Effects of irrigation with secondary treated wastewater on physicochemical and microbial properties of soil and produce safety in a semi-arid area

Simulating PFAS transport in effluent-irrigated farmland using PRZM5, LEACHM, and HYDRUS-1D models

Application of wastewater effluent to agricultural lands can serve as a sustainable approach to meet irrigation and nutrient needs for crop production. While nitrogen and phosphorous loadings can be effectively managed, concerns have been raised regarding the fate of emerging contaminants, including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), which are widely detected in wastewater effluent. The objective of this paper was to evaluate the ability of three unsaturated flow and transport models, Pesticide Root Zone Model 5 (PRZM5), LEACHM, and HYDRUS-1D, to predict the distribution of PFAS in the soil profile at the Pennsylvania State University Living Filter site, which has received daily wastewater effluent applications for several decades. The models were modified to include adsorption at the air-water interface (AWI), which has been shown to be an important factor governing PFAS transport and phase distribution in the vadose zone. Simulations showed that PRZM5 did not accurately reproduce the observed perfluorooctanesulfonic acid (PFOS) behavior, which was attributed to the "tipping bucket" approach used for water flow that results in the disappearance of AWI during water flow. In contrast, both LEACHM and HYDRUS-1D captured the observed retention of PFOS and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) over a 50-year simulation period. Due to differences in the approach used to calculate the AWI area, LEACHM predicted greater accumulation of PFOS and PFOA at the AWI compared to HYDRUS-1D. These findings indicate that mathematical models that directly account for unsaturated water flow and adsorption at the AWI are able to provide reasonable predictions of long-term PFAS leaching resulting from land application of wastewater effluent.

Water reuse of treated domestic wastewater in agriculture: Effects on tomato plants, soil nutrient availability and microbial community structure

The reuse of treated wastewater (TWW) in agriculture for crop irrigation is desirable. Crop responses to irrigation with TWW depend on the characteristics of TWW and on intrinsic and extrinsic soil properties. The aim of this study was to assess the response of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) cultivated in five different soils to irrigation with TWW, compared to tap water (TAP) and an inorganic NPK solution (IFW). In addition, since soil microbiota play many important roles in plant growth, a metataxonomic analysis was performed to reveal the prokaryotic community structures of TAP, TWW and IFW treated soil, respectively. A 56-days pot experiment was carried out. Plant biometric parameters, and chemical, biochemical and microbiological properties of different soils were investigated. Shoot and root dry and fresh weights, as well as plant height, were the highest in plants irrigated with IFW followed by those irrigated with TWW, and finally with TAP water. Plant biometric parameters were positively affected by soil total organic carbon (TOC) and nitrogen (TN). Electrical conductivity was increased by TWW and IFW, being such an increase proportional to clay and TOC. Soil available P was not affected by TWW, whereas mineral N increased following their application. Total microbial biomass, as well as, main microbial groups were positively affected by TOC and TN, and increased according to the following order: IFW > TWW > TAP. However, the fungi-to-bacteria ratio was lowered in soil irrigated with TWW because of its adverse effect on fungi. The germicidal effect of sodium hypochlorite on soil microorganisms was affected by soil pH. Nutrients supplied by TWW are not sufficient to meet the whole nutrients requirement of tomato, thus integration by fertilization is required. Bacteria were more stimulated than fungi by TWW, thus leading to a lower fungi-to-bacteria ratio. Interestingly, IFW and TWW treatment led to an increased abundance of Proteobacteria and Acidobacteria phyla and Balneimonas, Rubrobacter, and Steroidobacter genera. This soil microbiota structure modulation paralleled a general decrement of fungi versus bacteria abundance ratio, the increment of electrical conductivity and nitrogen content of soil and an improvement of tomato growth. Finally, the potential adverse effect of TWW added with sodium chloride on soil microorganisms depends on soil pH.

Human health risk assessment of toxic heavy metals in summer crops and vegetables: a study in Ilam Province, Iran

Purpose

The presence of toxic heavy metals (HMs) in agricultural crops ‎can be considered as a noteworthy threat for consumers. The aim of this study was to assess the content of HMs ‎(Pb, As, Cr, Cd, Co, Hg, and Ag) and their potential health risk in summer crops and vegetables (watermelon, cantaloupe, cucumber, melon, tomato, onion, ‎potato, raw and stewed vegetables) in Ilam province, Iran.

Methods

Totally, 31 crop samples were collected from local farms during the 2019 harvest ‎season and the elements ‎ content were evaluated using inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The non-carcinogenic health risk of HMs to the adults and children was estimated by Monte Carlo simulation method and target hazard quotients (THQs).

Results

In general, the results showed that the concentration of Cr in the studied ‎agricultural crops was higher than other HMs. As well as, the carcinogenic risk (CR) obtained for adults and children were more than the acceptable range for As. Also, CR for As in raw vegetable was the most (‎8.19E-1) and violated the threshold risk limit. The total carcinogenic risk of HMs in children was higher than that in adults.

Conclusion

These results suggest that the agricultural crops were not safe for human consumption with potential risks associated. Due to the possible health effects of such products consumption, proper action should be taken to avoid chronic exposure, prevention of further pollution and consequent adverse health implications.

Naturalization of treated wastewater by a constructed wetland in a water-scarce Mediterranean region

The effluents from conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTP), even if accomplishing quality regulations, substantially differ in their characteristics with those of waters in natural environments. Constructed wetlands (CWs) serve as transitional ecosystems within WWTPs, mitigating these differences and restoring natural features before water is poured into the natural environment. Our study focused on an experimental surface-flow CW naturalizing the WWTP effluent in a semiarid area in Eastern Spain. Despite relatively low pollutant concentrations entering the CW, it effectively further reduced settled organic matter and nitrogen. Dissolved organic matter (DOM) reaching the CW was mainly protein-like, yet optical property changes in the DOM indicated increased humification, aromaticity, and stabilization as it flowed through the CW. Flow cytometry analysis revealed that the CW released less abundant but more active bacterial populations than those received. MiSeq Illumina sequencing highlighted changes in the prokaryotic community composition, with phyla Proteobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria dominating the CW outflow. Functional prediction tools (FaproTax and PICRUSt2) demonstrated a shift towards microbial guilds aligned with those of the natural aquatic environments, increased aerobic chemoheterotrophs, photoautotrophs, and metabolic reactions at higher redox potentials. Enhanced capabilities for degrading plant material correlated well with changes in the DOM pool. Our findings emphasize the role of CWs in releasing biochemically stable DOM and functionally suited microbial populations for natural receiving environments. Consequently, we propose CWs as a naturalization nature-based solution (NBS) in water-scarce regions like the Mediterranean, where reclaimed discharged water can significantly contribute to ecosystem's water resources compared to natural flows.

