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Shetty SV, Mazzucco MR, Winokur P, Haigh SV, Rumah KR, Fischetti VA, Vartanian T, Linden JR. Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Binds to and Kills Primary Human Lymphocytes. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:423. [PMID: 37505692 PMCID: PMC10467094 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is the third most lethal bacterial toxin and has been suggested to be an environmental trigger of multiple sclerosis, an immune-mediated disease of the human central nervous system. However, ETX cytotoxicity on primary human cells has not been investigated. In this article, we demonstrate that ETX preferentially binds to and kills human lymphocytes expressing increased levels of the myelin and lymphocyte protein MAL. Using flow cytometry, ETX binding was determined to be time and dose dependent and was highest for CD4+ cells, followed by CD8+ and then CD19+ cells. Similar results were seen with ETX-induced cytotoxicity. To determine if ETX preference for CD4+ cells was related to MAL expression, MAL gene expression was determined by RT-qPCR. CD4+ cells had the highest amount of Mal gene expression followed by CD8+ and CD19+ cells. These data indicate that primary human cells are susceptible to ETX and support the hypothesis that MAL is a main receptor for ETX. Interestingly, ETX bindings to human lymphocytes suggest that ETX may influence immune response in multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha V. Shetty
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Michael R. Mazzucco
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Paige Winokur
- Harold and Margaret Milliken Hatch Laboratory of Neuro-Endocrinology Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Sylvia V. Haigh
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Kareem Rashid Rumah
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Vincent A. Fischetti
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
| | - Jennifer R. Linden
- Feil Family Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, NY 10065, USA (T.V.)
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2
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Pathology and Pathogenesis of Brain Lesions Produced by Clostridium perfringens Type D Epsilon Toxin. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23169050. [PMID: 36012315 PMCID: PMC9409160 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23169050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2022] [Revised: 08/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin (ETX) produces severe, and frequently fatal, neurologic disease in ruminant livestock. The disorder is of worldwide distribution and, although vaccination has reduced its prevalence, ETX still causes substantial economic loss in livestock enterprises. The toxin is produced in the intestine as a relatively inactive prototoxin, which is subsequently fully enzymatically activated to ETX. When changed conditions in the intestinal milieu, particularly starch overload, favor rapid proliferation of this clostridial bacterium, large amounts of ETX can be elaborated. When sufficient toxin is absorbed from the intestine into the systemic circulation and reaches the brain, two neurologic syndromes can develop from this enterotoxemia. If the brain is exposed to large amounts of ETX, the lesions are fundamentally vasculocentric. The neurotoxin binds to microvascular endothelial receptors and other brain cells, the resulting damage causing increased vascular permeability and extravasation of plasma protein and abundant fluid into the brain parenchyma. While plasma protein, particularly albumin, pools largely perivascularly, the vasogenic edema becomes widely distributed in the brain, leading to a marked rise in intracranial pressure, coma, sometimes cerebellar herniation, and, eventually, often death. When smaller quantities of ETX are absorbed into the bloodstream, or livestock are partially immune, a more protracted clinical course ensues. The resulting brain injury is characterized by bilaterally symmetrical necrotic foci in certain selectively vulnerable neuroanatomic sites, termed focal symmetrical encephalomalacia. ETX has also been internationally listed as a potential bioterrorism agent. Although there are no confirmed human cases of ETX intoxication, the relatively wide species susceptibility to this toxin and its high toxicity mean it is likely that human populations would also be vulnerable to its neurotoxic actions. While the pathogenesis of ETX toxicity in the brain is incompletely understood, the putative mechanisms involved in neural lesion development are discussed.
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3
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Dorca-Arévalo J, Gómez de Aranda I, Blasi J. New Mutants of Epsilon Toxin from Clostridium perfringens with an Altered Receptor-Binding Site and Cell-Type Specificity. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14040288. [PMID: 35448898 PMCID: PMC9031233 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14040288] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens is the third most potent toxin after the botulinum and tetanus toxins. Etx is the main agent of enterotoxemia in ruminants and is produced by Clostridium perfringens toxinotypes B and D, causing great economic losses. Etx selectively binds to target cells, oligomerizes and inserts into the plasma membrane, and forms pores. A series of mutants have been previously generated to understand the cellular and molecular mechanisms of the toxin and to obtain valid molecular tools for effective vaccination protocols. Here, two new non-toxic Etx mutants were generated by selective deletions in the binding (Etx-ΔS188-F196) or insertion (Etx-ΔV108-F135) domains of the toxin. As expected, our results showed that Etx-ΔS188-F196 did not exhibit the usual Etx binding pattern but surprisingly recognized specifically an O-glycoprotein present in the proximal tubules of the kidneys in a wide range of animals, including ruminants. Although diminished, Etx-ΔV108-F135 maintained the capacity for binding and even oligomerization, indicating that the mutation particularly affected the pore-forming ability of the toxin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain; (I.G.d.A.); (J.B.)
- Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08908 Barcelona, Spain
- Correspondence:
| | - Inmaculada Gómez de Aranda
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain; (I.G.d.A.); (J.B.)
| | - Juan Blasi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08907 Barcelona, Spain; (I.G.d.A.); (J.B.)
- Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, 08908 Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035 Barcelona, Spain
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4
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Faruqui NA, Prium DH, Mowna SA, Ullah MA, Araf Y, Sarkar B, Zohora US, Rahman MS. Gut microorganisms and neurological disease perspectives. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.2217/fnl-2020-0026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The gastrointestinal tract of every healthy human consists of a unique set of gut microbiota that collectively harbors a diverse and complex community of over 100 trillion microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, archaea, protozoa and fungi. Gut microbes have a symbiotic relationship with our body. The composition of the microbiota is shaped early in life by gut maturation, which is influenced by several factors. Intestinal bacteria are crucial in maintaining immune and metabolic homeostasis and protecting against pathogens. Dysbiosis of gut microbiota is associated not only with intestinal disorders but also with extraintestinal diseases such as metabolic and neurological disorders. In this review, the authors examine different studies that have revealed the possible hypotheses and links in the development of neurological disorders associated with the gut microbiome.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nairita Ahsan Faruqui
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Biotechnology Program, School of Data & Sciences, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Durdana Hossain Prium
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Biotechnology Program, School of Data & Sciences, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Sadrina Afrin Mowna
- Department of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Biotechnology Program, School of Data & Sciences, BRAC University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Md. Asad Ullah
- Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Yusha Araf
- Department of Genetic Engineering & Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Shahjalal University of Science & Technology, Sylhet, Bangladesh
| | - Bishajit Sarkar
- Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Umme Salma Zohora
- Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
| | - Mohammad Shahedur Rahman
- Department of Biotechnology & Genetic Engineering, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Jahangirnagar University, Dhaka, Bangladesh
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5
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Fecal Transplant and Bifidobacterium Treatments Modulate Gut Clostridium Bacteria and Rescue Social Impairment and Hippocampal BDNF Expression in a Rodent Model of Autism. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11081038. [PMID: 34439657 PMCID: PMC8391663 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11081038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2021] [Revised: 08/03/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism is associated with gastrointestinal dysfunction and gut microbiota dysbiosis, including an overall increase in Clostridium. Modulation of the gut microbiota is suggested to improve autistic symptoms. In this study, we explored the implementation of two different interventions that target the microbiota in a rodent model of autism and their effects on social behavior: the levels of different fecal Clostridium spp., and hippocampal transcript levels. Autism was induced in young Sprague Dawley male rats using oral gavage of propionic acid (PPA) for three days, while controls received saline. PPA-treated animals were divided to receive either saline, fecal transplant from healthy donor rats, or Bifidobacterium for 22 days, while controls continued to receive saline. We found that PPA attenuated social interaction in animals, which was rescued by the two interventions. PPA-treated animals had a significantly increased abundance of fecal C. perfringens with a concomitant decrease in Clostridium cluster IV, and exhibited high hippocampal Bdnf expression compared to controls. Fecal microbiota transplantation or Bifidobacterium treatment restored the balance of fecal Clostridium spp. and normalized the level of Bdnf expression. These findings highlight the involvement of the gut-brain axis in the etiology of autism and propose possible interventions in a preclinical model of autism.
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6
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Geng Z, Kang L, Huang J, Gao S, Wang J, Yuan Y, Li Y, Wang J, Xin W. Epsilon toxin from Clostridium perfringens induces toxic effects on skin tissues and HaCaT and human epidermal keratinocytes. Toxicon 2021; 198:102-110. [PMID: 33965432 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2021.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX) is a key pathogenic factor of C. perfringens type B and D, causing fatal enterotoxemia in sheep and goats. Excessive production of ETX increases intestinal permeability; its entrance into the bloodstream leads to severe edema in organs such as the brain and kidneys. At present, very few cell lines are known to be sensitive to ETX, with the most sensitive cell model for in vitro research being the MDCK cell line. Recently, more tissue-derived cell lines have been shown to be sensitive to ETX, but the mechanism of cytotoxicity remains unknown. Herein, for the first time, we aimed to evaluate the effects of ETX on HaCaT keratinocytes and human epidermal keratinocytes (HEKa). In addition, the median lethal dose of subcutaneous injection of ETX in mice was 109 ng/kg. At this dose, ETX rapidly entered the blood circulation, causing hemorrhage and edema in the brain and kidneys. ETX also increased the expression of aquaporin 3 in the muscle layer and hair follicles of the skin. We further showed the presence of the MAL protein in HaCaT keratinocytes and HEKa and skin tissues, supporting the hypothesis that it is a key element in the mechanism of cytotoxicity of ETX. In conclusion, skin cell lines were used for the first time as a model for studying the toxic effects of ETX, which will help elucidate the cytotoxicity induced by ETX and the related molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun Geng
- Department of Central Laboratory, First Affiliated Hospital of Bengbu Medical College, Bengbu, 233001, Anhui Province, PR China; State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, 100071, PR China
| | - Lin Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, 100071, PR China
| | - Jing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, 100071, PR China; Life Science Institute of Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, 050011, Hebei Province, PR China
| | - Shan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, 100071, PR China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, 100071, PR China
| | - Yuan Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, 100071, PR China
| | - Yanwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, 100071, PR China
| | - Jinglin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, 100071, PR China.
| | - Wenwen Xin
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, 100071, PR China.
