confirmed by immunohistochemistry and RT-PCR analyses. This CDV infection of a Eurasian lynx resembles a classical chronic manifestation of distemper in dogs and highlights the threat posed by canine distemper to this species.

Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Endangered Wild Felines (Felis silvestris and Lynx pardinus) in Spain

The wildcat (Felis silvestris) and the Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) are important species in Spain, considered as near-threatened and endangered, respectively. Both can be infected by Toxoplasma gondii, a parasite that can cause morbidity and mortality in transplacentally-infected or immunocompromised mammals. The data on the prevalence of this parasite in wild populations of these species in Spain are outdated. The objective of this study was to update information and evaluate the role of these felines in parasite epidemiology and the potential impact of the parasite on their conservation. Blood and fecal samples were collected from captured animals, as well as the tongue, diaphragm, and spleen, from animals killed in road accidents in central Spain. An indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) was used to detect parasite antibodies in serum, microscopy and molecular analysis were used to detect oocysts in feces, and molecular analysis was used to determine the existence of tissue cysts. Seroprevalence was 85% in wildcats and 45% in lynx, and parasite DNA was detected in the feces of one wildcat and in tissue samples from 10 wildcats and 11 Iberian lynxes. These results highlight the epidemiological importance and high risk of T. gondii infection in animals and humans in the studied areas. Considering feline susceptibility to infection, monitoring programs are needed to assess the health status of wild felines.

Seroprevalence and Risk Factors for Toxoplasma gondii Infection in Horses

BACKGROUND

Toxoplasma gondii is classified as intracellular protozoa and is one of the major zoonotic parasites. Most warm-blooded intermediate hosts, including humans, are commonly infected by this parasite. The epidemiology of T. gondii infection in Egyptian horses is currently poorly understood.

METHODS

420 blood samples were randomly collected from horses raised in four governorates in Northern Egypt (110 each from Giza and Kafr El Sheikh, and 100 each from Qalyubia and Gharbia) to investigate the existence of antibodies against T. gondii using a commercial ELISA kit, and to ascertain the risk factors for the infection.

RESULTS

the antibodies for T. gondii were found in 16.2% (68/420) of the examined horses, with no significant differences among the four studied governorates. The highest prevalence rate was observed in Giza. The results revealed that sex, breed, age, and contact with domestic ruminants or cats were recognized as potential risk factors. The high prevalence rate was found in mixed breed horses (OR = 2.63, 95% CI: 0.95-7.26), mares (OR = 2.35, 95% CI: 1.31-4.19), and horses aged over 10 years (OR = 2.78, 95% CI: 1.30-3.44). Moreover, the likelihood of seropositivity for T. gondii infection was higher in horses raised in environments with cats (OR = 1.97, 95% CI: 1.13-3.44, p = 0.017) or domestic ruminants (OR = 2.16, 1.21-3.86, p = 0.010). This report confirms that horses in Northern Egypt are exposed to T. gondii and thus raises the possibility that people and other animals could contract the disease.

CONCLUSIONS

routine examination and management of T. gondii infection in horses in these governorates is advised.

Apicomplexan haemoparasites in domestic cats in Romania

BACKGROUND

Apicomplexan haemoparasites are protozoans that infect a variety of domestic and wild animal species, as well as humans. Data regarding haemoprotozoans in domestic cats are limited; therefore, the aim of this study was to assess the occurrence of Babesia spp., Cytauxzoon spp., and Hepatozoon spp. in domestic cats in Romania using molecular tools.

METHODS

Blood samples from 371 domestic cats were screened for the presence of piroplasmids. All samples that yielded a visible band in agarose gels were subsequently tested by specific assays targeting the 18S rDNA of Babesia spp., Cytauxzoon spp., and Hepatozoon spp. Moreover, nested PCR assays targeting mitochondrial genes of Babesia spp. were used for screening of all Babesia spp. 18S rDNA-positive samples.

RESULTS

From the total number of sampled cats, 19.4% were positive in the PCR assay targeting piroplasmids. Babesia spp. were identified in 15.1% of cats, while 0.5% were positive for Hepatozoon spp. Molecular analyses confirmed the presence of Babesia canis. No samples were positive for Cytauxzoon spp.

CONCLUSIONS

The high infection rates of domestic cats with Babesia spp. and the need for species differentiation highlight the importance of mitochondrial genes as targets for molecular protocols.

Wild Mesocarnivores as Reservoirs of Endoparasites Causing Important Zoonoses and Emerging Bridging Infections across Europe

Mesocarnivores are small- or mid-sized carnivore species that display a variety of ecologies and behaviours. In Europe, wild mesocarnivores are represented by the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), the golden jackal (Canis aureus), the European wildcat (Felis silvestris), the Mustelidae of the genera Meles, Martes, Mustela, Lutra, the invasive species of raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides), raccoons (Procyon lotor), and American mink (Neogale vison). These abundant animals thrive in various habitats and often develop their activity close to human settlements. Thus, they may play an important role in the introduction, maintenance, and transmission of major parasitic zoonoses and promote bridging infections with domestic animals. Against this background, this article reports and discusses some of the most important endoparasites of wild mesocarnivores living in Europe, on the basis of their actual role as reservoirs, spreaders, or sentinels. The data derived from epizootiological studies in different European countries, and the proven or speculated implications of the detected endoparasites in human and domestic animals' health, are discussed. Through older and recent literature review, the state-of-the-art knowledge on the occurrence and prevalence of the parasites under consideration is presented, showing further, warranted investigations and the need for surveillance and vigilance.

Serological and Molecular Survey of Leishmania infantum in a Population of Iberian Lynxes (Lynx pardinus)

Leishmania infantum, the sand fly-transmitted protozoan parasite responsible for leishmaniasis in humans, dogs, and cats, is endemic in the Iberian Peninsula. However, the impact of L. infantum infection on the conservation of the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) is unknown. Herein, we describe for the first time the occurrence of L. infantum infection among a population of reintroduced and wild-born L. pardinus living in the Portuguese Guadiana Valley Park. The presence of infection was addressed by molecular detection of Leishmania kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) in 35 lynxes, with further confirmation of L. infantum species performed by an internally transcribed spacer (ITS)-1 sequencing. Eight blood samples were positive for kDNA, and ITS-1 sequencing confirmed the presence of L. infantum in two of those samples. Exposure to Leishmania was screened in a group of 36 lynxes using an immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) and a multi-antigen enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), using SPLA, rK39, and CPX as Leishmania-specific antigens. Four animals presented a positive IFAT at a dilution of 1:40. Eight samples were considered seropositive to all ELISA Leishmania-specific antigens. Agreement between PCR, IFAT, and all ELISA antigens was found for 1 in 27 samples. These results highlight the susceptibility of autochthonous L. pardinus to L. infantum infection. Further investigation is required to assess the impact of L. infantum infection on this wild species conservation.

Microsporidia as a Potential Threat to the Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus)

Simple Summary

The Iberian lynx, which inhabits the Iberian Peninsula, is one of the most endangered felines in the world. Wild Iberian lynx populations have suffered a constant regression over the past century, with a rapid decline of 90% in the last 20 years. Infectious diseases are one of the most critical threats that cause the population decline of these animals, either in the wild or captivity. Different studies have revealed positive seroprevalence against various pathogens, confirming contact and exposure to bacteria, viruses, and parasites. In this sense, searching for pathogens related to the depopulation of the Iberian lynx is vital for conserving and maintaining this threatened species. The present work confirmed the presence of microsporidia, opportunistic intracellular parasites recently related to fungi, in the lynx environment. Also, different species of microsporidia were determined for the first time in the urine, feces, and tissue samples of Lynx pardinus. Further studies are needed to establish the impact of microsporidia infection on the survival of the Iberian lynx. These studies would contribute to the endurance and conservation of this feline by implementing new prevention strategies.