Impact of treated wastewater on plant growth: leaf fluorescence, reflectance, and biomass-based assessment

The study evaluated the impact of treated wastewater on plant growth through the use of hyperspectral and fluorescence-based techniques coupled with classical biomass analyses, and assessed the potential of reusing treated wastewater for irrigation without fertilizer application. Cherry tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) and cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) were irrigated with tap water (Tap), secondary effluent (SE), and membrane effluent (ME). Maximum quantum yield of photosystem II (Fv/Fm) of tomato and cabbage was between 0.78 to 0.80 and 0.81 to 0.82, respectively, for all treatments. The performance index (PI) of Tap/SE/ME was 2.73, 2.85, and 2.48 for tomatoes and 4.25, 3.79, and 3.70 for cabbage, respectively. Both Fv/Fm and PI indicated that the treated wastewater did not have a significant adverse effect on the photosynthetic efficiency and plant vitality of the crops. Hyperspectral analysis showed higher chlorophyll and nitrogen content in leaves of recycled water-irrigated crops than tap water-irrigated crops. SE had 10.5% dry matter composition (tomato) and Tap had 10.7% (cabbage). Total leaf count of Tap/SE/ME was 86, 111, and 102 for tomato and 37, 40, and 42 for cabbage, respectively. In this study, the use of treated wastewater did not induce any photosynthetic-related or abiotic stress on the crops; instead, it promoted crop growth.

A Metagenomic Investigation of Potential Health Risks and Element Cycling Functions of Bacteria and Viruses in Wastewater Treatment Plants

The concentration of viruses in sewage sludge is significantly higher (10-1000-fold) than that found in natural environments, posing a potential risk for human and animal health. However, the composition of these viruses and their role in the transfer of pathogenic factors, as well as their role in the carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles remain poorly understood. In this study, we employed a shotgun metagenomic approach to investigate the pathogenic bacteria and viral composition and function in two wastewater treatment plants located on a campus. Our analysis revealed the presence of 1334 amplicon sequence variants (ASVs) across six sludge samples, with 242 ASVs (41.22% of total reads) identified as pathogenic bacteria. Arcobacter was found to be the most dominant pathogen accounting for 6.79% of total reads. The virome analysis identified 613 viral genera with Aorunvirus being the most abundant genus at 41.85%. Approximately 0.66% of these viruses were associated with human and animal diseases. More than 60% of the virome consisted of lytic phages. Host prediction analysis revealed that the phages primarily infected Lactobacillus (37.11%), Streptococcus (21.11%), and Staphylococcus (7.11%). Furthermore, our investigation revealed an abundance of auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs) involved in carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycling within the virome. We also detected a total of 113 antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), covering major classes of antibiotics across all samples analyzed. Additionally, our findings indicated the presence of virulence factors including the clpP gene accounting for approximately 4.78%, along with toxin genes such as the RecT gene representing approximately 73.48% of all detected virulence factors and toxin genes among all samples analyzed. This study expands our understanding regarding both pathogenic bacteria and viruses present within sewage sludge while providing valuable insights into their ecological functions.

Human viral pathogens in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum: Evidence, health risks, and lessons for future outbreaks in low-income settings

Human viral pathogens, including SARS-CoV-2 continue to attract public and research attention due to their disruption of society, global health, and the economy. Several earlier reviews have investigated the occurrence and fate of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater, and the potential to use such data in wastewater-based epidemiology. However, comprehensive reviews tracking SARS-CoV-2 and other viral pathogens in the wastewater-water-drinking water continuum and the associated risk assessment are still lacking. Therefore, to address this gap, the present paper makes the following contributions: (1) critically examines the early empirical results to highlight the occurrence and stability of SARS-CoV-2 in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum, (2) discusses the anthropogenic and hydro(geo)logical processes controlling the circulation of SARS-CoV-2 in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum, (3) discusses the risky behaviour, drivers and high-risk settings in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum, (4) uses the available empirical data on SARS-CoV-2 occurrence in the wastewater-source water-drinking water continuum to discuss human health risks from multiple exposure pathways, gendered aspects of SARS-CoV-2 transmission via shared on-site sanitation systems, and (5) develops and risk mitigation strategy based on the available empirical evidence and quantitative human risk assessment data. Finally, it presents a comprehensive research agenda on SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 to guide the mitigation of future similar outbreaks in low-income settings.

A new approach to circularity assessment for a sustainable water sector: Accounting for environmental functional flows and losses

Resource recovery solutions can reduce the water sector's resource use intensity. With many such solutions being proposed, an assessment method for effective decision-making is needed. The water sector predominantly deals with biogeochemical resources (e.g., nitrogen) that are different from technical resources (e.g., industrial coagulants) in three ways: (1) they move through the environment in natural cycles; (2) they fulfil different human and environmental functions; and (3) they are subject to substantial environmental losses. Whilst several circularity assessment methods exist for technical resources, biogeochemical resources have received less attention. To address this, a well-established material circularity indicator (MCI) method is modified. This is done by redefining the terms: restoration, regeneration, and linear flows to create a new circularity assessment approach. The new approach is demonstrated in a real-life case study involving treated wastewater (TW) fertigation. The new approach reveals that using the original MCI method underestimates the circularity of resource recovery solutions involving biogeochemical resources. This is because, in the original MCI method, only the flows that are reused/recycled for human functions can be considered circular, whereas, in the new approach, one also considers flows such as N2 emission and groundwater infiltration as circular flows. Even though these may not be reuse/recycle type flows, they still contribute towards future resource availability and, thus, towards sustainability. The modified assessment method shows that TW fertigation can significantly improve nitrogen and water circularity. However, careful planning of the fertigation schedule is essential since increasing fertigation frequency leads to lower water but higher nitrogen circularity. Additionally, collecting drainage water for reuse can improve nitrogen circularity. In conclusion, using the modified MCI approach, circularity can be assessed in a manner that is better aligned with sustainability.

Short-term effect of reclaimed wastewater quality gradient on soil microbiome during irrigation

To investigate the effect of wastewater (WW) treatment on soil bacterial communities, water of different quality was used to irrigate eight lettuces per tank: raw municipal wastewater (RWW), WW treated with an aerated constructed wetland (CWW) and WW treated with a membrane bioreactor (MBW), and tap water (TW). The physicochemical and microbiological characteristics (quality indicators) of these water types were characterized, and the water and soil bacterial communities were monitored by quantitative PCR (qPCR) and 16S rRNA gene sequencing. Despite marked differences in microbial load and diversity of waters, soil communities remained remarkably stable after irrigation. Microbial biomass was increased only in soils irrigated with RWW. At the end of the irrigation period (day 84), soil and water shared a large fraction of their bacterial communities, from 43 % to 70 %, depending on the water quality, indicating a transfer of bacterial communities from water to soil. Overall, the relative abundance of Proteobacteria and Acidobacteria was increased and that of Actinobacteria was decreased in soils irrigated with MBW, CWW and even more with RWW. Multivariate ordination clearly separated soils in three groups: soils irrigated with the cleanest water (TW), with treated WW (MBW and CWW), and with untreated WW (RWW). Nitrifying, denitrifying, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria were quantified by qPCR targeting amoA, narG, and nifH, respectively. Nitrifying bacteria were the most affected by the water quality, as indicated by amoA copy number increase in RWW-irrigated soil and decrease in CWW-irrigated soil. Overall, the abundance of all three genes was positively influenced by RWW treatment. In conclusion, the 84 days of irrigation influenced the soil microbial communities, and the impact depended on the quality of the used water.