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7
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Titus HE, Chen Y, Podojil JR, Robinson AP, Balabanov R, Popko B, Miller SD. Pre-clinical and Clinical Implications of "Inside-Out" vs. "Outside-In" Paradigms in Multiple Sclerosis Etiopathogenesis. Front Cell Neurosci 2020; 14:599717. [PMID: 33192332 PMCID: PMC7654287 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2020.599717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated neurological disorder, characterized by central nervous system (CNS) inflammation, oligodendrocyte loss, demyelination, and axonal degeneration. Although autoimmunity, inflammatory demyelination and neurodegeneration underlie MS, the initiating event has yet to be clarified. Effective disease modifying therapies need to both regulate the immune system and promote restoration of neuronal function, including remyelination. The challenge in developing an effective long-lived therapy for MS requires that three disease-associated targets be addressed: (1) self-tolerance must be re-established to specifically inhibit the underlying myelin-directed autoimmune pathogenic mechanisms; (2) neurons must be protected from inflammatory injury and degeneration; (3) myelin repair must be engendered by stimulating oligodendrocyte progenitors to remyelinate CNS neuronal axons. The combined use of chronic and relapsing remitting experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (C-EAE, R-EAE) (“outside-in”) as well as progressive diphtheria toxin A chain (DTA) and cuprizone autoimmune encephalitis (CAE) (“inside-out”) mouse models allow for the investigation and specific targeting of all three of these MS-associated disease parameters. The “outside-in” EAE models initiated by myelin-specific autoreactive CD4+ T cells allow for the evaluation of both myelin-specific tolerance in the absence or presence of neuroprotective and/or remyelinating agents. The “inside-out” mouse models of secondary inflammatory demyelination are triggered by toxin-induced oligodendrocyte loss or subtle myelin damage, which allows evaluation of novel therapeutics that could promote remyelination and neuroprotection in the CNS. Overall, utilizing these complementary pre-clinical MS models will open new avenues for developing therapeutic interventions, tackling MS from the “outside-in” and/or “inside-out”.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haley E Titus
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Yanan Chen
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Joseph R Podojil
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States.,Cour Pharmaceutical Development Company, Inc., Northbrook, IL, United States
| | - Andrew P Robinson
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Roumen Balabanov
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Brian Popko
- Department of Neurology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Stephen D Miller
- Department of Microbiology-Immunology, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, IL, United States.,Cour Pharmaceutical Development Company, Inc., Northbrook, IL, United States.,Interdepartmental Immunobiology Center, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Chicago, IL, United States
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8
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Giannitti F, García JP, Rood JI, Adams V, Armendano JI, Beingesser J, Uzal FA. Cardiopulmonary Lesions in Sheep Produced by Experimental Acute Clostridium Perfringens Type D Enterotoxemia. Vet Pathol 2020; 58:103-113. [PMID: 33054683 DOI: 10.1177/0300985820965554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Enterotoxemia caused by Clostridium perfringens type D is one of the most prevalent clostridial diseases of sheep. The lesions of the acute form of this disease, particularly the cerebral lesions, are well characterized; however, detailed descriptions of the cardiac and pulmonary lesions are lacking. Here we describe cardiopulmonary lesions in experimental acute type D enterotoxemia in sheep and determine the role of epsilon toxin (ETX) in the development of these lesions. Four groups of 6 sheep were intraduodenally inoculated with either a wild-type C. perfringens type D strain; its etx knockout mutant, which is unable to produce ETX; the etx mutant complemented with the wild-type etx gene, which regains the ETX toxigenic ability; or sterile culture medium as a control. All sheep were subjected to postmortem examination within 24 hours of inoculation. Lesion scores were compared between groups for pulmonary edema; hydrothorax; ascites; hydropericardium; endocardial, myocardial and epicardial hemorrhages; microscopic lesions of acute myocardial degeneration and necrosis; and myocardial, endocardial, and epicardial edema, hemorrhage, and inflammation. Only sheep inoculated with the wild-type and complemented ETX-toxigenic bacterial strains developed cardiopulmonary lesions, which were present in varying degrees of severity and proportions. These lesions were not present in sheep inoculated with the etx mutant or in the negative control. We conclude that severe acute cardiopulmonary lesions in sheep with experimental enterotoxemia are associated with the capacity of the strains to produce ETX. These changes are likely contributors to the clinical signs and even death of affected animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Giannitti
- 153579Instituto Nacional de Investigación Agropecuaria (INIA), Plataforma de Investigación en Salud Animal, Estación Experimental INIA La Estanzuela, Colonia, Uruguay
| | - Jorge P García
- Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (UNCPBA), Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Vicki Adams
- 2541Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joaquín I Armendano
- Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (UNCPBA), Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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9
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Alibeiki M, Golchin M, Tabatabaei M. Development of a double-recombinant antibody sandwich ELISA for quantitative detection of epsilon toxoid concentration in inactivated Clostridium perfringens vaccines. BMC Vet Res 2020; 16:361. [PMID: 32993643 PMCID: PMC7525996 DOI: 10.1186/s12917-020-02572-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Epsilon toxin (ETX) causes a commonly fatal enterotoxemia in domestic animals. Also, ETX causes serious economic losses to animal husbandry. In this study, we selected several clones against ETX using repertoires displayed on filamentous phage. Anti-ETX specific clones were enriched by binding to immobilized antigen, followed by elution and re-propagation of phage. After multiple rounds of binding selection, ELISA analysis showed that most isolated clones had high affinity and specificity for ETX. Results Two recombinant monoclonal antibodies against ETX were isolated by phage display technology. B1 phage VH antibody isolated from DAb library and G2 soluble scFv antibody isolated from Tomlinson I + J libraries have been applied as the capture and detection antibodies for developing an ETX sandwich ELISA test, respectively. Conclusions Designed ETX sandwich ELISA could be a valuable tool for quantitative detection of ETX in inactivated commercial vaccines against enterotoxemia. Graphical abstract ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryam Alibeiki
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran
| | - Mehdi Golchin
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Kerman, Iran
| | - Mohammad Tabatabaei
- Department of Pathobiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
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10
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Knapp O, Maier E, Piselli C, Benz R, Hoxha C, Popoff MR. Central residues of the amphipathic β-hairpin loop control the properties of Clostridium perfringens epsilon-toxin channel. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2020; 1862:183364. [PMID: 32450142 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2020.183364] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is a heptameric pore-forming toxin of the aerolysin toxin family. ETX is the most potent toxin of this toxin family and the third most potent bacterial toxin with high cytotoxic and lethal activities in animals. In addition, ETX shows a demyelinating activity in nervous tissue leading to devastating multifocal central nervous system white matter disease in ruminant animals. Pore formation in target cell membrane is most likely the initial critical step in ETX biological activity. Eight single to quadruple ETX mutants were generated by replacement of polar residues (serine, threonine, glutamine) in middle positions of the β-strands forming the β-barrel and facing the channel lumen with charged glutamic residues. Channel activity and ion selectivity were monitored in artificial lipid monolayer membranes and cytotoxicity was investigated in MDCK cells by the viability MTT test and propidium iodide entry. All the mutants formed channels with similar conductance in artificial lipid membranes and increasing cation selectivity for increasing number of mutations. Here, we show that residues in the central position of each β-strand of the amphipathic β-hairpin loop that forms the transmembrane pore, control the size and ion selectivity of the channel. While the highest cationic ETX mutants were not cytotoxic, no strict correlation was observed between ion selectivity and cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Knapp
- Institut Pasteur, Bacterial Toxins, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - Elke Maier
- Rudolf-Virchow-Center for Experimental Biomedicine, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Claudio Piselli
- Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, 28759 Bremen, Germany
| | - Roland Benz
- Rudolf-Virchow-Center for Experimental Biomedicine, Versbacher Str. 9, 97078 Würzburg, Germany; Department of Life Sciences and Chemistry, Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, 28759 Bremen, Germany
| | - Cezarela Hoxha
- Institut Pasteur, Bacterial Toxins, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France
| | - Michel R Popoff
- Institut Pasteur, Bacterial Toxins, 28 rue du Dr Roux, 75724 Paris cedex 15, France.