Abstract

Lynx pardinus is one of the world’s most endangered felines inhabiting the Iberian Peninsula. The present study was performed to identify the presence of microsporidia due to the mortality increase in lynxes. Samples of urine (n = 124), feces (n = 52), and tissues [spleen (n = 13), brain (n = 9), liver (n = 11), and kidney (n = 10)] from 140 lynxes were studied. The determination of microsporidia was evaluated using Weber’s chromotrope stain and Real Time-PCR. Of the lynxes analyzed, stains showed 10.48% and 50% positivity in urine and feces samples, respectively. PCR confirmed that 7.69% and 65.38% belonged to microsporidia species. The imprints of the tissues showed positive results in the spleen (38.46%), brain (22.22%), and liver (27.27%), but negative results in the kidneys. PCR confirmed positive microsporidia results in 61.53%, 55.55%, 45.45%, and 50%, respectively. Seroprevalence against Encephalitozoon cuniculi was also studied in 138 serum samples with a positivity of 55.8%. For the first time, the results presented different species of microsporidia in the urine, feces, and tissue samples of Lynx pardinus. The high titers of anti-E. cuniculi antibodies in lynx sera confirmed the presence of microsporidia in the lynx environment. New studies are needed to establish the impact of microsporidia infection on the survival of the Iberian lynx.

Investigation of Carnivore protoparvovirus 1 and Amdoparvovirus infections in red fox populations of the Italian Dolomites

Members of the family Parvoviridae are well recognized infectious agents of companion, livestock and wild animals as well, whose relevance on production, health, welfare and conservation is often high. Nevertheless, the knowledge of their epidemiology in wild populations is scarce or fragmentary. In this study, the presence and features of two parvoviruses, Carnivore protoparvovirus 1 and Amdoparvovirus, were evaluated in the red fox population resident in the Dolomites area, Northern Italy, and compared with the scenario of other countries and Italian regions. Six out of 117 spleen samples (5.13%: 95CI: 1.91-10.83%) tested positive to Carnivore protoparvovirus 1 and were molecularly characterized as Canine parvovirus (CPV). Infection frequency was comparable with that observed in wild carnivore populations present in Southern Italian regions, although in that case, Feline parvovirus (FPV) was predominant. No evidence of infection-related clinical signs was reported and viral loads were invariably low, suggesting the subclinical nature of the infection, the persistent carrier status or the detection of traces of viral DNA. No samples tested positive to Amdoparvovirus genus-specific PCR. The present study provides the first evidence of CPV circulation in the Northern Italy fox population. Unfortunately, the inevitable convenience nature of the sampling prevents definitive conclusions. Therefore, a more coordinated and standardized approach should be applied, at least in neighbouring geographic areas, to study these viral infections and their relevance in wildlife.

The First Case of Cytauxzoon spp. in Russia: The Parasite Conquers Eurasia

Simple Summary

Cytauxzoon felis was first described more than 40 years ago in the US, later (in the 21st century) similar pathogens were detected in Eurasian and Iberian lynxes, European wildcats and domestic cats in Southern and Central Europe. Our findings have shown the previously unrecorded presence of this parasite in Russia (50 km from Moscow). We described the crucial decrease in the number of leukocytes and erythrocytes, as well as in hemoglobin concentration, throughout the captive serval’s disease, and their increase during the animal’s recovery over six months. Molecular genetic methods allowed us to detect and describe this parasite in four cat species in captivity. The analysis showed high genetic variability and high occurrence of the parasites, which suggests their presence in free-ranging domestic cats and wild felids in Russia.

Abstract

Over the last two decades, Cytauxzoon spp. has been conquering Eurasia, although this fact has only been brought to light through recent more intensive research after the discovery of C. manul in Pallas’ cat. In Europe, Cytauxzoon was detected mainly in southern countries and later in central Europe. This pathogen has now been found in Russia for the first time (50 km from Moscow), this being the most northern sighting in Eurasia. A captive serval (Leptailurus serval) was found to be infected. Hematological analysis showed a crucial decrease in the number of leukocytes and erythrocytes, as well as in hemoglobin concentration. Genetic analysis confirmed the presence of Cytauxzoon spp. in serval blood at the beginning of the disease period. The identical pathogen was found in one bobcat at the same breeding center. Two other haplotypes of Cytauxzoon spp. were obtained from domestic cats at the same location, identical to the samples from Italy. One new haplotype, which was sequenced for the first time, was found in 7/7 investigated Amur wildcats (100%). The high occurrence and diversity of these pathogens suggest that they are present in free-ranging domestic cats and wild felids in Russia, and may be considered a potential threat to the endangered species. Current research shows that the genetic diversity of this pathogen may be even higher than it was suggested previously. Further genetic research is necessary to describe the diversity and phylogeny of this pathogen in Eurasia.

SEROSURVEY FOR SELECTED PARASITIC AND BACTERIAL PATHOGENS IN DARWIN'S FOX (LYCALOPEX FULVIPES): NOT ONLY DOG DISEASES ARE A THREAT

The Darwin's fox (Lycalopex fulvipes) is one of the most endangered carnivores worldwide, with the risk of disease spillover from domestic dogs being a major conservation threat. However, lack of epidemiologic information about generalist, non-dog-transmission-dependent protozoal and bacterial pathogens may be a barrier for disease prevention and management. To determine the exposure of some of these agents in Darwin's fox populations, 54 serum samples were collected from 47 Darwin's foxes in Southern Chile during 2013-18 and assessed for the presence of antibodies against Brucella abortus, Brucella canis, Coxiella burnetii, pathogenic Leptospira (serovars Grippotyphosa, Pomona, Canicola, Hardjo, and Copehageni), Toxoplasma gondii, and Neospora caninum. The highest seroprevalence was detected for T. gondii (78%), followed by pathogenic Leptospira (14%). All the studied Leptospira serovars were confirmed in at least one animal. Two foxes seroconverted to Leptospira and one to T. gondii during the study period. No seroconversions were observed for the other pathogens. No risk factors, either intrinsic (sex, age) or extrinsic (season, year, and degree of landscape anthropization), were associated with the probability of being exposed to T. gondii. Our results indicate that T. gondii exposure is widespread in the Darwin's fox population, including in areas with minimal anthropization, and that T. gondii and pathogenic Leptospira might be neglected threats to the species. Further studies identifying the causes of morbidity and mortality in Darwin's fox are needed to determine if these or other pathogens are having individual or population-wide effects in this species.