Investigating the effects of irrigation with indirectly recharged groundwater using recycled water on soil and crops in semi-arid areas

The utilization of direct wastewater for irrigation poses many environmental problems such as soil quality deterioration due to the accumulation of salts, heavy metals, micro-pollutants, and health risks due to undesirable microorganisms. This hampers its agricultural reuse in arid and semi-arid regions. To address these concerns, the present study introduces a recent approach that involves using indirectly recharged groundwater (GW) with secondary treated municipal wastewater (STW) for irrigation through a Soil Aquifer Treatment-based system (SAT). This method aims to mitigate freshwater scarcity in semi-arid regions. The study assessed GW levels, physicochemical properties, and microbial diversity of GW, and soil in both impacted (receiving recycled water) and non-impacted (not receiving recycled water) areas, before recycling (2015-2018) and after recycling (2019-2022) period of the project. The results indicated a significant increase of 68-70% in GW levels of the studied boreholes in the impacted areas. Additionally, the quality of indirectly recharged GW in the impacted areas improved notably in terms of electrical conductivity (EC), hardness, total dissolved solids (TDS), sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), along with certain cations and anions (hard water to soft water). No significant difference was observed in soil properties and microbial diversity of the impacted areas, except for EC and SAR, which were reduced by 50% and 39%, respectively, after the project commenced. The study also monitored specific microbial species, including total coliforms, Escherichia coli (as indicator organisms), Shigella, and Klebsiella in some of the harvested crops (beetroot, tomato, and spinach). However, none of the analysed crops exhibited the presence of the studied microorganisms. Overall, the study concludes that indirectly recharged GW using STW is a better sustainable and safe irrigation alternative compared to direct wastewater use or extracted hard GW from deep aquifers.

The biochemical properties of Rosmarinus officinalis L. affected by irrigation water amount and quality

Water deficiency, especially in the arid and semi-arid areas, necessitates the proper water use and recycling. The objective was to investigate the effects of deficit irrigation as well as treated wastewater on the biochemical properties of Rosmarinus officinalis L., grown in the arid area of Iranshahr, Iran. A split-split plot design on the basis of a complete randomized block design with three replicates was conducted in 2017. Irrigation water treatments of (I1 = 100% of field capacity, FC), 75% of FC (I2), and 50% of FC (I3) as main plots, reduced (S1), and partial irrigation (S2), as sub-plots, and well water (Q1), treated wastewater (Q2), and the combination of Q1 and Q2 (Q3, 50% + 50%), as sub-sub plots, were tested. Plant biochemical properties including proline (Pr), soluble sugars (SS), and essential oil volume (V) and yield (Y) as well as water use efficiency (WUE) were determined. The I2, treatment, compared with I1, increased Pr, SS, V, Y and WUE by 34.4, 31.9, 52.6, 34.3, and 48.1%, respectively. The S2 treatment also increased plant biochemical properties more than 45% related to S1, and Q2 significantly enhanced the measured parameters compared with Q1 and Q3. Treated wastewater improved the essential oil yield of the plant in water deficit conditions. Accordingly, under deficit water conditions, treatment I2S2, and in the case of unfavorable water sources and deficit water conditions, treatment I2Q2 are recommendable to alleviate water stress and improve the biochemical properties of Rosmarinus officinalis L. in the arid areas.

Microbial indicators in municipal solid waste compost and their fate after land application of compost

Despite the extensive agricultural use of municipal solid waste (MSW) compost, there is little information about microbial characteristics of the MSW compost and fate of microorganisms following land application. This study was designed to determine the microbial quality and germination index (GI) of the MSW compost as well as fate of indicator microorganisms after application of MSW compost. The results showed a high fraction of samples are immature (GI < 80). In 27% and 16% of samples fecal coliforms and Salmonella were detected in a range exceeding the recommended value for unrestricted application of compost, respectively. HAdV was also detected in 62% of samples. Fecal enterococci were detected with relatively high concentrations in all samples and showed higher survival rate than other indicators in land-applied MSW compost. The results showed that climate condition significantly contributed to the decline of indicator bacteria in land-applied compost. The results highlight the need for further quality monitoring of compost to ensure that its application does not lead to environmental or human health problems. Furthermore, because of the high concentrations and high survival rate of enterococci in compost samples, they can be specifically proposed as an indicator microorganism for MSW compost quality monitoring.

Wastewater generation and treatment by various eco-friendly technologies: Possible health hazards and further reuse for environmental safety

The discharge of untreated wastewater as a result of various developmental activities such as urbanization, industrialization and changes in lifestyle poses great threats to aquatic ecosystems as well as humans. Currently, ∼380 billion m³ (380 trillion liters) of wastewater is generated globally every year. Around 70% of freshwater withdrawals are used for agricultural production throughout the world. The wastewater generated through agricultural run-off further pollutes freshwater resources. However, only 24% of the total wastewater generated from households and industries is treated before its disposal in rivers or reused in agriculture. The most problematic contaminants associated with ecological toxicity are heavy metals such as Cd, Cr, Cu, Ni, Zn, Fe, Pb, Hg, As and Mn. One of the most important issues linked with wastewater generation is the residual presence of pathogenic microorganisms which pose potential health hazards to consumers when they enter into the food chain. It is estimated that in India almost USD 600 million (48.60 billion INR) is spent per year to tackle waterborne diseases (WBD). In light of this, immediate action is needed to effectively treat wastewater and develop safer reuse prospects. Various wastewater treatment technologies have been established and they work well to provide an alternative water source to meet the growing demand. The main concern towards treating wastewater is to eliminate inorganic and organic substances and lower the nutrient concentration, total solids, and microbial pathogens to prevent freshwater pollution and health risks.

Impact of water reuse on agricultural practices and human health

Climate change is altering the habits of the population. Extensive drought periods and overuse of potable water led to significant water shortages in many different places. Therefore, new water sources are necessary for usage in applications where the microbiological and chemical water quality demands are less stringent, as for agriculture. In this study, we planted, germinated, and grew vegetables/fruits (cherry tomato, lettuce, and carrot) using three types of potential waters for irrigation: secondary-treated wastewater, chlorine-treated wastewater, and green wall-treated greywater, to observe potential health risks of foodstuff consumption. In this study the waters and crops were analyzed for three taxonomic groups: bacteria, enteric viruses, and protozoa. Enteric viruses, human Norovirus I (hNoVGI) and Enterovirus (EntV), were detected in tomato and carrots irrigated with secondary-treated and chlorine-treated wastewater, in concentrations as high as 2.63 log genome units (GU)/g. On the other hand, Aichi viruses were detected in lettuce. Bacteria and protozoa remained undetected in all fresh produce although being detected in both types of wastewaters. Fresh produce irrigated with green wall-treated greywater were free from the chosen pathogens. This suggests that green wall-treated greywater may be a valuable option for crop irrigation, directly impacting the cities of the future vision, and the circular and green economy concepts. On the other hand, this work demonstrates that further advancement is still necessary to improve reclaimed water to the point where it no longer constitutes risk of foodborne diseases and to human health.