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11
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Geng Z, Huang J, Kang L, Gao S, Yuan Y, Li Y, Wang J, Xin W, Wang J. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin binds to erythrocyte MAL receptors and triggers phosphatidylserine exposure. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:7341-7352. [PMID: 32463157 PMCID: PMC7339222 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2019] [Revised: 01/23/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX) is a 33-kDa pore-forming toxin produced by type B and D strains of Clostridium perfringens. We previously found that ETX caused haemolysis of human red blood cells, but not of erythrocytes from other species. The cellular and molecular mechanisms of ETX-mediated haemolysis are not well understood. Here, we investigated the effects of ETX on erythrocyte volume and the role of the putative myelin and lymphocyte (MAL) receptors in ETX-mediated haemolysis. We observed that ETX initially decreased erythrocyte size, followed by a gradual increase in volume until lysis. Moreover, ETX triggered phosphatidylserine (PS) exposure and enhanced ceramide abundance in erythrocytes. Cell shrinkage, PS exposure and enhanced ceramide abundance were preceded by increases in intracellular Ca2+ concentration. Interestingly, lentivirus-mediated RNA interference studies in the human erythroleukaemia cell line (HEL) cells confirmed that MAL contributes to ETX-induced cytotoxicity. Additionally, ETX was shown to bind to MAL in vitro. The results of this study recommend that ETX-mediated haemolysis is associated with MAL receptor activation in human erythrocytes. These data imply that interventions affecting local MAL-mediated autocrine and paracrine signalling may prevent ETX-mediated erythrocyte damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhijun Geng
- Graduate College, Anhui Medical University, Anhui, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China.,Life Science Institute of Hebei Normal University, Shijiazhuang, China
| | - Lin Kang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Shan Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Yuan Yuan
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Yanwei Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Wenwen Xin
- State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
| | - Jinglin Wang
- Graduate College, Anhui Medical University, Anhui, China.,State Key Laboratory of Pathogen and Biosecurity, Institute of Microbiology and Epidemiology, AMMS, Beijing, China
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12
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Dorca-Arévalo J, Dorca E, Torrejón-Escribano B, Blanch M, Martín-Satué M, Blasi J. Lung endothelial cells are sensitive to epsilon toxin from Clostridium perfringens. Vet Res 2020; 51:27. [PMID: 32093740 PMCID: PMC7041264 DOI: 10.1186/s13567-020-00748-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The pore-forming protein epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens produces acute perivascular edema affecting several organs, especially the brain and lungs. Despite the toxin evident effect on microvasculature and endothelial cells, the underlying molecular and cellular mechanisms remain obscure. Moreover, no Etx-sensitive endothelial cell model has been identified to date. Here, we characterize the mouse lung endothelial cell line 1G11 as an Etx-sensitive cell line and compare it with the well-characterized Etx-sensitive Madin-Darby canine kidney epithelial cell line. Several experimental approaches, including morphological and cytotoxic assays, clearly demonstrate that the 1G11 cell line is highly sensitive to Etx and show the specific binding, oligomerization, and pore-forming activity of the toxin in these cells. Recently, the myelin and lymphocyte (MAL) protein has been postulated as a putative receptor for Etx. Here, we show the presence of Mal mRNA in the 1G11 cell line and the presence of the MAL protein in the endothelium of some mouse lung vessels, supporting the hypothesis that this protein is a key element in the Etx intoxication pathway. The existence of an Etx-sensitive cell line of endothelial origin would help shed light on the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying Etx-induced edema and its consequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain. .,Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain. .,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Eduard Dorca
- Pathology Service, Bellvitge University Hospital, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Benjamín Torrejón-Escribano
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Centres Científics i Tecnològics, Universitat de Barcelona, Campus Bellvitge, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marta Blanch
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Martín-Satué
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), Oncobell Program, CIBERONC, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Juan Blasi
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Campus of Bellvitge, University of Barcelona, Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain.,Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, 08035, Barcelona, Spain
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13
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Cavallo S. Immune-mediated genesis of multiple sclerosis. J Transl Autoimmun 2020; 3:100039. [PMID: 32743522 PMCID: PMC7388381 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtauto.2020.100039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Revised: 01/03/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is widely acknowledged to be an autoimmune disease affecting the neuronal myelin structure of the CNS. Autoantigens recognized as the target of this autoimmune process are: myelin basal protein, anti-proteolipid protein, antimyelin-associated glycoprotein and antimyelin-based oligodendrocytic basic protein. Ample evidence supports the idea of a dysregulation of immunological tolerance towards self-antigens of neuronal myelin structure triggered by one or more viral or bacterial microbial agents in predisposed HLA gene subjects. Genetic predisposition to MS has been highlighted by numerous studies associating the disease to specific HLA haplotypes. Moreover, a wide range of evidence supports the fact that MS may be consequence of one or more viral or bacterial infections such as measles virus, EBV, HHV6, HZV, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter Pylori, and other microbial agents. Microbiota elements also seems to have a role on the determinism of the disease as a pathogenic or protective factor. The autoimmune pathogenetic process could arise when a molecular mimicry between a foreign microbial antigen and an auto-antigen occurs in an HLA gene subject competent for that particular antigen. The antigen-presenting cells in this case would induce the activation of a specific Th clone causing a cross-reaction between a foreign antigen and an autoantigen resulting in an autoimmune response. A multifactorial ethiopathogenetic model based on immunomediation is a reliable hypothesis for multiple sclerosis. Evidence found in the scientific literature makes it possible to reconstruct this etiopathogenetic hypothesis for MS. HLA gene predisposition, correlation with infections, molecular mimicry and other immunological data are reported.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salvatore Cavallo
- Expert Doctor in Non-Conventional Medicine, Professor and Member of the Board of the MMS, MMS (Medicina di Modulazione Dei Sistemi) Roma, Salvatore Cavallo Via G.B. Pergolesi, 28, 75100, Matera, Italy
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14
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Finnie JW, Navarro MA, Uzal FA. Pathogenesis and diagnostic features of brain and ophthalmic damage produced by Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin. J Vet Diagn Invest 2020; 32:282-286. [PMID: 31955669 DOI: 10.1177/1040638719900190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin (EXT) causes an important neurologic disorder of sheep, goats and, rarely, cattle. The disease can occur in peracute, acute, subacute, and chronic forms. High circulating levels of ETX produce vasculocentric brain lesions, in which microvascular endothelial injury results in diagnostically useful perivascular and intramural extravasations of plasma protein, especially in sheep, and less frequently in goats. With lower toxin doses, a more protracted clinical course tends to occur, particularly in sheep, leading to focal, bilaterally symmetrical, necrotic foci in certain brain regions. Although these morphologic features usually permit the diagnostic pathologist to make a definitive etiologic diagnosis, there are many aspects of the pathogenesis of these cerebral lesions that are not completely understood. ETX has also been shown to produce microvascular damage in the retina of rats, resulting in severe, diffuse vasogenic edema, similar to that found in brains exposed to this neurotoxin. The pathoclisis and vascular theories offer alternative explanations of the differential susceptibility of different brain regions to the same neurotoxic insult.
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Affiliation(s)
- John W Finnie
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (Finnie).,California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino, CA (Navarro, Uzal)
| | - Mauricio A Navarro
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (Finnie).,California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino, CA (Navarro, Uzal)
| | - Francisco A Uzal
- Discipline of Anatomy and Pathology, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia (Finnie).,California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino, CA (Navarro, Uzal)
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15
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Bossu JL, Wioland L, Doussau F, Isope P, Popoff MR, Poulain B. Epsilon Toxin from Clostridium perfringens Causes Inhibition of Potassium inward Rectifier (Kir) Channels in Oligodendrocytes. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12010036. [PMID: 31935961 PMCID: PMC7020416 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12010036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2019] [Revised: 12/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX), produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D, causes serious neurological disorders in animals. ETX can bind to the white matter of the brain and the oligodendrocytes, which are the cells forming the myelin sheath around neuron axons in the white matter of the central nervous system. After binding to oligodendrocytes, ETX causes demyelination in rat cerebellar slices. We further investigated the effects of ETX on cerebellar oligodendrocytes and found that ETX induced small transmembrane depolarization (by ~ +6.4 mV) in rat oligodendrocytes primary cultures. This was due to partial inhibition of the transmembrane inward rectifier potassium current (Kir). Of the two distinct types of Kir channel conductances (~25 pS and ~8.5 pS) recorded in rat oligodendrocytes, we found that ETX inhibited the large-conductance one. This inhibition did not require direct binding of ETX to a Kir channel. Most likely, the binding of ETX to its membrane receptor activates intracellular pathways that block the large conductance Kir channel activity in oligodendrocyte. Altogether, these findings and previous observations pinpoint oligodendrocytes as a major target for ETX. This supports the proposal that ETX might be a cause for Multiple Sclerosis, a disease characterized by myelin damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean Louis Bossu
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, (INCI)-CNRS, UPR 3212 Strasbourg, France; (J.L.B.); (L.W.); (F.D.); (P.I.)
| | - Laetitia Wioland
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, (INCI)-CNRS, UPR 3212 Strasbourg, France; (J.L.B.); (L.W.); (F.D.); (P.I.)
| | - Frédéric Doussau
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, (INCI)-CNRS, UPR 3212 Strasbourg, France; (J.L.B.); (L.W.); (F.D.); (P.I.)
| | - Philippe Isope
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, (INCI)-CNRS, UPR 3212 Strasbourg, France; (J.L.B.); (L.W.); (F.D.); (P.I.)
| | - Michel R. Popoff
- Institut Pasteur, Bactéries Anaérobies et Toxines, 28 rue du Docteur Roux, Paris 75724, France;
| | - Bernard Poulain
- Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives, (INCI)-CNRS, UPR 3212 Strasbourg, France; (J.L.B.); (L.W.); (F.D.); (P.I.)
- Correspondence:
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16
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Microbiome and motor neuron diseases. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2020. [PMID: 33814112 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2020.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/11/2023]
Abstract
The microbiome is the ecological community of commensal, symbiotic, and pathogenic microorganisms that share our body space (Medical and Health Genomics, 2016, page 15-28). The human gut is the location where the maximum number of microorganisms can be found. Among the different microorganisms they can be broadly classified into two groups: the beneficial and harmful. In the human gut there is always a balance between the beneficial and the opportunistic microorganism which maintains human health. However, if the balance is not maintained and homeostasis is disturbed, with an increase in opportunistic microorganisms, it may result in various diseases like inflammatory bowel disease, irritable bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, colorectal cancer, metabolic disorders and neurodegenerative diseases including motor neuron diseases. In the present chapter we discuss the role of gut bacteria in motor neuron diseases like multiple sclerosis, Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
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17
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Linden JR, Flores C, Schmidt EF, Uzal FA, Michel AO, Valenzuela M, Dobrow S, Vartanian T. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin induces blood brain barrier permeability via caveolae-dependent transcytosis and requires expression of MAL. PLoS Pathog 2019; 15:e1008014. [PMID: 31703116 PMCID: PMC6867657 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 11/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is responsible for causing the economically devastating disease, enterotoxaemia, in livestock. It is well accepted that ETX causes blood brain barrier (BBB) permeability, however the mechanisms involved in this process are not well understood. Using in vivo and in vitro methods, we determined that ETX causes BBB permeability in mice by increasing caveolae-dependent transcytosis in brain endothelial cells. When mice are intravenously injected with ETX, robust ETX binding is observed in the microvasculature of the central nervous system (CNS) with limited to no binding observed in the vasculature of peripheral organs, indicating that ETX specifically targets CNS endothelial cells. ETX binding to CNS microvasculature is dependent on MAL expression, as ETX binding to CNS microvasculature of MAL-deficient mice was not detected. ETX treatment also induces extravasation of molecular tracers including 376Da fluorescein salt, 60kDA serum albumin, 70kDa dextran, and 155kDA IgG. Importantly, ETX-induced BBB permeability requires expression of both MAL and caveolin-1, as mice deficient in MAL or caveolin-1 did not exhibit ETX-induced BBB permeability. Examination of primary murine brain endothelial cells revealed an increase in caveolae in ETX-treated cells, resulting in dynamin and lipid raft-dependent vacuolation without cell death. ETX-treatment also results in a rapid loss of EEA1 positive early endosomes and accumulation of large, RAB7-positive late endosomes and multivesicular bodies. Based on these results, we hypothesize that ETX binds to MAL on the apical surface of brain endothelial cells, causing recruitment of caveolin-1, triggering caveolae formation and internalization. Internalized caveolae fuse with early endosomes which traffic to late endosomes and multivesicular bodies. We believe that these multivesicular bodies fuse basally, releasing their contents into the brain parenchyma. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is an extremely lethal bacterial toxin known to cause a devastating disease in livestock animals and may be a possible cause of multiple sclerosis in humans. ETX is well known to cause disruption of the blood-brain barrier (BBB), a critical structure necessary for proper brain function. Deterioration of this barrier allows entry of toxic blood-borne material to enter the brain. Although ETX-induced BBB dysfunction is well accepted, how this happens is unknown. Here, we demonstrate that ETX causes BBB permeability by inducing formation of cell-surface invaginations called caveolae in endothelial cells, the cells that line blood vessels. Importantly, only endothelial cells from the brain and other central nervous system organs appear to be a target of ETX, as the toxin only binds to blood vessels in these organs and not blood vessels from other organs. These ETX-induced caveolae fuse with other caveolae and specialized intracellular vesicles called endosomes. We predict that these endosomes engulf blood-borne material during their internalization, allowing material to travel from the blood, through the cell, and into brain tissue. We also show that expression of the protein MAL and caveolin-1 is necessary for ETX-induced BBB permeability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer R. Linden
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Claudia Flores
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Eric F. Schmidt
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Francisco A. Uzal
- California Animal Health & Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, California, United States of America
| | - Adam O. Michel
- Laboratory of Comparative Pathology, Center of Comparative Medicine and Pathology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, The Rockefeller University, Weill Cornell Medicine, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Marissa Valenzuela
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Sebastian Dobrow
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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18
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19
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Adler D, Linden JR, Shetty SV, Ma Y, Bokori-Brown M, Titball RW, Vartanian T. Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Compromises the Blood-Brain Barrier in a Humanized Zebrafish Model. iScience 2019; 15:39-54. [PMID: 31030181 PMCID: PMC6487375 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Revised: 12/29/2018] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX) is hypothesized to mediate blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability by binding to the myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL) on the luminal surface of endothelial cells (ECs). However, the kinetics of this interaction and a general understanding of ETX's behavior in a live organism have yet to be appreciated. Here we investigate ETX binding and BBB breakdown in living Danio rerio (zebrafish). Wild-type zebrafish ECs do not bind ETX. When zebrafish ECs are engineered to express human MAL (hMAL), proETX binding occurs in a time-dependent manner. Injection of activated toxin in hMAL zebrafish initiates BBB leakage, hMAL downregulation, blood vessel stenosis, perivascular edema, and blood stasis. We propose a kinetic model of MAL-dependent ETX binding and neurovascular pathology. By generating a humanized zebrafish BBB model, this study contributes to our understanding of ETX-induced BBB permeability and strengthens the proposal that MAL is the ETX receptor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Drew Adler
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA; Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14850, USA
| | - Jennifer R Linden
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Samantha V Shetty
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | - Yinghua Ma
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA
| | | | - Richard W Titball
- Department of Biosciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, Devon EX4 4SB, UK
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College of Cornell University, New York, NY 10065, USA.