Patterns of Exposure and Infection with Microparasites in Iberian Wild Carnivores: A Review and Meta-Analysis

We use a suite of meta-analytic and comparative methods to derive fundamental insights into how sampling effort, pathogen richness, infection prevalence, and seroprevalence vary across Carnivora taxa and Iberian geography. The red fox was the most studied species, the wolf and Iberian lynx were disproportionally studied, and the Arctoidea were understudied. Sampling effort was higher in Mediterranean areas, but central Spain showed the higher pathogen richness. Excluding studies analyzing fecal samples, 53 different pathogens have been detected in Iberian carnivores, including 16 viruses, 27 bacteria, and 10 protozoa but no fungi. Sampling effort and pathogen diversity were generally more similar among closely related carnivore species. Seropositivity to viruses was lower and higher in the Mustelinae and the Canidae, respectively, and seropositivity to protozoa was higher in both taxa. Canine distemper virus exposure was greatest in canids and mustelids. Carnivore protoparvovirus-1 exposure was greatest in the Atlantic regions, and the Felidae and the Musteloidea had lower infection prevalence. A subclade of the Mustelidae had a greater prevalence of Leishmania infection. We observed no relationships between host phylogenetic distance and pathogen sharing among species. Lastly, we identify important research pitfalls and future directions to improve the study of infectious disease in Iberian wild carnivore communities.

Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in wild ruminants in Spain

Toxoplasmosis is a parasitic zoonosis caused by Toxoplasma gondii which infects warm-blooded species worldwide. Humans can be infected through ingestion of tissue cysts from raw or undercooked meat, including game meat. A nationwide large-scale cross-sectional study was conducted to assess exposure to T. gondii in seven wild ruminant species in Spain. A total of 2,040 serum samples from 77 sampling sites randomly distributed in the five bioregions (BRs) covering mainland Spain were tested for antibodies against T. gondii using the modified agglutination test. The overall seroprevalence was 22.0% (449/2,040). Seroprevalence by species in decreasing order was as follows: 39.6% (141/356) in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), 37.1% (138/372) in fallow deer (Dama dama), 16.6% (92/553) in red deer (Cervus elaphus), 14.0% (26/186) in Southern chamois (Rupicapra pyrenaica), 11.5% (24/209) in mouflon (Ovis aries musimon), 7.8% (27/346) in Iberian wild goat (Capra pyrenaica) and 5.6% (1/18) in Barbary sheep (Ammotragus lervia). Seropositivity was detected in 74.0% (57/77) of the sampling sites. Results indicate widespread but not homogeneous exposure to T. gondii in wild ruminant populations in Spain during the last two decades and highlight differences related to animal species and spatial distribution of these species in this country; this implies potential consequences of T. gondii for animal health, conservation and public health.

An epidemiological study in wild carnivores from Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems reveals association between Leishmania infantum, Babesia spp. and Hepatozoon spp. infection and new hosts for Hepatozoon martis, Hepatozoon canis and Sarcocystis spp

The aetiology and epidemiology of vector borne apicomplexan Babesia and Hepatozoon and kinetoplastid Leishmania infantum infections in wildlife have not been explored in wide areas of southern Spain. We investigated these infections in 151 wild carnivores, including foxes, badgers, beech martens, hedgehogs, wild cats, Egyptian mongooses, otters, genets and racoons. Overall, Hepatozoon, Babesia and L. infantum infections were detected in 68%, 48% and 23% of the wild animals surveyed, respectively. L. infantum-infected wildlife were more likely to be also infected with the apicomplexan Hepatozoon and Babesia spp. compared to the non-infected counterparts (p < .05). We report for the first time Hepatozoon martis in badgers and wild cats and H. canis in beech martens, and a Babesia sp. in wild cats from Spain. Our results also indicate the widespread distribution of H. canis in foxes (91%) and beech martens (13%), H. martis in beech martens (81%), wild cats (20%) and badgers (13%), H. felis in wild cats (60%), B. vulpes in foxes (64%), Babesia sp. type A closely related to B. vulpes, in badgers (58%) and Babesia sp. in wild cats (20%). Moreover, L. infantum infection was found in foxes (29%), beech martens (13%), badgers (8%) and 1/3 Egyptian mongooses. We also detected Cytauxzoon sp. in a wild cat and the first Sarcocystis sp. in a genet. This study provided evidence of increased risk of L. infantum infection in wildlife animals co-infected with Babesia spp. or Hepatozoon spp. and indicated that these infections are widespread in wild carnivores from Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems.

Risk and Environmental Factors Associated with the Presence of Canine Parvovirus Type 2 in Diarrheic Dogs from Thessaly, Central Greece

Canine parvovirus type 2 (CPV-2) primarily infects dogs, which are the main host reservoir, causing severe gastrointestinal disease associated with immunosuppression. The present study was conducted in Thessaly, Greece and aimed to identify risk and environmental factors associated with CPV-2 infection in diarrheic dogs. Fecal samples were collected from 116 dogs presenting diarrhea and were tested by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for the presence of CPV-2 DNA. Supplementary data regarding clinical symptoms, individual features, management factors and medical history were also gathered for each animal during clinical evaluation. Sixty-eight diarrheic dogs were found to be positive for the virus DNA in their feces. Statistical analysis revealed that CPV-2 DNA was less likely to be detected in senior dogs, while working dogs, namely hounds and shepherds, had higher odds to be positive for the virus. Livestock density and land uses, specifically the categories of discontinuous urban fabric and of human population density, were identified as significant environmental parameters associated with CPV-2 infection by using Geographical Information System (GIS) together with the Ecological Niche Model (ENM). This is the first description of the environmental variables associated with the presence of CPV-2 DNA in dogs’ feces in Greece.

FELINE CORONAVIRUS AND FELINE INFECTIOUS PERITONITIS IN NONDOMESTIC FELID SPECIES

Feline coronavirus (FCoV) is reported worldwide and known to cause disease in domestic and nondomestic felid species. Although FCoV often results in mild to inapparent disease, a small subset of cats succumb to the fatal, systemic disease feline infectious peritonitis (FIP). An outbreak of FIP in Cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) in a zoological collection demonstrated the devastating effect of FCoV introduction into a naïve group of animals. In addition to cheetahs, FIP has been described in European wildcats (Felis silvestris), a tiger (Panthera tigris), a mountain lion (Puma concolor), and lion (Panthera leo). This paper reviews the reported cases of FIP in nondomestic felid species and highlights the surveys of FCoV in populations of nondomestic felids.

Cross-species transmission of retroviruses among domestic and wild felids in human-occupied landscapes in Chile

Human transformation of natural habitats facilitates pathogen transmission between domestic and wild species. The guigna (Leopardus guigna), a small felid found in Chile, has experienced habitat loss and an increased probability of contact with domestic cats. Here, we describe the interspecific transmission of feline leukemia virus (FeLV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) between domestic cats and guignas and assess its correlation with human landscape perturbation. Blood and tissue samples from 102 free-ranging guignas and 262 domestic cats were collected and analyzed by PCR and sequencing. Guigna and domestic cat FeLV and FIV prevalence were very similar. Phylogenetic analysis showed guigna FeLV and FIV sequences are positioned within worldwide domestic cat virus clades with high nucleotide similarity. Guigna FeLV infection was significantly associated with fragmented landscapes with resident domestic cats. There was little evidence of clinical signs of disease in guignas. Our results contribute to the understanding of the implications of landscape perturbation and emerging diseases.