Pollution Characteristics and Health Risk Assessment of Heavy Metals in Agricultural Soils over the Past Five Years in Zhejiang, Southeast China

Heavy metal contamination in agricultural soils has attracted increasing attention in recent years. In this study, 1999 agricultural soil samples were collected from 11 cities in Zhejiang Province from 2016 to 2020, and the spatial and temporal variation characteristics of 3 of the most important heavy metals, i.e., lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and chromium (Cr) were analyzed. The results showed that Cd had a slightly higher sample over-standard rate of 12.06%. Spatial distribution and temporal trends showed that the Pb concentrations overall increased from 2016 to 2020 and mainly accumulated in southern Zhejiang. In addition, multiple exposure routes were evaluated for human health risks. Children are more susceptible to the adverse effects of heavy metals in agricultural soils, and oral ingestion was the major exposure route. Cr poses higher human health risks to humans than Pb and Cd in agricultural soils. Therefore, more rigid environmental monitoring and related soil remediation counter-measures for some sites with high concentrations of heavy metals are necessary to limit the potential threat to human health.

Quantification of human adenovirus in irrigation water-soil-crop continuum: are consumers of wastewater-irrigated vegetables at risk?

Because of health concerns regarding the presence of enteric viruses in wastewater effluents, this study was designed to investigate the occurrence of human adenovirus (HAdV) in the irrigation water-soil-crop continuum. Viral particles were extracted from wastewater and wastewater- or water-irrigated soil and crop samples and analyzed using real-time PCR. Concentration of fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) were also determined. Quantitative microbial risk assessment was performed to determine the HAdV illness risk associated with the consumption of wastewater-irrigated vegetables. HAdV-F was detected in 74% of wastewater effluent samples with a mean concentration of 38 Genomic Copy (GC)/mL. HAdV was also detected in wastewater-irrigated soil (2 × 102 GC/g) and crop (< 10 GC/g) samples, with no statistically significant difference in concentrations between wastewater- and freshwater-irrigated samples. The results showed no correlation between concentrations of FIB and HAdV in the analyzed samples. Mean probability of illness risk from consumption of wastewater-irrigated vegetables was 4 × 10-1 per person per year (pppy) which was about two orders of magnitude higher than the proposed value by WHO (10-3 pppy) for safe reuse of wastewater. This finding suggests that the wastewater reuse for irrigation of vegetables eaten raw could pose a threat to human health with respect to the risk of viral illness, signifying stricter management of wastewater reuse. However, because of uncertainties in the QMRA model, particularly the ratio of infectious to non-infectious virus particles, more data is required to validate the predicted risk. This information is especially important in arid and semi-arid regions where high temperatures, UV radiation intensity, and desiccation can efficiently inactivate microorganisms in the environment.

A systematic review on chlorine tolerance among bacteria and standardization of their assessment protocol in wastewater

Though chlorine is a cost-effective disinfectant for water and wastewaters, the bacteria surviving after chlorination pose serious public health and environmental problems. This review critically assesses the mechanism of chlorine disinfection as described by various researchers; factors affecting chlorination efficacy; and the re-growth potential of microbial contaminations in treated wastewater post chlorination to arrive at meaningful doses for ensuring health safety. Literature analysis shows procedural inconsistencies in the assessment of chlorine tolerant bacteria, making it extremely difficult to compare the tolerance characteristics of different reported tolerant bacteria. A comparison of logarithmic reduction after chlorination and the concentration-time values for prominent pathogens led to the generation of a standard protocol for the assessment of chlorine tolerance. The factors that need to be critically monitored include applied chlorine doses, contact time, determination of chlorine demands of the medium, and the consideration of bacterial counts immediately after chlorination and in post chlorinated samples (regrowth). The protocol devised here appropriately assesses the chlorine-tolerant bacteria and urges the scientific community to report the regrowth characteristics as well. This would increase the confidence in data interpretation that can provide a better understanding of chlorine tolerance in bacteria and aid in formulating strategies for effective chlorination.

Occurrence of viruses in sewage sludge: A systematic review

Enteric viruses are of great importance in wastewater due to their high excretion from infected individuals, low removal in wastewater treatment processes, long-time survival in the environment, and low infectious dose. Among the other viruses, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) surveillance in wastewater systems has received particular attention as a result of the current COVID-19 epidemic. Viruses adhering to solid particles in wastewater treatment processes will end up as sewage sludge, and therefore insufficient sludge treatment may result in viral particles dissemination into the environment. Here, we review data on viruses' presence in sewage sludge, their detection and concentration methods, and information on human health issues associated with sewage sludge land application. We used combinations of the following keywords in the Scopus, Web of Science (WOS), and PubMed databases, which were published between 2010 and January 21th, 2022: sludge (sewage sludge, biosolids, sewage solids, wastewater solids) and virus (enteric virus, viral particles, viral contamination, SARS-CoV-2, coronavirus). The sources were searched twice, once with and then without the common enteric virus names (adenovirus, rotavirus, norovirus, enterovirus, hepatitis A virus). Studies suggest adenovirus and norovirus as the most prevalent enteric viruses in sewage sludge. Indeed, other viruses include rotavirus, hepatitis A virus, and enterovirus were frequently found in sewage sludge samples. Untreated biological sludge and thickened sludge showed more viral contamination level than digested sludge and the lowest prevalence of viruses was reported in lime stabilized sludge. The review reveals that land application of sewage sludge may pose viral infection risks to people due to accidently ingestion of sludge or intake of crops grown in biosolids amended soil. Moreover, contamination of groundwater and/or surface water may occur due to land application of sewage sludge.

Microbial characteristics of municipal solid waste compost: Occupational and public health risks from surface applied compost

Land application of MSW compost promotes the soil fertility and productivity, but there is concern about its chemical and microbial quality. Although, current microbial indicators of MSW compost are generally considered to be protective of human health, the use of these indicators doesn't adequately represent the presence of pathogens that might be more resistant to inactivation during composting process. This work aims evaluation of the microbial characteristics of MSW compost and estimation of the health risks associated with exposure to pathogens of potential concern in MSW compost. Although the recommended standards for fecal coliforms and Salmonella were met in a relatively high percentage of samples, there were detectable levels of microbial pathogens. The highest daily infection risk was estimated for Cryptosporidium (1.25 × 10^-3 per person) followed by Salmonella and Campylobacter, while the lowest related to adenovirus. Infection risks were low for both farmers and children in one-time exposure and all pathogen risks were decreased with increasing waiting time to near insignificant levels. However, the median annual risk of cryptosporidiosis or gastroenteritis was above the recommended value of 10^-3 per person per year. Because of potential presence of pathogens in MSW compost, some level of pathogen monitoring beyond conventional indicators may be required to estimate potential risks. The findings of this study could provide information to governments and local authorities in making decisions on measures to reduce risk from application of MSW compost. Further research is needed to obtain the reliable information about the inactivation of microorganisms in environment.