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20
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Uchiyama K, Naito Y, Takagi T. Intestinal microbiome as a novel therapeutic target for local and systemic inflammation. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 199:164-172. [PMID: 30877020 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2019.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Recently, the pathogenesis of systemic inflammatory disease such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), multiple sclerosis (MS), systemic inflammatory arthritis, asthma, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease has been reported to be related to the dysbiosis of gut microbiota. The contribution of special bacteria for the development of those diseases has been elucidated by disease animal models such as germ-free mice. Besides, the contribution by several bacteria for the pathogenesis of those diseases has been suggested by detailed analysis of the 16 small ribosomal subunit RNA (16S rRNA) from stool samples of the patients. Gut microbiota-targeted treatment for systemic inflammatory diseases such as fecal microbiota transplant (FMT), and probiotics has been now reported. Though there are several issues to be understood, these treatments have been highlighted as an innovative approach to intractable systemic inflammatory disease. In the present review, recent reports regarding the relation between gut microbiota and systemic inflammatory diseases are discussed with treatments to target gut microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazuhiko Uchiyama
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan.
| | - Yuji Naito
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
| | - Tomohisa Takagi
- Molecular Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan; Department for Medical Innovation and Translational Medical Science, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyoto Prefectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602-8566, Japan
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21
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Roy Sarkar S, Banerjee S. Gut microbiota in neurodegenerative disorders. J Neuroimmunol 2019; 328:98-104. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2019.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 12/05/2018] [Accepted: 01/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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22
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Cossu D, Yokoyama K, Hattori N. Bacteria-Host Interactions in Multiple Sclerosis. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2966. [PMID: 30564215 PMCID: PMC6288311 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02966] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is caused by a complex interaction of genetic and environmental factors. Numerous causative factors have been identified that play a role in MS, including exposure to bacteria. Mycobacteria, Chlamydia pneumoniae, Helicobacter pylori, and other bacteria have been proposed as risk factors for MS with different mechanisms of action. Conversely, some pathogens may have a protective effect on its etiology. In terms of acquired immunity, molecular mimicry has been hypothesized as the mechanism by which bacterial structures such as DNA, the cell wall, and intracytoplasmic components can activate autoreactive T cells or produce autoantibodies in certain host genetic backgrounds of susceptible individuals. In innate immunity, Toll-like receptors play an essential role in combating invading bacteria, and their activation leads to the release of cytokines or chemokines that mediate effective adaptive immune responses. These receptors may also be involved in central nervous system autoimmunity, and their contribution depends on the infection site and on the pathogen. We have reviewed the current knowledge of the influence of bacteria on MS development, emphasizing the potential mechanisms of action by which bacteria affect MS initiation and/or progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davide Cossu
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.,Advanced Research Institute for Health Science, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazumasa Yokoyama
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.,Advanced Research Institute for Health Science, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Nobutaka Hattori
- Department of Neurology, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan.,Advanced Research Institute for Health Science, Juntendo University, Tokyo, Japan
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23
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Gil C, Dorca-Arévalo J, Blasi J. Calcium enhances binding of Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin to sulfatide. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2018; 1861:161-169. [PMID: 30463699 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 07/20/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens is synthesized as a very low-active prototoxin form (proEtx) that becomes active upon proteolytic activation and has the capacity to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), thereby producing severe neurological effects. The identity and requirements of host receptors of Etx remain a matter of controversy. In the present study, we analysed the binding of proEtx or Etx to liposomes containing distearoylphosphatidylcholine (DSPC), cholesterol and sulfatide, or alternatively to detergent-solubilized lipids, using surface plasmon resonance (SPR). We also tested the influence of calcium on Etx or proEtx binding. Our findings show that the presence of sulfatide in liposomes increases both Etx and proEtx binding, and Etx binding is enhanced by calcium. These results were corroborated when SPR was conducted with immobilized toxin, since detergent-solubilized sulfatide increases its binding to Etx in the presence of calcium, but not to proEtx. Moreover, binding affinity is also affected, since the treatment of liposomes with sulfatase causes the dissociation rate constants (KD) in both proEtx and Etx to increase, especially in the case of proEtx in the presence of calcium. In addition, protein-lipid overlay assays corroborated the calcium-induced enhancement of Etx binding to sulfatide, and to lipids extracted from sulfatide-enriched rat brain lipid rafts. In conclusion, the present work highlights the role of sulfatide as an important element in the pathophysiology of Etx and reveals the influence of calcium in the interaction of Etx, but not of proEtx, with the target membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Gil
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular, Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Catalunya, Spain.
| | - J Dorca-Arévalo
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
| | - J Blasi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Medicine, University of Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; Biomedical Research Institute of Bellvitge (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain; Institut de Neurociències, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain
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24
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The Cytotoxicity of Epsilon Toxin from Clostridium perfringens on Lymphocytes Is Mediated by MAL Protein Expression. Mol Cell Biol 2018; 38:MCB.00086-18. [PMID: 29987189 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.00086-18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens is a pore-forming protein that crosses the blood-brain barrier, binds to myelin, and, hence, has been suggested to be a putative agent for the onset of multiple sclerosis, a demyelinating neuroinflammatory disease. Recently, myelin and lymphocyte (MAL) protein has been identified to be a key protein in the cytotoxic effect of Etx; however, the association of Etx with the immune system remains a central question. Here, we show that Etx selectively recognizes and kills only human cell lines expressing MAL protein through a direct Etx-MAL protein interaction. Experiments on lymphocytic cell lines revealed that MAL protein-expressing T cells, but not B cells, are sensitive to Etx and reveal that the toxin may be used as a molecular tool to distinguish subpopulations of lymphocytes. The overall results open the door to investigation of the role of Etx and Clostridium perfringens on inflammatory and autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis.
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25
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Mechanisms of Action and Cell Death Associated with Clostridium perfringens Toxins. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:toxins10050212. [PMID: 29786671 PMCID: PMC5983268 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10050212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Revised: 05/18/2018] [Accepted: 05/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens uses its large arsenal of protein toxins to produce histotoxic, neurologic and intestinal infections in humans and animals. The major toxins involved in diseases are alpha (CPA), beta (CPB), epsilon (ETX), iota (ITX), enterotoxin (CPE), and necrotic B-like (NetB) toxins. CPA is the main virulence factor involved in gas gangrene in humans, whereas its role in animal diseases is limited and controversial. CPB is responsible for necrotizing enteritis and enterotoxemia, mostly in neonatal individuals of many animal species, including humans. ETX is the main toxin involved in enterotoxemia of sheep and goats. ITX has been implicated in cases of enteritis in rabbits and other animal species; however, its specific role in causing disease has not been proved. CPE is responsible for human food-poisoning and non-foodborne C. perfringens-mediated diarrhea. NetB is the cause of necrotic enteritis in chickens. In most cases, host–toxin interaction starts on the plasma membrane of target cells via specific receptors, resulting in the activation of intracellular pathways with a variety of effects, commonly including cell death. In general, the molecular mechanisms of cell death associated with C. perfringens toxins involve features of apoptosis, necrosis and/or necroptosis.
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Wagley S, Bokori-Brown M, Morcrette H, Malaspina A, D'Arcy C, Gnanapavan S, Lewis N, Popoff MR, Raciborska D, Nicholas R, Turner B, Titball RW. Evidence of Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin associated with multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 2018; 25:653-660. [PMID: 29681209 PMCID: PMC6439943 DOI: 10.1177/1352458518767327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Background: It was recently reported that, using Western blotting, some multiple sclerosis (MS) patients in the United States had antibodies against epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens, suggesting that the toxin may play a role in the disease. Objective: We investigated for serum antibodies against Etx in UK patients with clinically definite multiple sclerosis (CDMS) or presenting with clinically isolated syndrome (CIS) or optic neuritis (ON) and in age- and gender-matched controls. Methods: We tested sera from CDMS, CIS or ON patients or controls by Western blotting. We also tested CDMS sera for reactivity with linear overlapping peptides spanning the amino acid sequence (Pepscan) of Etx. Results: Using Western blotting, 24% of sera in the combined CDMS, CIS and ON groups (n = 125) reacted with Etx. In the control group (n = 125), 10% of the samples reacted. Using Pepscan, 33% of sera tested reacted with at least one peptide, whereas in the control group only 16% of sera reacted. Out of 61 samples, 21 (43%) were positive to one or other testing methodology. Three samples were positive by Western blotting and Pepscan. Conclusion: Our results broadly support the previous findings and the role of Etx in the aetiology of MS warrants further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sariqa Wagley
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Monika Bokori-Brown
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | - Helen Morcrette
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
| | | | - Caroline D'Arcy
- West London Neuroscience Centre, Charing Cross Hospital, London, UK
| | | | | | - Michel R Popoff
- Bactéries Anaérobies et Toxines, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | | | - Richard Nicholas
- Division of Brain Sciences, Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - Ben Turner
- Clinical Research Centre, Barts Health NHS Trust, London, UK
| | - Richard W Titball
- College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
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Abstract
Neuromyelitis optica (NMO) is a rare, disabling, sometimes fatal central nervous system inflammatory demyelinating disease that is associated with antibodies ("NMO IgG") that target the water channel protein aquaporin-4 (AQP4) expressed on astrocytes. There is considerable interest in identifying environmental triggers that may elicit production of NMO IgG by AQP4-reactive B cells. Although NMO is considered principally a humoral autoimmune disease, antibodies of NMO IgG are IgG1, a T-cell-dependent immunoglobulin subclass, indicating that AQP4-reactive T cells have a pivotal role in NMO pathogenesis. When AQP4-specific proliferative T cells were first identified in patients with NMO it was discovered that T cells recognizing the dominant AQP4 T-cell epitope exhibited a T helper 17 (Th17) phenotype and displayed cross-reactivity to a homologous peptide sequence within a protein of Clostridium perfringens, a commensal bacterium found in human gut flora. The initial analysis of gut microbiota in NMO demonstrated that, in comparison to healthy controls (HC) and patients with multiple sclerosis, the microbiome of NMO is distinct. Remarkably, C. perfringens was the second most significantly enriched taxon in NMO, and among bacteria identified at the species level, C. perfringens was the one most highly associated with NMO. Those discoveries, along with evidence that certain Clostridia in the gut can regulate the balance between regulatory T cells and Th17 cells, indicate that gut microbiota, and possibly C. perfringens itself, could participate in NMO pathogenesis. Collectively, the evidence linking microbiota to humoral and cellular immunity in NMO underscores the importance for further investigating this relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott S Zamvil
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
- Program in Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA.