Seroprevalence and risk factors of Toxoplasma gondii infection in wild ungulates that cohabit in a natural park with human-animal interaction in the Mediterranean ecosystem

The possibility of Toxoplasma gondii transmitted from game meat to humans is of public health concern. Here we determined seroprevalence and risk factors associated with T. gondii in large game ungulates that cohabit in Sierras de Cazorla, Segura and Las Villas Natural Park (SCSV-NP) (Southern Spain), a natural park with high human-animal interaction. Antibodies against T. gondii in 328 wild ungulates were assayed by the modified agglutination test (MAT ≥ 1:25). Antibodies were found in 39 (11.9%, 95% CI: 8.4-15.4) wild ungulates, with seroprevalence levels of 20.8% in wild boars (Sus scrofa) (5/24), 19.0% in fallow deer (Dama dama) (12/63), 13.9% in Iberian ibex (Capra pyrenaica hispanica) (14/101), 7.9% in red deer (Cervus elaphus) (6/76), and 3.1% in mouflons (Ovis aries musimon) (2/64). Significantly higher seroprevalence was observed in fallow deer and wild boars compared to mouflons. Animals living close to urban areas (<2 km) had 4.6-times higher risk compared to those living at >5 km of urban areas. The results indicate high circulation of T. gondii in wild ungulates in SCSV-NP, which is of animal and public health concern. The increased seroprevalence of T. gondii detected in wildlife ungulates living close to urban areas may increase human infection in those areas if meat from infected animals is consumed raw or undercooked.

Disease Surveillance during the Reintroduction of the Iberian Lynx (Lynx pardinus) in Southwestern Spain

The restoration of Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) populations in Extremadura (Southwestern Spain) have been carried out since 2014. One of the measures to ensure the success of this program is to examine the effects that diseases may have on reintroduction. Since diseases may be greatly located at certain sites because of the specific ecological requirements of the pathogens and/or vectors, reintroduced individuals may present a risk of infection once released. To determine which pathogens the reintroduced individuals may encounter, we performed a molecular and sero-epidemiological survey in reintroduced and wild-born lynxes. From 2015 to 2019, 69 Iberian lynxes (40 reintroduced and 29 wild-born) were sampled and screened against 10 viral, bacterial and piroplasmid agents. In parallel, 195 sympatric carnivores from the families Canidae, Felidae, Viverridae, Herpestidae and Mustelidae were tested against current or past infections to six common canine/feline viruses. In the Iberian lynx, low contact rates of active infection were obtained for the feline leukemia provirus (FeLV: 1.5%; 1/67), feline parvovirus (FPV: 1.5%; 1/67) and Cytauxzoon sp. (6.7%; 1/15). We also confirmed the emergence of Aujeszky's disease (suid herpesvirus-1) in this population (SuHV-1: 11.8%; 2/17). Evidence of previous exposure was detected for canine distemper virus (CDV: 5.8%; 3/52), feline coronavirus (1.9%; 1/52), FPV (7.7%; 1/13) and feline calicivirus (FCV: 5.3%; 1/19). From 25 recovered lynx carcasses, we could confirm infectious etiology involvement in the death of four individuals (SuHV-1 in two individuals, coinfection of Cytauxzoon spp. and Aeromonas veronii in one lynx and a Streptococcus canis myositis in another lynx). We confirmed the circulation of CDV, FPV, FeLV, FCV and the feline immunodeficiency virus within the sympatric carnivore community. Due to the low contact rate of infectious agents in such a small, endangered population, we recommend continuing a disease surveillance program to determine the prognostic factors of survival, understand the role that disease may play during the reintroduction and anticipate disease outbreaks that may pose a risk for the entire reintroduced population.

Three new species of Cytauxzoon in European wild felids

Protists of the genus Cytauxzoon infect a wide variety of wild and domestic felids worldwide. While the American Cytauxzoon felis has been well described, data on the European isolates of Cytauxzoon are still scant. The aim of the current study was to determine the genetic diversity of European Cytauxzoon spp. in wild felids across Europe by analyzing one nuclear and two mitochondrial genes, along with representative complete mitochondrial genomes. Overall, 106 biological samples from wild felids (92 from Felis silvestris and 14 from Lynx lynx) from Germany, Romania, Czech Republic, and Luxembourg were collected and screened for the presence of Cytauxzoon spp. using nested PCR protocols, targeting the highly conserved 18S rDNA, mitochondrial cytochrome b (CytB) and cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) genes. Furthermore, 18 previously confirmed wild felid biological samples from Europe, and comparative material from USA positive for C. felis, were included in the study. In 18S rDNA sequences analyses, Cytauxzoon spp. from felids formed two separate clades of New World and Old World isolates, with a low inner diversity of the European clade. In contrast to 18S rDNA, the phylogenetic analyses of CytB and COI genes affirmatively revealed three highly supported clades, resulting in three defined genotypes. Similar intra- and interspecific variability of CytB and COI genes was observed in the case of different Babesia spp. Considering geography, host species and analyses of three genes, we conclude that the three detected genotypes of Cytauxzoon in European wild felids represent three new species, which we herein describe.

Recent epidemiologic and clinical Toxoplasma gondii infections in wild canids and other carnivores: 2009-2020

Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. The present review summarizes worldwide information on the prevalence of clinical and subclinical infections, epidemiology, diagnosis, and genetic diversity of T. gondii in wild canids and other carnivores for the past decade. Seroprevalence estimates of T. gondii worldwide were tabulated for each host. Seroprevalence in wild foxes was very high compared with farmed Arctic foxes. Economic and public health aspects of some of the carnivore species raised for fur and meat (raccoon dogs, mink) are discussed. Diagnostic efficacies of different serological methods and PCR methods are discussed. Clinical toxoplasmosis was observed mainly in carnivores concurrently infected with immunosuppressive Canine Distemper Virus infection. Abortion and blindness were noted in mink. Genetic diversity of isolates using DNA derived from 162 (89 viable T. gondii isolates and 73 DNA extracted from tissues) of wild carnivores from several countries is discussed. However, 69 of the 162 T. gondii isolates were strains from USA and these were genetically diverse with predominance of ToxoDB genotypes #4 and #5 (haplogroup 12). Only limited information is available concerning genotyping of T. gondii isolates from other countries; none of the 93 T. gondii isolates from other countries (Brazil, China, France, Grenada) were haplogroup 12.

Long-Term Determinants of the Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in a Wild Ungulate Community

Toxoplasma gondii is an obligate intracellular protozoan which infects warm-blooded vertebrates, including humans, worldwide. In the present study, the epidemiology of T. gondii was studied in the wild ungulate host community (wild boar, red deer, and fallow deer) of Doñana National Park (DNP, south-western Spain) for 13 years (2005-2018). We assessed several variables which potentially operate in the medium and long-term (environmental features, population, and stochastic factors). Overall, the wild ungulate host community of DNP had high seroprevalence values of T. gondii (STG; % ± confidence interval (CI) 95%; wild boar (Sus scrofa) 39 ± 3.3, n = 698; red deer (Cervus elaphus) 30.7 ± 4.4, n = 423; fallow deer (Dama dama) 29.7 ± 4.2, n = 452). The complex interplay of hosts and ecological/epidemiological niches, together with the optimal climatic conditions for the survival of oocysts that converge in this area may favor the spread of the parasite in its host community. The temporal evolution of STG oscillated considerably, mostly in deer species. The relationships shown by statistical models indicated that several factors determined species patterns. Concomitance of effects among species, indicated that relevant drivers of risk operated at the community level. Our focus, addressing factors operating at broad temporal scale, allows showing their impacts on the epidemiology of T. gondii and its trends. This approach is key to understanding the epidemiology and ecology to T. gondii infection in wild host communities in a context where the decline in seroprevalence leads to loss of immunity in humans.