Are Fresh Water and Reclaimed Water Safe for Vegetable Irrigation? Empirical Evidence from Lebanon

The use of polluted water to irrigate is an increasing problem in the developing world. Lebanon is a case in point, with heavily polluted irrigation waters, particularly in the Litani River Basin. This study evaluated the potential health risks of irrigating vegetables (radishes, parsley, onions, and lettuce) using three water sources (groundwater, river water, and treated wastewater) and three irrigation methods (drip, sprinkler, and surface) over two growing seasons in 2019 and 2020. Water, crop, and soil samples were analyzed for physicochemical parameters, pathogens, and metals (Cu, Cd, Ni, Cr, and Zn). In addition, the bioaccumulation factor, estimated dietary intakes, health risk index, and target hazard quotients were calculated to assess the health risk associated with metal contamination. The study showed that, for water with less than 2 log E. coli CFU/100 mL, no pathogens (Escherichia coli, salmonella, parasite eggs) were detected in irrigated vegetables, irrespective of the irrigation method. With over 2 log E. coli CFU/100 mL in the water, 8.33% of the sprinkler-and surface-irrigated vegetables, and 2.78% of the drip-irrigated root crops (radishes and onions), showed some degree of parasitic contamination. E. coli appeared only on root crops when irrigated with water having over 3 log CFU/100 mL. The concentrations of most metals were significantly lower than the safe limits of the FAO/WHO of the Food Standards Programme Codex, except for zinc and chromium. The trends in the bioaccumulation factor and the estimated dietary intakes of metals were in the order of Cu < Cd < Ni < Cr < Zn. The target hazard quotient values for all metals were lower than 1.0. Under trial conditions, the adoption of drip irrigation with water with less than 3 log E. coli CFU/100 mL proved to be safe, even for vegetables consumed raw, except for root crops such as onions and radishes that should not be irrigated with water having over 2 log E. coli CFU/100 mL. Treated wastewater had no adverse effect on vegetable quality compared to vegetables irrigated with other water sources. These results support efforts to update the Lebanese standards for water reuse in agriculture; standards proposed in 2011 by the FAO, and currently being reviewed by the Lebanese Institution of Standards. This research will inform a sustainable water management policy aimed at protecting the Litani River watershed by monitoring water quality.

Fate of phosphorus from treated wastewater in soil-based constructed wetlands

In France, soil-based constructed wetlands for the discharge of treated wastewater have become a popular technique to both reduce flow to surface receiving water bodies and perform complementary treatments. This study focuses on the fate of phosphorus in three different soils, as well as its assimilation by Phragmites australis. The experimental set-up consisted of three lysimeters containing three soils selected to be representative of those typically found near wastewater treatment plants (i.e. a silt loam Fluvisol, a sandy loam Fluvisol and a sandy-clay loam Technosol). Lysimeters are undisturbed soil monoliths (1.5 m³ in volume), whose masses are continuously monitored in order to obtain an accurate water mass balance. The lysimeters here were intermittently fed for 3.5 days and then left to rest for 3.5 days. The experiment lasted 26 months, including 18 months of feeding with phosphorus (PO₄-P, TP) fluxes in and out being monitored along with water content, oxygen content and redox potential at various depths. The quantities of phosphorus stored in the soils and assimilated in the Phragmites australis were measured. Phosphorus fractionation in soils was performed to better understand its distribution and potential remobilization. Low phosphate concentrations were measured at the outlets of all three lysimeters, thereby highlighting satisfactory phosphorus retention in the three soils (removal efficiencies >90%). A significant amount of phosphorus can be exported by harvesting Phragmites australis aerial parts (26%, 17% and 13% of the yearly incoming phosphorus mass for the silt loam Fluvisol, sandy loam Fluvisol and sandy-clay loam Technosol, respectively). The fractionation step served to determine that the phosphorus retained in the soil was primarily bound to iron oxides/hydroxides, calcium and clay. Moreover, it was found to be preferable to hold oxidizing (aerobic) conditions and pH close to neutral in order to maintain conditions under which the complexes formed with phosphorus remain stable.

The effects of reclaimed water irrigation on the soil characteristics and microbial populations of plant rhizosphere

In this paper, the effects of irrigation with different water qualities on the soil characteristics of 8 kinds of garden plants were analyzed. The results showed that soil pH (ranging at 7.76-8.73) had no significant difference in different soils compared with the contrast treatment. Under the reclaimed water irrigation, the content of soil total salinity, chloride ions, and water soluble sodium in soil of most plants was averagely 160.3%, 83.3%, and 67.5% higher than that of tap water, respectively. The influences of reclaimed water irrigation on soil nutrients were changed with the types of plants. The content of soil organic matter and the available potassium showed no significant differences in most plants. Compared with the tap water irrigation, the content of alkaline nitrogen in 5 plants increased (averagely 25.8%) after 5-year irrigation with reclaimed water. In terms of soil microorganism, the increase of soil microbial population, including bacteria, fungus and actinomycetes, has been promoted by different levels of reclaimed water irrigation, which is closely related with soil nutrients.

Treated livestock wastewater influence on soil quality and possibilities of crop irrigation

This work aims to investigate how livestock wastewater irrigation affects the quality and agricultural potential of soil. The experiments took place in 2019 on a research station with an area of 10 ha (Moscow region, Russian Federation), divided into two even sites of 5 ha (control, experimental). Eleven germination experiments were carried out to determine the influence of livestock wastewater irrigation on radish seeds (1 – control; 10 – irrigation with liquid and solid phases of wastewater samples mixed with pure water). The experimental and control plots appeared to differ in terms of the bulk density of soil. Changes occurred in all horizons (p ≤ 0.05) but a soil layer with a depth of 0.2–0.4 m. Soil horizons in the experiment plots all exhibited lower porosity (p ≤ 0.05) except for the topsoil, and the water capacity was higher in the topsoil (p ≤ 0.05) and near-surface layer (p ≤ 0.05). The experiment showed higher concentrations of hummus (p ≤ 0.01) and phosphorus (p ≤ 0.01). As for nitrogen, significant changes only occurred in the topsoil (p ≤ 0.01). In the germination experiments, more than 90% of radish seeds germinated. Besides, their root length was higher compared to the control (p ≤ 0.05). The results of the study suggest that livestock wastewater can benefit crop cultivation after preliminary treatment. Finally, the experiments revealed a reduced soil salt accumulation.

Antibiotic resistance and class 1 integron genes distribution in irrigation water-soil-crop continuum as a function of irrigation water sources

The increasing demand for fresh water coupled with the need to recycle water and nutrients has witnessed a global increase in wastewater irrigation. However, the development of antibiotic resistance hotspots in different environmental compartments, as a result of wastewater reuse is becoming a global health concern. The effect of irrigation water sources (wastewater, surface water, fresh water) on the presence and abundance of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) (bla_CTX-m-32, tet-W, sul1, cml-A, and erm-B) and class 1 integrons (intI1) were investigated in the irrigation water-soil-crop continuum using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). Sul1 and bla_CTX-m-32 were the most and least abundant ARGs in three environments, respectively. The abundance of ARGs and intI1 significantly decreased from wastewater to surface water and then fresh water. However, irrigation water sources had no significant effect on the abundance of ARGs and intI1 in soil and crop samples. Principal component analysis (PCA) showed that UV index and air temperature attenuate the abundance of ARGs and intI1 in crop samples whereas the air humidity and soil electrical conductivity (EC) promotes the ARGs and intI1. So that the climate condition of semi-arid regions significantly affects the abundance of ARGs and intI1 in crop samples. The results suggest that treated wastewater might be safely reused in agricultural practice in semi-arid regions without a significant increase of potential health risks associated with ARGs transfer to the food chain. However, further research is needed for understanding and managing ARGs transfer from the agricultural ecosystem to humans through the food chain.