| | - Collin M Spencer
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Sergio E Baranzini
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Bruce A C Cree
- Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, CA, USA
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Saresella M, Mendozzi L, Rossi V, Mazzali F, Piancone F, LaRosa F, Marventano I, Caputo D, Felis GE, Clerici M. Immunological and Clinical Effect of Diet Modulation of the Gut Microbiome in Multiple Sclerosis Patients: A Pilot Study. Front Immunol 2017; 8:1391. [PMID: 29118761 PMCID: PMC5661395 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/09/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Pathogenesis of autoimmune disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS), has been linked to an alteration of the resident microbial commensal community and of the interplay between the microbiota and the immune system. Dietary components such as fiber, acting on microbiota composition, could, in principle, result in immune modulation and, thus, could be used to obtain beneficial outcomes for patients. We verified this hypothesis in a pilot study involving two groups of clinically similar relapsing-remitting (RR) MS patients who had undergone either a high-vegetable/low-protein diet (HV/LP diet group; N = 10) or a "Western Diet" (WD group; N = 10) for at least 12 months. Gut microbiota composition, analyzed by 16 S V4 rRNA gene sequencing and immunological profiles, was examined after a minimum of 12 months of diet. Results showed that, in the HV/LP diet group compared to the WD group: (1) Lachnospiraceae family was significantly more abundant; (2) IL-17-producing T CD4+ lymphocytes (p = 0.04) and PD-1 expressing T CD4+ lymphocytes (p = 0.0004) were significantly decreased; and (3) PD-L1 expressing monocytes (p = 0.009) were significantly increased. In the HV/LP diet group, positive correlations between Lachnospiraceae and both CD14+/IL-10+ and CD14+/TGFβ+monocytes (RSp = 0.707, p = 0.05, and RSp = 0.73, p = 0.04, respectively), as well as between Lachnospiraceae and CD4+/CD25+/FoxP3+ T lymphocytes (RSp = 0.68, p = 0.02) were observed. Evaluation of clinical parameters showed that in the HV/LP diet group alone the relapse rate during the 12 months follow-up period and the Expanded Disability Status Scale score at the end of the study period were significantly reduced. Diet modulates dysbiosis and improves clinical parameters in MS patients by increasing anti-inflammatory circuits. Because Lachnospiraceae favor Treg differentiation as well as TGFβ and IL-10 production this effect could be associated with an increase of these bacteria in the microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Saresella
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotechnology, Don Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Laura Mendozzi
- Department of Neurology, Don Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Rossi
- Department of Neurology, Don Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Franca Mazzali
- Department of Neurology, Don Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Federica Piancone
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotechnology, Don Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca LaRosa
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotechnology, Don Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Ivana Marventano
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotechnology, Don Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Domenico Caputo
- Department of Neurology, Don Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Giovanna E Felis
- Department of Biotechnology, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Mario Clerici
- Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotechnology, Don Gnocchi Foundation, IRCCS, Milan, Italy.,Department of Physiopathology and Transplants, University of Milano, Milan, Italy
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Acute Effect of Pore-Forming Clostridium perfringens ε-Toxin on Compound Action Potentials of Optic Nerve of Mouse. eNeuro 2017; 4:eN-NWR-0051-17. [PMID: 28798954 PMCID: PMC5550839 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0051-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
ε-Toxin is a pore forming toxin produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D. It is synthesized as a less active prototoxin form that becomes fully active upon proteolytic activation. The toxin produces highly lethal enterotoxaemia in ruminants, has the ability to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB) and specifically binds to myelinated fibers. We discovered that the toxin induced a release of ATP from isolated mice optic nerves, which are composed of myelinated fibers that are extended from the central nervous system. We also investigated the effect of the toxin on compound action potentials (CAPs) in isolated mice optic nerves. When nerves were stimulated at 100 Hz during 200 ms, the decrease of the amplitude and the area of the CAPs was attenuated in the presence of ε-toxin. The computational modelling of myelinated fibers of mouse optic nerve revealed that the experimental results can be mimicked by an increase of the conductance of myelin and agrees with the pore forming activity of the toxin which binds to myelin and could drill it by making pores. The intimate ultrastructure of myelin was not modified during the periods of time investigated. In summary, the acute action of the toxin produces a subtle functional impact on the propagation of the nerve action potential in myelinated fibers of the central nervous system with an eventual desynchronization of the information. These results may agree with the hypothesis that the toxin could be an environmental trigger of multiple sclerosis (MS).
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Yang NJ, Chiu IM. Bacterial Signaling to the Nervous System through Toxins and Metabolites. J Mol Biol 2017; 429:587-605. [PMID: 28065740 PMCID: PMC5325782 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2016.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 12/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Mammalian hosts interface intimately with commensal and pathogenic bacteria. It is increasingly clear that molecular interactions between the nervous system and microbes contribute to health and disease. Both commensal and pathogenic bacteria are capable of producing molecules that act on neurons and affect essential aspects of host physiology. Here we highlight several classes of physiologically important molecular interactions that occur between bacteria and the nervous system. First, clostridial neurotoxins block neurotransmission to or from neurons by targeting the SNARE complex, causing the characteristic paralyses of botulism and tetanus during bacterial infection. Second, peripheral sensory neurons-olfactory chemosensory neurons and nociceptor sensory neurons-detect bacterial toxins, formyl peptides, and lipopolysaccharides through distinct molecular mechanisms to elicit smell and pain. Bacteria also damage the central nervous system through toxins that target the brain during infection. Finally, the gut microbiota produces molecules that act on enteric neurons to influence gastrointestinal motility, and metabolites that stimulate the "gut-brain axis" to alter neural circuits, autonomic function, and higher-order brain function and behavior. Furthering the mechanistic and molecular understanding of how bacteria affect the nervous system may uncover potential strategies for modulating neural function and treating neurological diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicole J Yang
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Division of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Isaac M Chiu
- Department of Microbiology and Immunobiology, Division of Immunology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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31
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Morris WE, Goldstein J, Redondo LM, Cangelosi A, Geoghegan P, Brocco M, Loidl FC, Fernandez-Miyakawa ME. Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin induces permanent neuronal degeneration and behavioral changes. Toxicon 2017; 130:19-28. [PMID: 28237716 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2017.02.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 02/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ETX), the most potent toxin produced by this bacteria, plays a key role in the pathogenesis of enterotoxaemia in ruminants, causing brain edema and encephalomalacia. Studies of animals suffering from ETX intoxication describe severe neurological disorders that are thought to be the result of vasogenic brain edemas and indirect neuronal toxicity, killing oligodendrocytes but not astrocytes, microglia, or neurons in vitro. In this study, by means of intravenous and intracerebroventricular delivery of sub-lethal concentrations of ETX, the histological and ultrastructural changes of the brain were studied in rats and mice. Histological analysis showed degenerative changes in neurons from the cortex, hippocampus, striatum and hypothalamus. Ultrastructurally, necrotic neurons and apoptotic cells were observed in these same areas, among axons with accumulation of neurofilaments and demyelination as well as synaptic stripping. Lesions observed in the brain after sub-lethal exposure to ETX, result in permanent behavioral changes in animals surviving ETX exposure, as observed individually in several animals and assessed in the Inclined Plane Test and the Wire Hang Test. Pharmacological studies showed that dexamethasone and reserpine but not ketamine or riluzole were able to reduce the brain lesions and the lethality of ETX. Cytotoxicity was not observed upon neuronal primary cultures in vitro. Therefore, we hypothesize that ETX can affect the brain of animals independently of death, producing changes on neurons or glia as the result of complex interactions, independently of ETX-BBB interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Winston E Morris
- Instituto de Patobiología, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Calle Las Cabañas y Los Reseros s/n, Casilla de Correo 25 (1686), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Jorge Goldstein
- Departamento de Fisiología, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Paraguay 2155, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Rivadavia 1917 (1033), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Leandro M Redondo
- Instituto de Patobiología, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Calle Las Cabañas y Los Reseros s/n, Casilla de Correo 25 (1686), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Rivadavia 1917 (1033), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Adriana Cangelosi
- Centro Nacional de Control de Calidad de Biológicos, ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán", Av. Vélez Sarsfield 563, C1282AFF, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Patricia Geoghegan
- Centro Nacional de Control de Calidad de Biológicos, ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán", Av. Vélez Sarsfield 563, C1282AFF, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Marcela Brocco
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas, "Dr. Rodolfo A. Ugalde" IIB-INTECH UNSAM-CONICET, Av. 25 de Mayo y Francia, Campus Miguelete UNSAM, Edificio IIB-INTECH San Martín, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Rivadavia 1917 (1033), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Fabián C Loidl
- Instituto de Biología Celular y Neurociencias "Prof. E. De Robertis", Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Paraguay 2155, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Rivadavia 1917 (1033), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Mariano E Fernandez-Miyakawa
- Instituto de Patobiología, Centro Nacional de Investigaciones Agropecuarias, Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria, Calle Las Cabañas y Los Reseros s/n, Casilla de Correo 25 (1686), Hurlingham, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Rivadavia 1917 (1033), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina.