Epidemiological surveillance of Toxoplasma gondii in small ruminants in southern Spain

Toxoplasmosis, caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, is a worldwide zoonotic disease, which affects most warm-blooded species. Besides the zoonotic relevance, toxoplasmosis is one of the major causes of reproductive disorders in small ruminants. A cross-sectional study was carried out to determine the seroprevalence, spatial distribution and risk factors associated with T. gondii infection in sheep and goats in southern Spain. During 2015-2017, a total of 1,943 small ruminants (998 sheep and 945 goats) from 127 flocks were tested for antibodies against T. gondii using the modified agglutination test (MAT, cut-off 1:25). Antibodies against T. gondii were detected in 464 of the 998 sheep (46.5 %; CI95 %: 43.4-49.6%) and 362 of the 945 goats (38.3 %; CI95 %: 35.2-41.4%) tested. The farm prevalence was 98.4 % (CI95 %: 95.4-100%) for sheep and 93.7 % (CI95 %: 87.6-99.7%) for goats. The generalized estimating equation analysis showed that presence of cats and existence of previous reproductive disorders were risk factors potentially associated with T. gondii seropositivity in small ruminants. Two statistically significant spatial clusters (P < 0.001) were identified. The seroprevalence observed in the present study indicates a widespread exposure to T. gondii in sheep and goats in southern Spain, which might have important implications for animal and public health. Management measures should be implemented in small ruminant farms in this region in order to reduce the risk of T. gondii infections, particularly in those areas identified in the spatial analysis.

Zoonotic and vector-borne pathogens in tigers from a wildlife safari park, Italy

Infectious diseases by pathogens, including those of zoonotic concern, may act as a primary or contributory cause of threat to wildlife conservation and may represent a risk for human health, mainly for people working at, or visiting the zoological parks. Given the paucity of data on pathogens infecting wild tigers, we investigated the occurrence of infectious agents in this animal species, with a special focus on those of zoonotic concern. Blood and serum samples from tigers (n = 20) living in a wildlife safari park of southern Italy were screened by serological and molecular tests. All animals scored positive for antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii (100%), whereas they displayed different prevalence of seropositivity for Rickettsia conorii (30%), Bartonella henselae (15%) and Leptospira interrogans sv Icterohaemorrhagiae and/or Leptospira kirschneri sv Grippotyphosa (15%). No antibodies against Coxiella burnetii were detected. In addition, 8 tigers (40%) tested molecularly positive to "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum", and 3 (15%) to Hepatozoon canis. No DNA of R. conorii, Bartonella spp., Ehrlichia/Anaplasma spp. and piroplasmids was amplified. The occurrence of tiger infections by bacteria and parasites may represent a risk for morbidity and, in some circumstances, mortality in this endangered species and a source of infection for other animals, including humans. These findings indicate that the circulation of zoonotic pathogens such as T. gondii, R. conorii, L. interrogans sv Icterohaemorrhagiae, "Candidatus Mycoplasma haemominutum" and B. henselae in given environments may represent a relevant health issue considering the close association among animals and humans visiting, or working at, the wildlife safari park. Preventative measures are advocated in order to control ectoparasites and other sources of infection (e.g., small rodents), thus for minimizing the risk of infection for animals as well as for humans.

First report of Cytauxzoon sp. infection in Germany: organism description and molecular confirmation in a domestic cat

Cytauxzoonosis is described as an emerging tick-borne disease of domestic and wild felids caused by protozoans of the genus Cytauxzoon. While in the Americas the condition is described as a fatal disease, in Europe, reports on the clinical expression of the infection are scarce. This study describes the first case of Cytauxzoon sp. infection in Germany, in a domestic cat. A 6-year-old male domestic cat living in Saarlouis (Saarland) was presented with anorexia, lethargy and weight loss. The cat had an outdoor lifestyle and had not travelled abroad. Serum clinical chemistry analysis revealed azotaemia with markedly increased symmetric dimethylarginine, hypercreatinemia, hyperphosphatemia and hypoalbuminemia. Moreover, a mild non-regenerative anaemia was present. Approximately 1 year prior to these findings, the domestic cat was diagnosed with a feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) infection. These results pointed toward a decreased glomerular filtration rate, presumably as a result of kidney dysfunction. Round to oval signet ring–shaped intraerythrocytic organisms, morphologically suggestive for a piroplasm, were revealed during blood smear evaluation with a degree of parasitaemia of 33.0%. PCR analyses and sequencing of a region of the 18S rRNA gene confirmed the presence of a Cytauxzoon sp. infection, with 99–100% nucleotide sequence identity with previously published Cytauxzoon sp. isolates. As this is the first molecularly confirmed Cytauxzoon sp. infection in a domestic cat in Germany, these findings suggest that cytauxzoonosis should be considered as a differential diagnosis in cases of anaemia in outdoor domestic cats, particularly in areas where wild felid populations are present.

Hemoplasmas Are Endemic and Cause Asymptomatic Infection in the Endangered Darwin's Fox (Lycalopex fulvipes)

Mycoplasma haemocanis is prevalent in the endangered Darwin's fox (Lycalopex fulvipes) in its main stronghold, Chiloé Island (Chile). The origin of the infection, its dynamics, its presence in other fox populations and the potential consequences for fox health remain unexplored. For 8 years, hemoplasmal DNA was screened and characterized in blood from 82 foxes in Chiloé and two other fox populations and in 250 free-ranging dogs from Chiloé. The prevalence of M. haemocanis in foxes was constant during the study years, and coinfection with "Candidatus Mycoplasma haematoparvum" was confirmed in 30% of the foxes. Both hemoplasma species were detected in the two mainland fox populations and in Chiloé dogs. M. haemocanis was significantly more prevalent and more genetically diverse in foxes than in dogs. Two of the seven M. haemocanis haplotypes identified were shared between these species. Network analyses did not show genetic structure by species (foxes versus dogs), geographic (island versus mainland populations), or temporal (years of study) factors. The probability of infection with M. haemocanis increased with fox age but was not associated with sex, season, or degree of anthropization of individual fox habitats. Some foxes recaptured years apart were infected with the same haplotype in both events, and no hematological alterations were associated with hemoplasma infection, suggesting tolerance to the infection. Altogether, our results indicate that M. haemocanis is enzootic in the Darwin's fox and that intraspecific transmission is predominant. Nevertheless, such a prevalent pathogen in a threatened species represents a concern that must be considered in conservation actions.IMPORTANCE Mycoplasma haemocanis is enzootic in Darwin's foxes. There is a higher M. haemocanis genetic diversity and prevalence in foxes than in sympatric dogs, although haplotypes are shared between the two carnivore species. There is an apparent tolerance of Darwin's foxes to Mycoplasma haemocanis.

All about toxoplasmosis in cats: the last decade

Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. Toxoplasmosis continues to be of public health concern. Cats (domestic and wild felids) are the most important host in the epidemiology of toxoplasmosis because they are the only species that can excrete the environmentally resistant oocysts in feces. Cats can excrete millions of oocysts and a single cat can spread infection to many hosts. The present paper summarizes information on prevalence, persistence of infection, clinical signs, and diagnosis of T. gondii infections in domestic and wild cats for the past decade. Special emphasis is paid to genetic diversity of T. gondii isolates from cats. Review of literature indicates that a unique genotype (ToxoDB genotype #9 or Chinese 1) is widely prevalent in cats in China and it has been epidemiologically linked to outbreaks of clinical toxoplasmosis in pigs and deaths in humans in China; this genotype has rarely been detected in other countries. This review will be of interest to biologists, parasitologists, veterinarians, and public health workers.