Heavy metal accumulation and genotoxic effect of long-term wastewater irrigated peri-urban agricultural soils in semiarid climate

Water scarcity is becoming an alarming issue in the Mediterranean countries. Therefore, using the treated wastewater in the irrigation is considered as a valuable option. However, uncontrolled and long-term irrigation by wastewater leads to human health and environmental damages, mainly related to some specific pollutants. The assessment of the availability and toxicity of the heavy metals after long term irrigation, under semi-arid climate, is not yet well documented. In this study, physicochemical properties, genotoxicity (Vicia faba micronucleus test), total and available (CaCl₂-extractable) concentrations of Cr, Pb, Cu, Zn, Co and Cd in eight soils of peri-urban farms irrigated with wastewater were examined to evaluate their accumulation. The results indicated that long-term irrigation with wastewater induced significant increase of electrical conductivity, organic matter, calcium carbonate equivalent and nutrient availability. Total and available concentration of heavy metals were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in irrigated soils by wastewater. The total concentrations of Zn, Pb, Cu, Cr, Cd and Co in irrigated soils by wastewater at 0-40 cm depth were 85.69, 43.94, 34.86, 14.62, 9.94 and 7.17 mg kg^-1, respectively. Furthermore, the increase of the available metal fraction in irrigated soils by wastewater at 0-40 cm depth followed the following order: Co (1270.1%) > Cd (914.5%) > Cu (881.5%) > Cr (471.2%) > Pb (230.8%) > Zn (223.8%). The micronucleus assay indicated significant increase of micronucleus frequencies (41.25‰, 35.48‰, 21.66‰, 16.23‰ and 13.62‰ respectively for P1, P2, P3, P4 and P7) which were higher than the negative control (0‰) and the irrigated soil by fresh water (3.29‰). The micronucleus induction was significantly correlated with the high available fraction of Cd, Co and Zn at P1, P2 and P7. The genotoxicity can be a powerful test to assess the ecological effects associated with the interactions of heavy metals with other pollutants.

An experimental investigation on phytoremediation performance of water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.) for pollutants removal from paper mill effluent

The present study describes the phytoremediation performance of water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes L.) for physicochemical pollutants elimination from paper mill effluent (PME). For this, pot (glass aquarium) experiments were conducted using 0% (BWW: borewell water), 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% treatments of PME under natural day/light regime. Results of the experiments showed that the highest removal of pH (10.75%), electrical conductivity (EC: 63.82%), total dissolved solids (TDS: 71.20%) biological oxygen demand (BOD: 85.03%), chemical oxygen demand (COD: 80.46%), total Kjeldahl's nitrogen (TKN: 93.03%), phosphorus (P: 85.56%), sodium (Na: 91.89%), potassium (K: 84.04%), calcium (Ca: 84.75%), and magnesium (Mg: 83.62%), most probable number (MPN: 77.63%), and standard plate count (SPC: 74.43%) was noted in 75% treatment of PME after treatment by P. stratiotes. PCA showed the best vector length for TKN, Na, and Ca. The maximum plant growth parameters including, total fresh biomass (81.30 ± 0.28 g), chlorophyll content (3.67 ± 0.05 mg g^-1  f.wt), and relative growth rate (0.0051 gg^-1  d^-1 ) was also measured in 75% PME treatment after phytoremediation experiments. The findings of this study make useful insight into the biological management of PME through plant-based pollutant eradication while leftover biomass may be used as a feedstock for low-cost bioenergy production. PRACTITIONER POINTS: Biological treatment of paper mill effluent using water lettuce is presented. Best reduction of physicochemical and microbiological pollutants was attained in 75% treatment. Maximum production of chlorophyll, plant biomass, and highest growth rate was also observed in 75% treatment.

Tracking antibiotic resistance genes and class 1 integrons in Escherichia coli isolates from wastewater and agricultural fields

Considering high concentrations of multidrug-resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs) in wastewater, agricultural reuse of treated wastewater may be a public health threat due to ARG dissemination in different environmental compartments, including soil and edible parts of crops. We investigated the presence of antibiotic-resistant Escherichia coli as an indicator bacterium from secondary treated wastewater (STWW), water- or wastewater-irrigated soil and crop samples. ARGs including bla_CTX-m-32, bla_OXA-23, tet-W, sul1, cml-A, erm-B, along with intI1 gene in E. coli isolates were detected via molecular methods. The most prevalent ARGs in 78 E. coli isolates were sul1 (42%), followed by bla_CTX-m-32 (19%), and erm-B (17%). IntI1 as a class 1 integrons gene was detected in 46% of the isolates. Cml-A was detected in STWW isolates but no E. coli isolate from wastewater-irrigated soil and crop samples contained this gene. The results also showed no detection of E. coli in water-irrigated soil and crop samples. Statistical analysis showed a correlation between sul1 and cml-A with intI1. The results suggest that agricultural reuse of wastewater may contribute to the transmission of antibiotic-resistant bacteria to soil and crop. Further research is needed to determine the potential risk of ARB associated with the consumption of wastewater-irrigated crops.

Impact of Irrigation with Treated Domestic Wastewater on Squash (Cucurbita pepo L.) Fruit and Seed under Semi-Arid Conditions

The present study investigated the effect of using municipal treated wastewater in irrigation on plant growth and seed quality of squash as compared to fresh water. The physico-chemical properties of both water sources were investigated. Soil, fruits and seeds were tested for heavy metals presence and accumulation. A number of seed composition parameters were also measured. Growth parameters (fruit length, diameter and oven-dried weight) were increased in response to irrigation with treated wastewater as compared to control. All tested heavy metals concentrations were below the toxic limit of the Jordanian standards. Crude protein content was highest (41.28%) in naked seeds under treated wastewater treatment, whereas the lowest content (33.57%) was under freshwater treatment of the whole seeds.

COVID-19 infection risk from exposure to aerosols of wastewater treatment plants

Fecal shedding of SARS-CoV-2 from COVID-19 patients and presence of the viral RNA in wastewater have extensively been reported. Some wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) processes generate aerosols which have the potential to transmit pathogenic microorganisms and present a health risk for exposed individuals. We analyzed the presence of viral RNA of SARS-CoV-2 in raw wastewater and air samples of WWTPs. The risk that may arise from exposure to virus-contaminated aerosols of wastewater was estimated by developing a quantitative microbial risk analysis (QMRA) method. SARS-CoV-2 was detected in 9 of 24 (37.5%) wastewater samples with a concentration about 104 genomic copies L-1. The viral RNA was also detected in 40% (6/15) of air samples. QMRA analysis showed a relatively high risk of SARS-CoV-2 infection for wastewater workers via exposure to the viral aerosols. The estimated annual infection risk ranged from 1.1 × 10-2 to 2.3 × 10-2 per person per year (PPPY) for wastewater workers which was higher than the reference level recommended by WHO (10-3 pppy). However, due to the lack of data on survival of SARS-CoV-2 in wastewater and its fate in aerosolized state, more research is needed to determine the importance of wastewater in transmission of COVID-19.