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Does the Gut Microbiota Influence Immunity and Inflammation in Multiple Sclerosis Pathophysiology? J Immunol Res 2017; 2017:7904821. [PMID: 28316999 PMCID: PMC5337874 DOI: 10.1155/2017/7904821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Revised: 12/31/2016] [Accepted: 02/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Aim. Evaluation of the impact of gut microflora on the pathophysiology of MS. Results. The etiopathogenesis of MS is not fully known. Gut microbiota may be of a great importance in the pathogenesis of MS, since recent findings suggest that substitutions of certain microbial population in the gut can lead to proinflammatory state, which can lead to MS in humans. In contrast, other commensal bacteria and their antigenic products may protect against inflammation within the central nervous system. The type of intestinal flora is affected by antibiotics, stress, or diet. The effects on MS through the intestinal microflora can also be achieved by antibiotic therapy and Lactobacillus. EAE, as an animal model of MS, indicates a strong influence of the gut microbiota on the immune system and shows that disturbances in gut physiology may contribute to the development of MS. Conclusions. The relationship between the central nervous system, the immune system, and the gut microbiota relates to the influence of microorganisms in the development of MS. A possible interaction between gut microbiota and the immune system can be perceived through regulation by the endocannabinoid system. It may offer an opportunity to understand the interaction comprised in the gut-immune-brain axis.
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Rumah KR, Vartanian TK, Fischetti VA. Oral Multiple Sclerosis Drugs Inhibit the In vitro Growth of Epsilon Toxin Producing Gut Bacterium, Clostridium perfringens. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 7:11. [PMID: 28180112 PMCID: PMC5263136 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
There are currently three oral medications approved for the treatment of multiple sclerosis (MS). Two of these medications, Fingolimod, and Teriflunomide, are considered to be anti-inflammatory agents, while dimethyl fumarate (DMF) is thought to trigger a robust antioxidant response, protecting vulnerable cells during an MS attack. We previously proposed that epsilon toxin from the gut bacterium, Clostridium perfringens, may initiate newly forming MS lesions due to its tropism for blood-brain barrier (BBB) vasculature and central nervous system myelin. Because gut microbiota will be exposed to these oral therapies prior to systemic absorption, we sought to determine if these compounds affect C. perfringens growth in vitro. Here we show that Fingolimod, Teriflunomide, and DMF indeed inhibit C. perfringens growth. Furthermore, several compounds similar to DMF in chemical structure, namely α, β unsaturated carbonyls, also known as Michael acceptors, inhibit C. perfringens. Sphingosine, a Fingolimod homolog with known antibacterial properties, proved to be a potent C. perfringens inhibitor with a Minimal Inhibitory Concentration similar to that of Fingolimod. These findings suggest that currently approved oral MS therapies and structurally related compounds possess antibacterial properties that may alter the gut microbiota. Moreover, inhibition of C. perfringens growth and resulting blockade of epsilon toxin production may contribute to the clinical efficacy of these disease-modifying drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kareem R Rumah
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University New York, NY, USA
| | - Timothy K Vartanian
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College New York, NY, USA
| | - Vincent A Fischetti
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University New York, NY, USA
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Ferreira MRA, Moreira GMSG, Cunha CEPD, Mendonça M, Salvarani FM, Moreira ÂN, Conceição FR. Recombinant Alpha, Beta, and Epsilon Toxins of Clostridium perfringens: Production Strategies and Applications as Veterinary Vaccines. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E340. [PMID: 27879630 PMCID: PMC5127136 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8110340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens is a spore-forming, commensal, ubiquitous bacterium that is present in the gastrointestinal tract of healthy humans and animals. This bacterium produces up to 18 toxins. The species is classified into five toxinotypes (A-E) according to the toxins that the bacterium produces: alpha, beta, epsilon, or iota. Each of these toxinotypes is associated with myriad different, frequently fatal, illnesses that affect a range of farm animals and humans. Alpha, beta, and epsilon toxins are the main causes of disease. Vaccinations that generate neutralizing antibodies are the most common prophylactic measures that are currently in use. These vaccines consist of toxoids that are obtained from C. perfringens cultures. Recombinant vaccines offer several advantages over conventional toxoids, especially in terms of the production process. As such, they are steadily gaining ground as a promising vaccination solution. This review discusses the main strategies that are currently used to produce recombinant vaccines containing alpha, beta, and epsilon toxins of C. perfringens, as well as the potential application of these molecules as vaccines for mammalian livestock animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Roberto A Ferreira
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas CEP 96160-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
| | - Gustavo Marçal S G Moreira
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas CEP 96160-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
| | - Carlos Eduardo P da Cunha
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas CEP 96160-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
| | - Marcelo Mendonça
- Curso de Medicina Veterinária, Unidade Acadêmica de Garanhuns, Universidade Federal Rural de Pernambuco, Garanhuns CEP 55292-270, Pernambuco, Brazil.
| | - Felipe M Salvarani
- Instituto de Medicina Veterinária, Universidade Federal do Pará, Castanhal CEP 68740-970, Pará, Brazil.
| | - Ângela N Moreira
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas CEP 96160-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
- Faculdade de Nutrição, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas CEP 96010-610, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
| | - Fabricio R Conceição
- Centro de Desenvolvimento Tecnológico, Biotecnologia, Universidade Federal de Pelotas, Pelotas CEP 96160-000, Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil.
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Freedman JC, McClane BA, Uzal FA. New insights into Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin activation and action on the brain during enterotoxemia. Anaerobe 2016; 41:27-31. [PMID: 27321761 DOI: 10.1016/j.anaerobe.2016.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2016] [Revised: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/15/2016] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ETX), produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D, is responsible for diseases that occur mostly in ruminants. ETX is produced in the form of an inactive prototoxin that becomes proteolytically-activated by several proteases. A recent ex vivo study using caprine intestinal contents demonstrated that ETX prototoxin is processed in a step-wise fashion into a stable, active ∼27 kDa band on SDS-PAGE. When characterized further by mass spectrometry, the stable ∼27 kDa band was shown to contain three ETX species with varying C-terminal residues; each of these ETX species is cytotoxic. This study also demonstrated that, in addition to trypsin and chymotrypsin, proteases such as carboxypeptidases are involved in processing ETX prototoxin. Once absorbed, activated ETX species travel to several internal organs, including the brain, where this toxin acts on the vasculature to cross the blood-brain barrier, produces perivascular edema and affects several types of brain cells including neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes. In addition to perivascular edema, affected animals show edema within the vascular walls. This edema separates the astrocytic end-feet from affected blood vessels, causing hypoxia of nervous system tissue. Astrocytes of rats and sheep affected by ETX show overexpression of aquaporin-4, a membrane channel protein that is believed to help remove water from affected perivascular spaces in an attempt to resolve the perivascular edema. Amyloid precursor protein, an early astrocyte damage indicator, is also observed in the brains of affected sheep. These results show that ETX activation in vivo seems to be more complex than previously thought and this toxin acts on the brain, affecting vascular permeability, but also damaging neurons and other cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- John C Freedman
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Bruce A McClane
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory, San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California-Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA.
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36
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Gil C, Dorca-Arévalo J, Blasi J. Clostridium Perfringens Epsilon Toxin Binds to Membrane Lipids and Its Cytotoxic Action Depends on Sulfatide. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0140321. [PMID: 26452234 PMCID: PMC4599917 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0140321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2015] [Accepted: 09/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) is one of the major lethal toxins produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D, being the causal agent of fatal enterotoxemia in animals, mainly sheep and goats. Etx is synthesized as a non-active prototoxin form (proEtx) that becomes active upon proteolytic activation. Etx exhibits a cytotoxic effect through the formation of a pore in the plasma membrane of selected cell targets where Etx specifically binds due to the presence of specific receptors. However, the identity and nature of host receptors of Etx remain a matter of controversy. In the present study, the interactions between Etx and membrane lipids from the synaptosome-enriched fraction from rat brain (P2 fraction) and MDCK cell plasma membrane preparations were analyzed. Our findings show that both Etx and proEtx bind to lipids extracted from lipid rafts from the two different models as assessed by protein-lipid overlay assay. Lipid rafts are membrane microdomains enriched in cholesterol and sphingolipids. Binding of proEtx to sulfatide, phosphatidylserine, phosphatidylinositol (3)-phosphate and phosphatidylinositol (5)-phosphate was detected. Removal of the sulphate groups via sulfatase treatment led to a dramatic decrease in Etx-induced cytotoxicity, but not in proEtx-GFP binding to MDCK cells or a significant shift in oligomer formation, pointing to a role of sulfatide in pore formation in rafts but not in toxin binding to the target cell membrane. These results show for the first time the interaction between Etx and membrane lipids from host tissue and point to a major role for sulfatides in C. perfringens epsilon toxin pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carles Gil
- Departament de Bioquímica i Biologia Molecular and Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Catalunya, Spain
- * E-mail: (JB); (CG)
| | - Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Universitat de Barcelona, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- IDIBELL-Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Juan Blasi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Universitat de Barcelona, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- IDIBELL-Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute, L’Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail: (JB); (CG)
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Muszer M, Noszczyńska M, Kasperkiewicz K, Skurnik M. Human Microbiome: When a Friend Becomes an Enemy. Arch Immunol Ther Exp (Warsz) 2015; 63:287-98. [PMID: 25682593 PMCID: PMC4499106 DOI: 10.1007/s00005-015-0332-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2014] [Accepted: 12/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The microorganisms that inhabit humans are very diverse on different body sites and tracts. Each specific niche contains a unique composition of the microorganisms that are important for a balanced human physiology. Microbial cells outnumber human cells by tenfold and they function as an invisible organ that is called the microbiome. Excessive use of antibiotics and unhealthy diets pose a serious danger to the composition of the microbiome. An imbalance in the microbial community may cause pathological conditions of the digestive system such as obesity, cancer and inflammatory bowel disease; of the skin such as atopic dermatitis, psoriasis and acne and of the cardiovascular system such as atherosclerosis. An unbalanced microbiome has also been associated with neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism and multiple sclerosis. While the microbiome has a strong impact on the development of the host immune system, it is suspected that it can also be the cause of certain autoimmune diseases, including diabetes or rheumatoid arthritis. Despite the enormous progress in the field, the interactions between the human body and its microbiome still remain largely unknown. A better characterization of the interactions may allow for a deeper understanding of human disease states and help to elucidate a possible association between the composition of the microbiome and certain pathologies. This review focuses on general findings that are related to the area and provides no detailed information about the case of study. The aim is to give some initial insight on the studies of the microbiome and its connection with human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Muszer
- Department of Microbiology, University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
| | | | | | - Mikael Skurnik
- Department of Bacteriology and Immunology, Haartman Institute, Research Programs Unit, Immunobiology, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
- University Central Hospital Laboratory Diagnostics, Helsinki, Finland
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Clostridium perfringens Epsilon Toxin Causes Selective Death of Mature Oligodendrocytes and Central Nervous System Demyelination. mBio 2015; 6:e02513. [PMID: 26081637 PMCID: PMC4471556 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02513-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin (ε-toxin) is responsible for a devastating multifocal central nervous system (CNS) white matter disease in ruminant animals. The mechanism by which ε-toxin causes white matter damage is poorly understood. In this study, we sought to determine the molecular and cellular mechanisms by which ε-toxin causes pathological changes to white matter. In primary CNS cultures, ε-toxin binds to and kills oligodendrocytes but not astrocytes, microglia, or neurons. In cerebellar organotypic culture, ε-toxin induces demyelination, which occurs in a time- and dose-dependent manner, while preserving neurons, astrocytes, and microglia. ε-Toxin specificity for oligodendrocytes was confirmed using enriched glial culture. Sensitivity to ε-toxin is developmentally regulated, as only mature oligodendrocytes are susceptible to ε-toxin; oligodendrocyte progenitor cells are not. ε-Toxin sensitivity is also dependent on oligodendrocyte expression of the proteolipid myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL), as MAL-deficient oligodendrocytes are insensitive to ε-toxin. In addition, ε-toxin binding to white matter follows the spatial and temporal pattern of MAL expression. A neutralizing antibody against ε-toxin inhibits oligodendrocyte death and demyelination. This study provides several novel insights into the action of ε-toxin in the CNS. (i) ε-Toxin causes selective oligodendrocyte death while preserving all other neural elements. (ii) ε-Toxin-mediated oligodendrocyte death is a cell autonomous effect. (iii) The effects of ε-toxin on the oligodendrocyte lineage are restricted to mature oligodendrocytes. (iv) Expression of the developmentally regulated proteolipid MAL is required for the cytotoxic effects. (v) The cytotoxic effects of ε-toxin can be abrogated by an ε-toxin neutralizing antibody. Our intestinal tract is host to trillions of microorganisms that play an essential role in health and homeostasis. Disruption of this symbiotic relationship has been implicated in influencing or causing disease in distant organ systems such as the brain. Epsilon toxin (ε-toxin)-carrying Clostridium perfringens strains are responsible for a devastating white matter disease in ruminant animals that shares similar features with human multiple sclerosis. In this report, we define the mechanism by which ε-toxin causes white matter disease. We find that ε-toxin specifically targets the myelin-forming cells of the central nervous system (CNS), oligodendrocytes, leading to cell death. The selectivity of ε-toxin for oligodendrocytes is remarkable, as other cells of the CNS are unaffected. Importantly, ε-toxin-induced oligodendrocyte death results in demyelination and is dependent on expression of myelin and lymphocyte protein (MAL). These results help complete the mechanistic pathway from bacteria to brain by explaining the specific cellular target of ε-toxin within the CNS.