The Gut Microbiota of the Egyptian Mongoose as an Early Warning Indicator of Ecosystem Health in Portugal

The Egyptian mongoose is a carnivore mammal species that in the last decades experienced a tremendous expansion in Iberia, particularly in Portugal, mainly due to its remarkable ecological plasticity in response to land-use changes. However, this species may have a disruptive role on native communities in areas where it has recently arrived due to predation and the potential introduction of novel pathogens. We report reference information on the cultivable gut microbial landscape of widely distributed Egyptian mongoose populations (Herpestes ichneumon, n = 53) and related antimicrobial tolerance across environmental gradients. The panel of isolated species is consistent with the typical protein-based diet of a carnivore: Firmicutes predominate (89% of individuals), while Clostridiales, Enterobacteriales, and Lactobacillales are the major classes. Forty-one individuals (77.4%) harbour Clostridium spp. A spatial influence on mongooses’ microbiota is confirmed by nonmetric multidimensional scaling analysis, with a significant contribution of municipality to their microbiota composition. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing of mongoose commensal bacteria to 28 compounds evidences xenobiotic tolerance of Escherichia coli (E. coli), enterococci, Salmonella Spartel and Mbandaka serotypes and Pseudomonas bacteria, among others. The common isolation of antimicrobial tolerant microbiota from the mongoose’s gut suggests this species is exposed to anthropogenic influence and is affected by forestry and agricultural-related practices, reflecting its easy adaptation to ecological gradients across agroecosystems. We thus propose regular microbial and phenotypic resistance profiling of widely distributed mongooses as a sentinel tool for xenobiotics’ lifecycle and ecosystem health in Portugal.

Assessing the health risks of reintroduction: The example of the Amur leopard, Panthera pardus orientalis

Translocation of wildlife as a means of reintroducing or reinforcing threatened populations is an important conservation tool but carries health risks for the translocated animals and their progeny, as well as wildlife, domestic animals and humans in the release area. Disease risk analyses (DRA) are used to identify, prioritize and design mitigation strategies to address these threats. Here, we use a DRA undertaken for Amur leopards (Panthera pardus orientalis) to illustrate how specific methodology can optimize mitigation strategy design. A literature review identified a total of 98 infectious hazards and 28 non-infectious hazards. Separate analyses were undertaken for disease risks in leopards from hazards of source origin (captive zoo collections and the transit pathway to the Russian Far East), or of destination origin (in breeding enclosures and wider release areas); and for disease risks in other wildlife, domesticated species or humans, similarly from hazards of source or destination origin. Hazards were assessed and ranked as priority 1, priority 2, priority 3 or low priority in each of the defined scenarios. In addition, we undertook a generic assessment of stress on individual leopards. We use three examples to illustrate the process: Chlamydophila felis, canine distemper virus (CDV) and feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV). We found that many potentially expensive screening procedures could be performed prior to export of leopards, putting the onus of responsibility onto the zoo sector, for which access to diagnostic testing facilities is likely to be optimal. We discuss how our methods highlighted significant data gaps relating to pathogen prevalence in the Russian Far East and likely future unpredictability, in particular with respect to CDV. There was emphasis at all stages on record keeping, meticulous planning, design, staff training and enclosure management, which are relatively financially inexpensive. Actions to minimize stress featured at all time points in the strategy and also focussed on planning, design and management.

An Eight-Year Survey for Canine Distemper Virus Indicates Lack of Exposure in the Endangered Darwin's Fox (Lycalopex fulvipes)

No evidence of exposure to canine distemper virus (CDV) was detected in 70 samples corresponding to 58 wild-trapped Darwin's foxes (Lycalopex fulvipes) in Chile. Given its current endangered status and it being immunologically naïve, in the event of a CDV spillover from dogs to foxes, high population mortality is expected.

Seroepidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in extensively raised Iberian pigs in Spain

Pigs reared under extensive farming conditions are currently in high commercial demand because they are associated with high-quality products. Nevertheless, the risk of contact with different pathogens of animal and public health concern is also higher in extensive production systems. Toxoplasma gondii is a widely prevalent zoonotic pathogen and transmission by contaminated pork is likely one of the main routes of human toxoplasmosis. The aim of this study was to determine the seroprevalence, risk factors and spatial distribution of T. gondii on extensive Iberian pig herds in Spain. Sera from 2245 Iberian pigs from 114 herds were collected between 2015 and 2017 and analyzed using a commercial ELISA. The apparent individual prevalence of antibodies against T. gondii was 24.1 % (542/2245) and the estimated true seroprevalence was 24.3 % (CI95 %: 22.5-26.1). Seropositivity was detected in 86.0 % (98/114; CI95 %: 77.4-91.1) of 114 herds analyzed. A multi-level logistic regression model showed that T. gondii infection was significantly more frequent in sows than in fattening pigs (OR: 2.6; CI95 %: 1.5-4.8) and in herds with more than three cats compared to no cats (OR: 2.9; CI95 %: 1.1-8.7). Our results indicate a widespread but heterogenous distribution of T. gondii in extensively reared Iberian pig herds, which may have important implications for public health through the consumption of undercooked or improperly cured pork products.

Molecular and serological survey of carnivore pathogens in free-roaming domestic cats of rural communities in southern Chile

Owned, free-roaming domestic cats are abundant in the Chilean countryside, having high probability of contact with wildlife and potentially participating as reservoirs of zoonotic pathogens. In the present study, 131 cats from two remote study areas (Valdivia and Chiloe Island) in southern Chile were analyzed for infection/exposure to eight pathogens. Serum samples from 112 cats were tested for antigens against feline leukemia virus (FeLV antigen-ELISA) and antibodies against feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV-ELISA) and canine distemper virus (CDV-serum neutralization), yielded occurrence of 8.9, 1.7 and 0.8% respectively. The presence of DNA of five vector-borne pathogens, piroplasmids, Ehrlichia spp., Anaplasma spp., Rickettsia spp. and Bartonella spp. was investigated in thirty cats. Overall observed occurrence was 6.6% (2/30) for both Anaplasma platys, and B. henselae, and 3.3% (1/30) for both Bartonella sp. and Theileria equi. Observed occurrence for all vector-borne pathogens in Valdivia area was significantly higher than in Chiloe Island (5/15 vs 0/15; P=0.04). Our results represent the first description of exposure to CDV and DNA detection of T. equi and A. platys in domestic cats in Chile. The results highlight the importance of performing pathogen screening in owned, free-roaming rural cats to evaluate their potential role as reservoirs of infection and vectors for disease transmission to wildlife.