Treated Wastewater Irrigation—A Review

As the most important resource for life, water has been a central issue on the international agenda for several decades. Yet, the world’s supply of clean freshwater is steadily decreasing due to extensive agricultural demand for irrigated lands. Therefore, water resources should be used with greater efficiency, and the use of non-traditional water resources, such as Treated Wastewater (TW), should be increased. Reusing TW could be an alternative option to increase water resources. Thus, many countries have decided to turn wastewater into an irrigation resource to help meet urban demand and address water shortages. However, because of the nature of that water, there are potential problems associated with its use in irrigation. Some of the major concerns are health hazards, salinity build-up, and toxicity hazards. The objectives of this comprehensive literature review are to illuminate the importance of using TW in irrigation as an alternative freshwater source and to assess the effects of its use on soil fertility and other soil properties, plants, and public health. The literature review reveals that TW reuse has become part of the extension program for boosting water resource utilization. However, the uncontrolled application of such waters has many unfavorable effects on both soils and plants, especially in the long-term. To reduce these unfavorable effects when using TW in irrigation, proper guidelines for wastewater reuse and management should be followed to limit negative effects significantly.

Treated wastewater reuse for irrigation: Pros and cons

The appropriateness of using treated wastewater for crop or agricultural irrigation remains a bone of contention among experts and policymakers. Here, we outline and analyze not only the benefits but also the drawbacks of such a practice in order to suggest a way forward. To ensure that our review reflects the state-of-the-art in terms of technological advances and best practices, only literature published in the last decade is considered except for literature on the history of reuse. The review begins by highlighting growing water scarcity, the history of wastewater reuse in agriculture, and the limitations of existing studies. A short overview of the approach used in the write-up is outlined after the introduction. It then proceeds with an in-depth look at three broad areas: environmental impacts, public health impacts, and economic impacts. In terms of environmental impacts, effects on soil quality, water resources, plant growth, and soil microbial communities are analyzed. For each sub-area, the positive effects are described before the negative ones. The same approach is then applied to public health impacts, the focus of which is on human exposure to heavy metals and pathogens, and economic impacts, which are assessed with particular reference to investment cost, financial benefit to wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), farm expenditure and income. Having weighed the advantages and disadvantages in each area, innovative measures are proposed for optimizing the benefits and mitigating the drawbacks of using treated wastewater for crop irrigation. Special consideration was given to contaminants of emerging concern and the known or perceived environmental and health risks associated with these contaminants.

Combined ultrasound-ozone treatment for reutilization of primary effluent-a preliminary study

The present work is a preliminary study on the potential of low-frequency ultrasound irradiation coupled with O₃ process for the disinfection of a primary effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant preserving nutrient levels (in particular nitrogen and phosphorous), for its possible reuse in civil, industrial, and agricultural sectors. The treated water could be reused, after appropriate dilution, contributing to the circular economy perspective and reducing the need for both chemical fertilizer addition and freshwater supply. The effect of different specific ultrasonic energies and ozone doses was assessed on a bench-top system, composed of an ultrasonic reactor and a semi-batch ozonation vessel. The results showed that the combined US-O₃ process produces a good removal efficiency regarding soluble Chemical Oxygen Demand, sCOD (ca. 60%), anionic surfactants (ca. 50%), and formaldehyde (ca. 50%), and an optimal abatement for Methylene Blue Active Substances (MBAS, > 90%). The process also reached high disinfection performances, obtaining 4 logs for E. coli and 5 log abatement for Total Coliforms. The high removal efficiency is matched by an outstanding retention of nutrients (total nitrogen and orthophosphate) highlighting a high potential value for agricultural reuse of the treated primary effluent, with possible significant saving of chemical fertilizers. It was concluded that low-frequency ultrasound pre-treatment, combined with ozonation, could be a useful process for primary effluent recovery for several purposes. Further studies are expected to be planned and executed to evaluate system scale-up feasibility.

Development and Application of a Predictive Model for Treated Wastewater Irrigation Management in a Semiarid Area

The use of treated wastewater (TWW) as an alternative resource to fresh water (FW) for irrigation purposes is becoming increasingly important, especially in semiarid and arid regions. However, achieving success in crop production largely depends on the adoption of appropriate on-farm management strategies aimed at optimizing crop yields, maintaining soil productivity and safeguarding the environment. For this purpose, predictive models are of particular interest. A safe irrigation management (SIM) model developed and tested in this research was used to schedule irrigation under controlled management tailored to the use of 1) TWW and 2) FW and to reproduce farmers' strategies. These management strategies aim to improve actual irrigation practices, accounting for water quality, soil characteristics, and crop yield. The results of the application of SIM on a citrus farm in Souss-Massa, Morocco, show that the management strategy adopted by farmers withdraws considerable amounts of water and results in substantial drainage volumes compared to those in the SIM strategy. In the specific case of TWW, the strategy simulated by the SIM model resulted in a decrease in yield of approximately 4%, compared to the 23% decrease derived from the farmers' traditional strategy. Moreover, SIM allowed for great savings in terms of fertilizing elements and for the reduction in the movement of water and salts beyond the root zone, usually considered the main source of groundwater contamination. These results confirm the appropriateness of using prediction models and the accuracy of the SIM model in adapting irrigation strategies to TWW, which will be an integral part of the strategies that encourage their use in irrigated agriculture. Integr Environ Assess Manag 2020;16:910-919. © 2020 SETAC.

Water Scarcity and Wastewater Reuse in Crop Irrigation

Due to climate change, two-thirds of mankind will face water scarcity by 2025, while by 2050, global food production must increase by at least 50% to feed 9 billion people. To overcome water scarcity, 15 million m3/day of untreated wastewater is used globally for crop irrigation, polluting the soil with pathogens, heavy metals and excess salts. Since 10% of the global population consumes food from crops irrigated with wastewater, pathogens transmitted through the food chain cause diseases especially in young children and women. In this paper, we discuss the status of water scarcity and the challenges to food security, the reuse of wastewater in agriculture and the possible risks to human and environmental health. The efficiency of different irrigation systems in limiting the risks of wastewater reuse and the latest regulations of the European Commission on effluent recovery are also presented. Hence, we emphasize that irrigation offers real perspectives for large-scale recovery of wastewater, helping to reduce the deficit and conserve water resources, and increasing food safety, with the express mention that investments must be made in wastewater treatment plants and wastewater must be properly treated before recovery, to limit the risks on human health and the environment.