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Rumah KR, Ma Y, Linden JR, Oo ML, Anrather J, Schaeren-Wiemers N, Alonso MA, Fischetti VA, McClain MS, Vartanian T. The Myelin and Lymphocyte Protein MAL Is Required for Binding and Activity of Clostridium perfringens ε-Toxin. PLoS Pathog 2015; 11:e1004896. [PMID: 25993478 PMCID: PMC4439126 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1004896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2013] [Accepted: 04/19/2015] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin (ETX) is a potent pore-forming toxin responsible for a central nervous system (CNS) disease in ruminant animals with characteristics of blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and white matter injury. ETX has been proposed as a potential causative agent for Multiple Sclerosis (MS), a human disease that begins with BBB breakdown and injury to myelin forming cells of the CNS. The receptor for ETX is unknown. Here we show that both binding of ETX to mammalian cells and cytotoxicity requires the tetraspan proteolipid Myelin and Lymphocyte protein (MAL). While native Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO) cells are resistant to ETX, exogenous expression of MAL in CHO cells confers both ETX binding and susceptibility to ETX-mediated cell death. Cells expressing rat MAL are ~100 times more sensitive to ETX than cells expressing similar levels of human MAL. Insertion of the FLAG sequence into the second extracellular loop of MAL abolishes ETX binding and cytotoxicity. ETX is known to bind specifically and with high affinity to intestinal epithelium, renal tubules, brain endothelial cells and myelin. We identify specific binding of ETX to these structures and additionally show binding to retinal microvasculature and the squamous epithelial cells of the sclera in wild-type mice. In contrast, there is a complete absence of ETX binding to tissues from MAL knockout (MAL-/-) mice. Furthermore, MAL-/- mice exhibit complete resistance to ETX at doses in excess of 1000 times the symptomatic dose for wild-type mice. We conclude that MAL is required for both ETX binding and cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kareem Rashid Rumah
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Yinghua Ma
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Jennifer R. Linden
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Myat Lin Oo
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Josef Anrather
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Nicole Schaeren-Wiemers
- Neurobiology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Miguel A. Alonso
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, CSIC-UAM, Cantoblanco, Madrid, Spain
| | - Vincent A. Fischetti
- Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York City, New York, United States of America
| | - Mark S. McClain
- Department of Medicine, Division of Infectious Diseases, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, Tennessee, United States of America
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- Brain and Mind Research Institute, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York City, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
The commensal flora that lives in the human gut is a unique ecosystem that has evolved over millennia with human beings. The importance of the microbiota in various bodily functions is gradually becoming more apparent. Besides the gut microbiome playing a role in bowel-related disorders, a role in metabolic and autoimmune disorders is becoming clearer. The gut bacteria play a role in educating the immune system and hence may be a player in the development of multiple sclerosis. We examine the different sources of information linking the gut microbiota to multiple sclerosis and examine the future avenues for utilizing the knowledge of the gut microbiome to potentially treat and prevent multiple sclerosis.
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Uzal FA, McClane BA, Cheung JK, Theoret J, Garcia JP, Moore RJ, Rood JI. Animal models to study the pathogenesis of human and animal Clostridium perfringens infections. Vet Microbiol 2015; 179:23-33. [PMID: 25770894 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2015.02.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Revised: 02/11/2015] [Accepted: 02/15/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
The most common animal models used to study Clostridium perfringens infections in humans and animals are reviewed here. The classical C. perfringens-mediated histotoxic disease of humans is clostridial myonecrosis or gas gangrene and the use of a mouse myonecrosis model coupled with genetic studies has contributed greatly to our understanding of disease pathogenesis. Similarly, the use of a chicken model has enhanced our understanding of type A-mediated necrotic enteritis in poultry and has led to the identification of NetB as the primary toxin involved in disease. C. perfringens type A food poisoning is a highly prevalent bacterial illness in the USA and elsewhere. Rabbits and mice are the species most commonly used to study the action of enterotoxin, the causative toxin. Other animal models used to study the effect of this toxin are rats, non-human primates, sheep and cattle. In rabbits and mice, CPE produces severe necrosis of the small intestinal epithelium along with fluid accumulation. C. perfringens type D infection has been studied by inoculating epsilon toxin (ETX) intravenously into mice, rats, sheep, goats and cattle, and by intraduodenal inoculation of whole cultures of this microorganism in mice, sheep, goats and cattle. Molecular Koch's postulates have been fulfilled for enterotoxigenic C. perfringens type A in rabbits and mice, for C. perfringens type A necrotic enteritis and gas gangrene in chickens and mice, respectively, for C. perfringens type C in mice, rabbits and goats, and for C. perfringens type D in mice, sheep and goats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System, San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, CA 92408, USA.
| | - Bruce A McClane
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Jackie K Cheung
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - James Theoret
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA
| | - Jorge P Garcia
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, School of Veterinary Medicine, National University of the Center of Buenos Aires Province, Tandil, Argentina
| | - Robert J Moore
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; School of Applied Sciences, RMIT University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia; Poultry Cooperative Research Centre, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
| | - Julian I Rood
- Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia; Poultry Cooperative Research Centre, Armidale, New South Wales, Australia
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Wioland L, Dupont JL, Doussau F, Gaillard S, Heid F, Isope P, Pauillac S, Popoff MR, Bossu JL, Poulain B. Epsilon toxin from Clostridium perfringens acts on oligodendrocytes without forming pores, and causes demyelination. Cell Microbiol 2014; 17:369-88. [PMID: 25287162 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2014] [Revised: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/29/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ET) is produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D and causes severe neurological disorders in animals. ET has been observed binding to white matter, suggesting that it may target oligodendrocytes. In primary cultures containing oligodendrocytes and astrocytes, we found that ET (10(-9) M and 10(-7) M) binds to oligodendrocytes, but not to astrocytes. ET induces an increase in extracellular glutamate, and produces oscillations of intracellular Ca(2+) concentration in oligodendrocytes. These effects occurred without any change in the transmembrane resistance of oligodendrocytes, underlining that ET acts through a pore-independent mechanism. Pharmacological investigations revealed that the Ca(2+) oscillations are caused by the ET-induced rise in extracellular glutamate concentration. Indeed, the blockade of metabotropic glutamate receptors type 1 (mGluR1) prevented ET-induced Ca(2+) signals. Activation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDA-R) is also involved, but to a lesser extent. Oligodendrocytes are responsible for myelinating neuronal axons. Using organotypic cultures of cerebellar slices, we found that ET induced the demyelination of Purkinje cell axons within 24 h. As this effect was suppressed by antagonizing mGluR1 and NMDA-R, demyelination is therefore caused by the initial ET-induced rise in extracellular glutamate concentration. This study reveals the novel possibility that ET can act on oligodendrocytes, thereby causing demyelination. Moreover, it suggests that for certain cell types such as oligodendrocytes, ET can act without forming pores, namely through the activation of an undefined receptor-mediated pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia Wioland
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique Associé à l'Université de Strasbourg, Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives UPR3212, 5 rue Blaise Pascal, Strasbourg, cedex F-67084, France
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Dorca-Arévalo J, Pauillac S, Díaz-Hidalgo L, Martín-Satué M, Popoff MR, Blasi J. Correlation between in vitro cytotoxicity and in vivo lethal activity in mice of epsilon toxin mutants from Clostridium perfringens. PLoS One 2014; 9:e102417. [PMID: 25013927 PMCID: PMC4094505 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0102417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (Etx) from Clostridium perfringens is a pore-forming protein with a lethal effect on livestock, producing severe enterotoxemia characterized by general edema and neurological alterations. Site-specific mutations of the toxin are valuable tools to study the cellular and molecular mechanism of the toxin activity. In particular, mutants with paired cysteine substitutions that affect the membrane insertion domain behaved as dominant-negative inhibitors of toxin activity in MDCK cells. We produced similar mutants, together with a well-known non-toxic mutant (Etx-H106P), as green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion proteins to perform in vivo studies in an acutely intoxicated mouse model. The mutant (GFP-Etx-I51C/A114C) had a lethal effect with generalized edema, and accumulated in the brain parenchyma due to its ability to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In the renal system, this mutant had a cytotoxic effect on distal tubule epithelial cells. The other mutants studied (GFP-Etx-V56C/F118C and GFP-Etx-H106P) did not have a lethal effect or cross the BBB, and failed to induce a cytotoxic effect on renal epithelial cells. These data suggest a direct correlation between the lethal effect of the toxin, with its cytotoxic effect on the kidney distal tubule cells, and the ability to cross the BBB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonatan Dorca-Arévalo
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- IDIBELL-Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Serge Pauillac
- Institut Pasteur, Unité des Bactéries anaérobies et Toxines, Paris, France
| | - Laura Díaz-Hidalgo
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mireia Martín-Satué
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- IDIBELL-Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Michel R. Popoff
- Institut Pasteur, Unité des Bactéries anaérobies et Toxines, Paris, France
| | - Juan Blasi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience, Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, Universitat de Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- IDIBELL-Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- * E-mail:
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Garcia JP, Giannitti F, Finnie JW, Manavis J, Beingesser J, Adams V, Rood JI, Uzal FA. Comparative neuropathology of ovine enterotoxemia produced by Clostridium perfringens type D wild-type strain CN1020 and its genetically modified derivatives. Vet Pathol 2014; 52:465-75. [PMID: 24964921 DOI: 10.1177/0300985814540543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens type D causes enterotoxemia in sheep and goats. The disease is mediated by epsilon toxin (ETX), which affects the cerebrovascular endothelium, increasing vascular permeability and leading to cerebral edema. In the present study, we compared the distribution and severity of the cerebrovascular changes induced in lambs by C. perfringens type D strain CN1020, its isogenic etx null mutant, and the ETX-producing complemented mutant. We also applied histochemical and immunohistochemical markers to further characterize the brain lesions induced by ETX. Both ETX-producing strains induced extensive cerebrovascular damage that did not differ significantly between each other in nature, neuroanatomic distribution, or severity. By contrast, lambs inoculated with the etx mutant or sterile, nontoxic culture medium did not develop detectable brain lesions, confirming that the neuropathologic effects observed in these infections are dependent on ETX production. Lambs treated with the wild-type and complemented strains showed perivascular and mural vascular edema, as well as serum albumin extravasation, particularly severe in the cerebral white matter, midbrain, medulla oblongata, and cerebellum. Brains of animals inoculated with the ETX-producing strains showed decreased expression of glial fibrillary acidic protein and increased expression of aquaporin-4 in the end-feet processes of the astrocytes around blood vessels. Early axonal injury was demonstrated with anti-amyloid precursor protein immunohistochemistry. Perivascular accumulation of macrophages/microglia with intracytoplasmic albumin globules was also observed in these animals. This study demonstrates that ETX is responsible for the major cerebrovascular changes in C. perfringens type D-induced disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- J P Garcia
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA These authors contributed equally to the research and are joint first authors
| | - F Giannitti
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-Davis Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA These authors contributed equally to the research and are joint first authors
| | - J W Finnie
- SA Pathology, Hanson Institute Centre for Neurological Diseases and School of Veterinary Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - J Manavis
- SA Pathology, Hanson Institute Centre for Neurological Diseases and School of Veterinary Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - J Beingesser
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA
| | - V Adams
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - J I Rood
- Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - F A Uzal
- California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System-San Bernardino Branch, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, San Bernardino, CA, USA
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Rumah KR, Linden J, Fischetti VA, Vartanian T. Isolation of Clostridium perfringens type B in an individual at first clinical presentation of multiple sclerosis provides clues for environmental triggers of the disease. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76359. [PMID: 24146858 PMCID: PMC3797790 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/26/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
We have isolated Clostridium perfringens type B, an epsilon toxin-secreting bacillus, from a young woman at clinical presentation of Multiple Sclerosis (MS) with actively enhancing lesions on brain MRI. This finding represents the first time that C. perfringens type B has been detected in a human. Epsilon toxin's tropism for the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and binding to oligodendrocytes/myelin makes it a provocative candidate for nascent lesion formation in MS. We examined a well-characterized population of MS patients and healthy controls for carriage of C. perfringens toxinotypes in the gastrointestinal tract. The human commensal Clostridium perfringens type A was present in approximately 50% of healthy human controls compared to only 23% in MS patients. We examined sera and CSF obtained from two tissue banks and found that immunoreactivity to ETX is 10 times more prevalent in people with MS than in healthy controls, indicating prior exposure to ETX in the MS population. C. perfringens epsilon toxin fits mechanistically with nascent MS lesion formation since these lesions are characterized by BBB permeability and oligodendrocyte cell death in the absence of an adaptive immune infiltrate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kareem Rashid Rumah
- Tri-Institutional M.D.-Ph.D. Program of Weill Cornell Medical College, Rockefeller University and Memorial Sloan-Kettering Hospital, New York, New York, United States of America
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
- The Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Jennifer Linden
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Vincent A. Fischetti
- The Laboratory of Bacterial Pathogenesis and Immunology, Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Timothy Vartanian
- The Brain and Mind Research Institute and the Department of Neurology, Weill Cornell Medical College, New York, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Los FCO, Randis TM, Aroian RV, Ratner AJ. Role of pore-forming toxins in bacterial infectious diseases. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2013; 77:173-207. [PMID: 23699254 PMCID: PMC3668673 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00052-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 298] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Pore-forming toxins (PFTs) are the most common bacterial cytotoxic proteins and are required for virulence in a large number of important pathogens, including Streptococcus pneumoniae, group A and B streptococci, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. PFTs generally disrupt host cell membranes, but they can have additional effects independent of pore formation. Substantial effort has been devoted to understanding the molecular mechanisms underlying the functions of certain model PFTs. Likewise, specific host pathways mediating survival and immune responses in the face of toxin-mediated cellular damage have been delineated. However, less is known about the overall functions of PFTs during infection in vivo. This review focuses on common themes in the area of PFT biology, with an emphasis on studies addressing the roles of PFTs in in vivo and ex vivo models of colonization or infection. Common functions of PFTs include disruption of epithelial barrier function and evasion of host immune responses, which contribute to bacterial growth and spreading. The widespread nature of PFTs make this group of toxins an attractive target for the development of new virulence-targeted therapies that may have broad activity against human pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tara M. Randis
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
| | - Raffi V. Aroian
- Division of Biological Sciences, Section of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Adam J. Ratner
- Department of Pediatrics, Columbia University, New York, New York, USA
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Wioland L, Dupont JL, Bossu JL, Popoff MR, Poulain B. Attack of the nervous system by Clostridium perfringens Epsilon toxin: from disease to mode of action on neural cells. Toxicon 2013; 75:122-35. [PMID: 23632158 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2013.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2012] [Revised: 03/29/2013] [Accepted: 04/10/2013] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Epsilon toxin (ET), produced by Clostridium perfringens types B and D, ranks among the four most potent poisonous substances known so far. ET-intoxication is responsible for enterotoxaemia in animals, mainly sheep and goats. This disease comprises several manifestations indicating the attack of the nervous system. This review aims to summarize the effects of ET on central nervous system. ET binds to endothelial cells of brain capillary vessels before passing through the blood-brain barrier. Therefore, it induces perivascular oedema and accumulates into brain. ET binding to different brain structures and to different component in the brain indicates regional susceptibility to the toxin. Histological examination has revealed nerve tissue and cellular lesions, which may be directly or indirectly caused by ET. The naturally occurring disease caused by ET-intoxication can be reproduced experimentally in rodents. In mice and rats, ET recognizes receptor at the surface of different neural cell types, including certain neurons (e.g. the granule cells in cerebellum) as well as oligodendrocytes, which are the glial cells responsible for the axons myelination. Moreover, ET induces release of glutamate and other transmitters, leading to firing of neural network. The precise mode of action of ET on neural cells remains to be determined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laetitia Wioland
- Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) and Université de Strasbourg, Institut des Neurosciences Cellulaires et Intégratives (INCI), UPR 3212, Strasbourg, France
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Oligomerization of Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin is dependent upon caveolins 1 and 2. PLoS One 2012; 7:e46866. [PMID: 23056496 PMCID: PMC3462777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0046866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 09/06/2012] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Evidence from multiple studies suggests that Clostridium perfringens ε-toxin is a pore-forming toxin, assembling into oligomeric complexes in the plasma membrane of sensitive cells. In a previous study, we used gene-trap mutagenesis to identify mammalian factors contributing to toxin activity, including caveolin-2 (CAV2). In this study, we demonstrate the importance of caveolin-2 and its interaction partner, caveolin-1 (CAV1), in ε-toxin-induced cytotoxicity. Using CAV2-specific shRNA in a toxin-sensitive human kidney cell line, ACHN, we confirmed that cells deficient in CAV2 exhibit increased resistance to ε-toxin. Similarly, using CAV1-specific shRNA, we demonstrate that cells deficient in CAV1 also exhibit increased resistance to the toxin. Immunoprecipitation of CAV1 and CAV2 from ε-toxin-treated ACHN cells demonstrated interaction of both CAV1 and -2 with the toxin. Furthermore, blue-native PAGE indicated that the toxin and caveolins were components of a 670 kDa protein complex. Although ε-toxin binding was only slightly perturbed in caveolin-deficient cells, oligomerization of the toxin was dramatically reduced in both CAV1- and CAV2-deficient cells. These results indicate that CAV1 and -2 potentiate ε-toxin induced cytotoxicity by promoting toxin oligomerization – an event which is requisite for pore formation and, by extension, cell death.
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Ivie SE, McClain MS. Identification of amino acids important for binding of Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin to host cells and to HAVCR1. Biochemistry 2012; 51:7588-95. [PMID: 22938730 PMCID: PMC3534817 DOI: 10.1021/bi300690a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxin belongs to the aerolysin-like family of pore-forming toxins and is one of the most potent bacterial toxins known. The epsilon toxin causes fatal enterotoxemia in sheep, goats, and possibly humans. Evidence indicates that the toxin binds to protein receptors including hepatitis A virus cellular receptor 1 (HAVCR1), but the region of the toxin responsible for cell binding has not been identified. In the present study, we identify amino acids within the epsilon toxin important for this cell interaction. Site-specific mutagenesis was used to investigate the role of a surface-accessible cluster of aromatic amino acids, and purified mutant proteins were tested in a series of cell-culture assays to assess cytotoxic activity and cell binding. When added to cells, four mutant proteins (Etx-Y29E, Etx-Y30E, Etx-Y36E and Etx-Y196E) were severely impaired in their ability to not only kill host cells, but also in their ability to permeabilize the plasma membrane. Circular dichroism spectroscopy and thermal stability studies revealed that the wild-type and mutant proteins were similarly folded. Additional experiments revealed that these mutant proteins were defective in binding to host cells and to HAVCR1. These data indicate that an amino acid motif including Y29, Y30, Y36, and Y196 is important for the ability of epsilon toxin to interact with cells and HAVCR1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susan E. Ivie
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
| | - Mark S. McClain
- Department of Medicine, Vanderbilt University School of Medicine, Nashville, TN 37232
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