Health and zoonotic Infections of snow leopards Panthera unica in the South Gobi desert of Mongolia

Background: Snow leopards, Panthera uncia, are a threatened apex predator, scattered across the mountains of Central and South Asia. Disease threats to wild snow leopards have not been investigated.Methods and Results: Between 2008 and 2015, twenty snow leopards in the South Gobi desert of Mongolia were captured and immobilised for health screening and radio-collaring. Blood samples and external parasites were collected for pathogen analyses using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), microscopic agglutination test (MAT), and next-generation sequencing (NGS) techniques. The animals showed no clinical signs of disease, however, serum antibodies to significant zoonotic pathogens were detected. These pathogens included, Coxiella burnetii, (25% prevalence), Leptospira spp., (20%), and Toxoplasma gondii (20%). Ticks collected from snow leopards contained potentially zoonotic bacteria from the genera Bacillus, Bacteroides, Campylobacter, Coxiella, Rickettsia, Staphylococcus and Streptococcus.Conclusions: The zoonotic pathogens identified in this study, in the short-term did not appear to cause illness in the snow leopards, but have caused illness in other wild felids. Therefore, surveillance for pathogens should be implemented to monitor for potential longer- term disease impacts on this snow leopard population.

First description of sarcoptic mange in the endangered Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus): clinical and epidemiological features

A 6-month-old female Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) cub that was severely affected by mange died in September 2016 in the Montes de Toledo (Spain) with crusts and fissures on its face, outer ears, nipples and footpads. The body condition of the cub was very poor, and it also had a mandibular abscess and a severely ankylosed luxation on its left knee. After confirming that the origin of the deceased cub’s dermal lesions was Sarcoptes scabiei, the subsequent search for ectoparasites and a comparison of histopathological and immunohistochemical findings in all sympatric lynxes handled (n = 30) and submitted for necropsy (n = 4) during 2016 and 2017 revealed the presence of S. scabiei mites and/or milder mange compatible lesions in five members of her family group, which was treated against mange together with two exposed contiguous family groups. An ELISA developed by the authors showed the presence of antibodies against S. scabiei in the deceased female cub and one brother. The presence of concomitant immunosuppressive factors in the dead female cub and the results obtained for the other sympatric lynxes studied since 2016 suggest that S. scabiei had a limited effect on immune-competent Iberian lynxes in the local population of the Montes de Toledo. However, a different evolution and relevance of sarcoptic mange in different populations—or even in the same one in the presence of immunosuppressive factors—cannot be ruled out, thus confirming the need for further research in order to attain a complete comprehension of the epidemiology and the real threat that this ectoparasitic disease may imply for L. pardinus.

Assessing the natural circulation of canine vector-borne pathogens in foxes, ticks and fleas in protected areas of Argentine Patagonia with negligible dog participation

We collected blood and/or ectoparasites from 49 South American grey foxes (Lycalopex griseus) and two Andean foxes (L. culpaeus) caught in two National Parks of southern Argentine Patagonia (Bosques Petrificados, BPNP; and Monte León, MLNP) where dogs are nearly absent (density < 0.01 dog/km2). Common ectoparasites were the flea Pulex irritans (88% prevalence) and the tick Amblyomma tigrinum (29%). Conventional PCR and sequencing of 49 blood samples, 299 fleas analysed in 78 pools, and 21 ticks revealed the presence of DNA of the following canine vector-borne pathogens: in grey foxes, Rickettsia sp. (3%), hemoplasmas (8%), including Mycoplasma haemocanis, and Hepatozoon sp. (50%); in P. irritans, Bartonella spp. (72% of flea pools from 76% of foxes), mostly B. vinsonii subsp. berkhoffii but also B. rochalimae, Anaplasmataceae (Wolbachia sp.; 60% and 54%), and M. haemocanis/haemofelis (29% and 18%); and in A. tigrinum, Hepatozoon sp. (33% of ticks in 4 of 7 foxes). No piroplasmid DNA was detected in any sample. Andean foxes were negative for all tested pathogens. Two different Hepatozoon haplotypes were detected: the most prevalent was phylogenetically associated with H. felis, and the other with H. americanum and related sequences. Amblyomma tigrinum and Hepatozoon sp. were more abundant and/or prevalent in BPNP than in colder MLNP, 300 km southwards, perhaps located close to the limit for tick suitability. Bartonella v. berkhoffii was also significantly more prevalent in fleas of foxes in BPNP than in MLNP. This study provides novel information about natural host-pathogen associations in wildlife, markedly extends the distribution area in South America of arthropods and vector-borne pathogens of veterinary and public health interest, and contributes preliminary evidence about the potential role of A. tigrinum and P. irritans as vectors, respectively, for potentially new species of Hepatozoon from Lycalopex spp. and for M. haemocanis that should be further investigated.

Extinction vortex dynamics of top predators isolated by urbanization

Extinction risk is elevated in small, isolated populations due to demographic and genetic interactions. Therefore, it is critical to model these processes realistically in population viability analyses (PVA) to inform local management and contribute to a greater understanding of mechanisms within the extinction vortex. We conducted PVA's for two small mountain lion populations isolated by urbanization in southern California to predict population growth, extinction probability, and loss of genetic diversity with empirical data. Specifically, we (1) provide the first PVA for isolated mountain lions in the Santa Ana Mountains (SAM) that considers both demographic and genetic risk factors and (2) test the hypothesis that variation in abundance and mortality between the SAM and Santa Monica Mountains (SMM) result in differences in population growth, loss of heterozygosity, and extinction probability. Our models predicted 16-21% probability of local extinction in the SAM due purely to demographic processes over 50 yr with current low levels or no immigration. Our models also predicted that genetic diversity will further erode in the SAM such that concern regarding inbreeding depression is warranted unless gene flow is increased, and that if inbreeding depression occurs, rapid local extinction will be highly likely. Dynamics of the two populations were broadly similar, but they also exhibited differences driven by larger population size and higher mortality in the SAM. Density-independent scenarios predicted a rapidly increasing population in the SMM, whereas growth potential did not differ from a stable trend in the SAM. Demographic extinction probability and loss of heterozygosity were greater in the SMM for density-dependent scenarios without immigration. However, higher levels of immigration had stronger, positive influences on both demographic viability and retention of genetic diversity in the SMM driven by lower abundance and higher adult survival. Our results elucidate demographic and genetic threats to small populations within the extinction vortex, and how these vary relative to demographic structure. Importantly, simulating seemingly attainable increases in connectivity was sufficient to greatly reduce extinction probability. Our work highlights that conservation of large carnivores is achievable within urbanized landscapes, but requires land protection, connectivity, and strategies to promote coexistence with humans.

Severe Conjunctivitis Associated with Chlamydia felis Infection in a Free-ranging Eurasian Lynx ( Lynx lynx)

A free-ranging adult Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx) captured in Switzerland presented with a severe purulent unilateral conjunctivitis. Chlamydia felis was detected in conjunctival swabs by real-time quantitative PCR. Systemic treatment with oxytetracycline and ketoprofen led to complete recovery. Infection with C. felis has not been previously reported in Eurasian lynx.

Tracking Toxoplasma gondii in freshwater ecosystems: interaction with the invasive American mink (Neovison vison) in Spain

Water-borne transmission may play an important role in the epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii. Mammals closely related to freshwater ecosystems, such as the American mink (Neovison vison), are potentially valuable sentinels for T. gondii. To assess the importance of freshwater ecosystems in T. gondii epidemiology, sera of 678 American minks collected during the 2010 to 2015 Spanish national eradication campaigns were tested for the presence of T. gondii antibodies using the modified agglutination test (MAT, cut-off 1:25). A high prevalence of samples, 78.8% (CI_95%: 75.5-81.8), were seropositive. In addition, a specific real-time PCR was performed in 120 brain samples and the parasite DNA was detected in 9.2% (CI_95%: 5.2-15.7). Significant differences in seroprevalence were detected among bioregions, with the highest levels detected in coastal areas, and by age. The higher seroprevalence observed in older animals (80.0% adults versus 68.7% juveniles) confirms the importance of the horizontal transmission. These results indicate a widespread presence of T. gondii oocysts in freshwater ecosystems from Spain and further support the importance of water-borne transmission in the epidemiology of T. gondii.