Earthworm Eisenia andrei modulates oxidative stress in bean plants Vicia faba irrigated with treated wastewater

With respect to reducing the pressure on freshwater resources, treated wastewater (TWW) irrigation represents a sustainable alternative in agriculture. Due to their low quality and variable composition, TWW could entail harmful consequences for living organisms in terrestrial ecosystems. This study aims to evaluate how earthworm (Eisenia andrei) can modulate oxidative stress in bean plants (Vicia faba) that are irrigated over a course of 60 days with two doses of TWW (50 and 100%) in addition to a control condition (0%) irrigated with distilled water. This is achieved by measuring glutathione-S-transferase (GST) activity and malondialdehyde accumulation (MDA) in plants. Furthermore, catalase (CAT), GST, MDA, and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) activities of the earthworms are also assessed. Our results show that growth and physiological parameters are modified when applying TWW irrigation. Moreover, oxidative stress apprehended by GST activity and MDA accumulation is exacerbated in V. faba plants after exposure to increased TWW doses. Similarly, TWW irrigation enhances oxidative stress parameters in earthworms with a crucial decrease in AChE activity. In addition, the presence of earthworms increases growth and physiological parameters; it also results in a significant reduction in GST activity and MDA rate in V. faba plants. Our results provide new insights into the impact of TWW irrigation on soil organisms and the importance of earthworms in the reduction of oxidative stress in plants.

Seasonal variations of soil phosphorus and associated fertility indicators in wastewater-irrigated urban aridisol

Use of wastewater is known to provide nutrients for crop plants, but its potential to improve phosphorus (P) availability in semi-arid regions is poorly understood. In this study, seasonal changes in soil P availability as well as associated phyiscochemical and biochemical indicators were investigated from the wastewater irrigated urban soils of Faisalabad, Pakistan. Soil sampling was carried out during summer and winter season from four wastewater irrigated sites of varied stream flow i.e. upstream wastewater (UWW), midstream wastewater (MWW), lowerstream wastewater (LWW) and downstream wastewater (DWW), and canal water irrigation (CWI) as a reference site. Across seasons, MWW site had significantly higher soil organic carbon (SOC), water extractable organic carbon (WEOC), microbial biomass carbon (MBC), microbial biomass phosphorus (MBP) as well as the availability of phosphorus i.e. NaHCO₃-P and H₂O-P compared to CWI site. In both sampling seasons, MWW site also recorded significantly higher soil enzyme activities compared to the rest of wastewater sites. Moreover, significantly higher total P and electrical conductivity (EC) of soil was noticed at DWW site across both summer and winter seasons. Biplot principle component analysis also indicated seasonally a stronger shift in soil total P and EC at DWW site. On the other hand, availability of P was closely related to soil active carbon pools at MWW site. However, buildup of soil salinity particularly at DWW site along with lower P availability and associated changes in other soil properties, call for careful assessment of wastewater use in these urban soils.

Investigating the endophytic bacterial diversity and community structures in seeds of genetically related maize (Zea mays L.) genotypes

This research aimed to investigate the composition and diversity of endophytic bacterial community in seeds of four hybrid maize and their parental lines, which was used to reveal the potential relationship and association of endophytic bacteria between maize genotypes and their genetic relevance. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) technology showed that a total of 1419 OTUs (46.6%) were parental lines unique and 1052 OTUs (34.5%) were hybrid varieties unique, with only 575 core OTUs revealed in all the samples. Most OTUs belonged to Proteobacteria. Enterobacter (23.2%), Shigella (21.2%), Pseudomonas (15.8%) and Achromobacter (10.1%) were the major genera; the bacterial community composition and diversity of endophytic bacteria were inconsistent among different seed genotypes. Based on principal component analysis (PCA), the results referred that the endophytic composition of hybrid sample showed obvious correlation with their female parental lines, and in 'Jingke968' and 'MC738' with the same female line the endophytic community was more similar than other hybrid samples. This was the first ever use of HTS technology for investigating the endophytic bacterial diversity and community structures in seeds of genetically related maize genotypes, it was shown that, there were core microbes shared among all genotypes of seed samples, and the female parental line was more significant to impact on the composition of their hybrid seeds than male parental line. This study would provide scientific clues for the future research on the vertical transmission of endophytes among maize generations.

Health effects associated with wastewater treatment, reuse, and disposal

This paper highlights the review of scientific literature published in the year 2018 on issues related to health risks associated with human and the general environment on the reuse of wastewater, treatment as well as disposal. The literature review on the above issues divided into number of sections, and these sections include management of wastewater, wastewater reuse with focus on microbial hazards, and chemical hazards. Further, the review also provides some recent research related to wastewater treatment plants, disposal of wastewater, sludge, and biosolids management. PRACTITIONER POINTS: This paper highlights the review of scientific literature published in the year 2018. Review provide issues related to health risks associated with human and the general environment on the reuse of wastewater, treatment as well as disposal. Literature review covers selected papers relevant to the topic.

Anaerobic submerged membrane bioreactor (AnSMBR) treating municipal wastewater at ambient temperature: Operation and potential use for agricultural irrigation

A 496 L pilot scale anaerobic submerged membrane bioreactor (AnSMBR) for the treatment of municipal wastewater was evaluated during a year of stable operation at ambient (28-10 °C) temperature, and inoculated with mesophilic inoculum. The temperature was the main parameter affecting the process performance. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) of the effluent was around 150 mg O₂/L in the summer period, operating with a volumetric loading rate (VLR) of 5 kg COD/m³ d and hydraulic retention time (HRT) of 8-10 h, with a specific methane production between 0.09 and 0.14 Nm³/kg COD_removed. However, during the winter season, an important increase of effluent COD was observed, and therefore the VLR was decreased to values around 1 kg COD/m³ d in order to recover the quality of the effluent. Biogas production was negligible in this period. The effluent complies with the parameters stipulated by Spanish law regarding the use of treated wastewater for agricultural irrigation.

Uptake and accumulation of emerging contaminants in soil and plant treated with wastewater under real-world environmental conditions in the Al Hayer area (Saudi Arabia)

In arid and semi-arid areas the use of treated wastewater for crop irrigation and other agricultural practices, such as the use of pesticides, increase the number of emerging contaminants (ECs) in crops. Hazards of these practices to human being are largely unknown since there are few studies yet covering a short range of compounds and most of them under non-realistic conditions. This study aims at assessing this problem that will become global soon in an area of Saudi Arabia heavily affected by the reuse of treated wastewater and pesticide in order to ascertain its scale. The novelty of the study relays in the large number of ECs covered and the variety of crops (cabbage, barley, green beans, eggplants, chili, tomato and zucchini) analysed. Extraction procedure developed provided an appropriate extraction yield (up to 50% of the compounds were recovered within a 70-120% range), with good repeatability (relative standard deviations below 20% in most cases) and sensitivity (LOQ < 25 ng g^-1) for the model compounds. Determination by liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight (LC-QqTOF-MS) is able to identify >2000 contaminants. Sixty-four ECs were identified in wastewater but of the sixty-four compounds, six pharmaceuticals (atenolol, caffeine, carbamazepine and its metabolites 10,11-epoxycarbamazepine, gemfibrozil, and naproxen) and seven pesticides (acetamiprid, atrazine deethyl, azoxystrobin, bupirimate, diazinon, malathion, pirimicarb and some of their metabolites) were detected in plants. Furhermore, one metabolite of the ibuprofen (not detected in water or soil), the ibuprofen hexoside was also found in plants. Up to our knowledge, this study demonstrate for the first time the accumulation of ECs in crops irrigated with treated wastewater under real non-controlled environmental conditions.