First report of Cytauxzoon sp. infection in domestic cats in Switzerland: natural and transfusion-transmitted infections

BACKGROUND

Cytauxzoonosis is an emerging tick-borne disease of domestic and wild felids. Cytauxzoon felis induces severe and often fatal disease in domestic cats. In Europe, clinical and subclinical infections caused by Cytauxzoon sp. are described. We report the first cases of Cytauxzoon sp. infection in domestic cats in Switzerland.

METHODS

Clinical and laboratory data and results of PCR analyses were collected from Cytauxzoon sp. PCR-positive cats and the cats followed for up to 851 days.

RESULTS

The cases were three two-month old kittens from the same litter (Cases 1-3) and two adult domestic shorthair cats (Cases 4 and 5). The cats originated from the north-west and west of Switzerland. Cases 1-3 presented with moderate to severe regenerative anaemia and intraerythrocytic inclusions. Cytauxzoon sp. was confirmed by PCR and sequencing. The kittens made a clinical and haematological recovery after blood transfusion and/or treatment with azithromycin and atovaquone, but erythroparasitaemia persisted. Case 4 presented with severe non-regenerative anaemia. Case 5 was healthy and used as a blood donor for Case 4. Following blood transfusion, Case 4 showed intraerythrocytic inclusions, and Cytauxzoon sp. was confirmed in both Cases 4 and 5 using PCR and sequencing. Case 4 achieved clinical and haematological remission after treatment with azithromycin, atovaquone and immunosuppressive drugs. Eight months later, Case 4 was presented again with anaemia but tested Cytauxzoon sp. PCR-negative. Sequencing of 1637 bp of the 18S rRNA gene of Cytauxzoon sp. revealed 100% nucleotide sequence identity among isolates of Cases 1-3 and between isolates of Cases 4 and 5, and 99% sequence identity between isolates of all cases. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the closest relationship of the Swiss isolates to Cytauxzoon sp. isolates from domestic cats and wild felids from France, Spain and Romania and to Cytauxzoon manul from a Pallas's cat.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first report of Cytauxzoon sp. infection in domestic cats in Switzerland. It is also the first report of infection in very young kittens and transmission of Cytauxzoon sp. to an adult cat by transfusion of blood from an asymptomatic cat. The cats recovered but some developed chronic asymptomatic erythroparasitaemia for up to 28 months. Domestic cats may act as reservoirs for Cytauxzoon sp. in Europe and blood donor cats should be screened for this agent by PCR.

Two Tales of Cytauxzoon felis Infections in Domestic Cats

Cytauxzoonosis is an emerging infectious disease that affects wild felids as well as the domestic cat; it is caused by the apicomplexan protozoan parasites belonging to the genus Cytauxzoon. Cytauxzoonfelis is the species of major concern, whose transmission occurs via the bite of an infected tick. Cytauxzoonosis of the domestic cat has historically been considered uniformly fatal, with a short course of illness, and most domestic cats die within 9 to 15 days postinfection. However, increasing evidence of domestic cats surviving C. felis infection suggests the existence of different strains with various levels of pathogenicity. Although wild felids are considered natural reservoirs for this parasite, a number of studies suggest that domestic cats that have survived nonlethal infections may serve as an additional reservoir. The current article comprehensively reviews the parasite and its life cycle, geographic distribution, genetic variability, and pathogenesis, as well as host immunology and the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of infection in the domestic cat. This information should provide a basis for better understanding the parasite as well as the pathogenesis of the disease.

Complete Genomic Sequence of Canine Distemper Virus from an Ethiopian Wolf

Canine distemper virus (CDV) has been implicated in population declines of wildlife, including many threatened species. Here we present the full genome of CDV from an Ethiopian wolf, Canis simensis, the world's rarest and most endangered canid.

Retention of functional variation despite extreme genomic erosion: MHC allelic repertoires in the Lynx genus

BACKGROUND

Demographic bottlenecks erode genetic diversity and may increase endangered species' extinction risk via decreased fitness and adaptive potential. The genetic status of species is generally assessed using neutral markers, whose dynamic can differ from that of functional variation due to selection. The MHC is a multigene family described as the most important genetic component of the mammalian immune system, with broad implications in ecology and evolution. The genus Lynx includes four species differing immensely in demographic history and population size, which provides a suitable model to study the genetic consequences of demographic declines: the Iberian lynx being an extremely bottlenecked species and the three remaining ones representing common and widely distributed species. We compared variation in the most variable exon of the MHCI and MHCII-DRB loci among the four species of the Lynx genus.

RESULTS

The Iberian lynx was characterised by lower number of MHC alleles than its sister species (the Eurasian lynx). However, it maintained most of the functional genetic variation at MHC loci present in the remaining and genetically healthier lynx species at all nucleotide, amino acid, and supertype levels.

CONCLUSIONS

Species-wide functional genetic diversity can be maintained even in the face of severe population bottlenecks, which caused devastating whole genome genetic erosion. This could be the consequence of divergent alleles being retained across paralogous loci, an outcome that, in the face of frequent gene conversion, may have been favoured by balancing selection.

First clinical case report of Cytauxzoon sp. infection in a domestic cat in France

Background

Feline cytauxzoonosis is an emerging infection caused by tick-transmitted apicomplexan parasites of the genus Cytauxzoon. The association of clinical disease with Cytauxzoon infection appears to be limited to C. felis infections in the Americas. Sporadic infections of wild and domestic felids with Cytauxzoon sp. were recently described in European countries but clinical reports of the infection are rare and incomplete. This case report brings new interesting information on cytauxzoonosis expression in Europe.

Case presentation

A 9-years-old castrated European shorthair cat living in rural area of north-eastern France (Saint Sauveur, Bourgogne-Franche-Comté region), without any travel history was presented for consultation due to hyperthermia, anorexia, depression and prolonged fever that didn’t respond to antibiotic therapy. The cat had outdoor access with a history of vagrancy and was adequately vaccinated (core vaccines and FeLV vaccine). During biological investigations, intraerythrocytic inclusions were observed on blood smear and were further investigated by PCR analysis and sequencing. Molecular analyses confirmed Cytauxzoon sp. infection. The cat was treated with a subcutaneous injection of imidocarb dipropionate (3.5 mg/kg). One week after treatment, the cat improved clinically, although parasitic inclusions within erythrocytes persisted, and only a mild lymphocytosis was found. Two weeks after treatment, the cat appeared in excellent health, appetite was normal and parasitemia was negative. However, one month after treatment the cat relapsed with hyperthermia, anorexia, and depression. Blood smears and PCR were once again positive. Subsequently, the cat received an additional dose of imidocarb dipropionate (3.5 mg/kg SC) and recovered rapidly without other clinical signs. Two weeks after the second imidocarb injection, the cat was hit by a car and died.

Conclusion

This case provides the first clinical description of infection by Cytauxzoon sp. in a domestic cat in France. These findings support the fact that cytauxzoonosis should be considered in the differential diagnosis of acute febrile illness which does not respond to antibiotic in cats with outdoor access especially in areas where populations of wild felids are present.