Pathogenic Virus Detection by Optical Nanobiosensors

Recent Advances in the Role of Different Nanoparticles in the Various Biosensors for the Detection of the Chikungunya Virus

Humans contract the Chikungunya virus (CHIKV), an alphavirus transmitted by mosquitoes that induces acute and chronic musculoskeletal discomfort and fever. Millions of cases of the disease have been attributed to CHIKV in the Indian Ocean region since 2004, and the virus has since spread to Europe, the Middle East, and the Pacific. The exponential proliferation of CHIKV in recent times underscores the critical nature of implementing preventative measures and exploring potential control strategies. The principal laboratory test employed to diagnose infection in serum samples collected over six days after the onset of symptoms is the detection of CHIKV or viral RNA. Although two commercially available real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction products exist, data on their validity are limited. A diagnostic instrument that is rapid, sensitive, specific, and cost-effective is, therefore an absolute necessity, particularly in developing nations. Biosensors have demonstrated considerable potential in the realm of pathogen detection. The rapid and sensitive detection of viruses has been facilitated by the development of numerous types of biosensors, including affinity-based nano-biosensors, graphene affinity-based biosensors, optical nano-biosensors, surface Plasmon Resonance-based optical nano-biosensors, and electrochemical nano-biosensors. Furthermore, the utilization of nanomaterials for signal extension, including but not limited to gold and silver nanoparticles, quantum dots, and iron oxide NPs, has enhanced the precision and sensitivity of biosensors. The developed innovative diagnostic method is time-efficient, precise, and economical; it can be implemented as a point-of-care device. The technique may be implemented in diagnostic laboratories and hospitals to identify patients infected with CHIKV. Throughout this article, we have examined a multitude of CHIKV nano-biosensors and their respective properties. Following a discussion of representative nanotechnologies for biosensors, numerous NPs-assisted CHIKV nano-biosensors are summarized in this article. As a result, we anticipate that this review will furnish a significant foundation for advancing innovative CHIKV nano-biosensors.

Yeast Surface-Displayed Quenchbody as a Novel Whole-Cell Biosensor for One-Step Detection of Influenza A (H1N1) Virus

Timely surveillance of airborne pathogens is essential to preventing the spread of infectious diseases and safeguard human health. Methods for sensitive, efficient, and cost-effective detection of airborne viruses are needed. With advances in synthetic biology, whole-cell biosensors have emerged as promising platforms for environmental monitoring and medical diagnostics. However, the current design paradigm of whole-cell biosensors is mostly based on intracellular detection of analytes that can transport across the cell membrane, which presents a critical challenge for viral pathogens and large biomolecules. To address this challenge, we developed a new type of whole-cell biosensor by expressing and displaying VHH-based quenchbody (Q-body) on the surface of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae for simple one-step detection of influenza A (H1N1) virus. Seventeen VHH antibody fragments targeting the hemagglutinin protein H1N1-HA were displayed on the yeast cells and screened for the H1N1-HA binding affinity. The functionally displayed VHHs were selected to create surface-displayed Q-body biosensors. The surface-displayed Q-body exhibiting the highest quenching and dequenching efficiency was identified. The biosensor quantitatively detected H1N1-HA in a range from 0.5 to 16 μg/mL, with a half-maximal concentration of 2.60 μg/mL. The biosensor exhibited high specificity for H1N1-HA over other hemagglutinin proteins from various influenza A virus subtypes. Moreover, the biosensor succeeded in detecting the H1N1 virus at concentrations from 2.4 × 104 to 1.5 × 107 PFU/mL. The results from this study demonstrated a new whole-cell biosensor design that circumvents the need for transport of analytes into biosensor cells, enabling efficient detection of the target virus particles.

An Fe3O4-Au heterodimer nanoparticle-based lateral flow assay for rapid and simultaneous detection of multiple influenza virus nucleic acids

Sensitive, convenient and rapid detection and subtyping of influenza viruses are crucial for timely treatment and management of infected people. Compared with antigen detection, nucleic acid detection has higher specificity and can shorten the detection window. Hence, in this work, we improved the lateral flow assay (LFA, one of the most promising user-friendly and on-site methods) to achieve detection and subtyping of H1N1, H3N2 and H9N2 influenza virus nucleic acids. Firstly, the antigen-antibody recognition mode was transformed into a nucleic acid hybridization reaction. Secondly, Fe3O4-Au heterodimer nanoparticles were prepared to replace frequently used Au nanoparticles to obtain better coloration. Thirdly, four lines were arranged on the LFA strip, which were three test (T) lines and one control (C) line. Three T lines were respectively sprayed by the DNA sequences complementary to one end of H1N1, H3N2 and H9N2 influenza virus nucleic acids, while Fe3O4-Au nanoparticles were respectively coupled with the DNA sequences complementary to the other end of H1N1, H3N2 and H9N2 nucleic acids to construct three kinds of probes. The C line was sprayed by the complementary sequences to the DNAs on all three kinds of probes. In the detection, by hybridization reaction, the probes were combined with their target nucleic acids which were captured by the corresponding T lines to form color bands. Finally, according to the position of the color bands and their grey intensity, simultaneous qualitative and semi-quantitative detection of the three influenza virus nucleic acids was realized. The detection results showed that this multi-channel LFA had good specificity, and there was no significant cross reactivity among the three subtypes of influenza viruses. The simultaneous detection achieved comparable detection limits with individual detections. Therefore, this multi-channel LFA had good application potential for sensitive and rapid detection and subtyping of influenza viruses.

Nanomaterial-based sensors for microbe detection: a review

Airborne microorganisms pose a significant health threat, causing various illnesses. Traditional detection methods are often slow and complex. This review highlights the potential of nanomaterial-based biosensors, particularly colorimetric sensors, for rapid and on-site detection of airborne microbes. Colorimetric sensors offer real-time visual detection without complex instrumentation. We explore the integration of these sensors with Lab-on-a-Chip technology using PDMS microfluidics. This review also proposes a novel PDMS-based colorimetric biosensor for real-time detection of airborne microbes. The sensor utilizes a color change phenomenon easily observable with the naked eye, simplifying analysis and potentially enabling point-of-care applications.

The Development of a Specific Nanofiber Bioreceptor for Detection of Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus from Air

Polluted air and the presence of numerous airborne pathogens affect our daily lives. The sensitive and fast detection of pollutants and pathogens is crucial for environmental monitoring and effective medical diagnostics. Compared to conventional detection methods (PCR, ELISA, metabolic tests, etc.), biosensors bring a very attractive possibility to detect chemicals and organic particles with the mentioned reliability and sensitivity in real time. Moreover, by integrating nanomaterials into the biosensor structure, it is possible to increase the sensitivity and specificity of the device significantly. However, air quality monitoring could be more problematic even with such devices. The greatest challenge with conservative and sensing methods for detecting organic matter such as bacteria is the need to use liquid samples, which slows down the detection procedure and makes it more difficult. In this work, we present the development of a polyacrylonitrile nanofiber bioreceptor functionalized with antibodies against bacterial antigens for the specific interception of bacterial cells directly from the air. We tested the presented novel nanofiber bioreceptor using a unique air filtration system we had previously created. The prepared antibody-functionalized nanofiber membranes for air filtration and pathogen detection (with model organisms E. coli and S. aureus) show a statistically significant increase in bacterial interception compared to unmodified nanofibers. Creating such a bioreceptor could lead to the development of an inexpensive, fast, sensitive, and incredibly selective bionanosensor for detecting bacterial polluted air in commercial premises or medical facilities.

Recent advances in nanomaterial-based biosensor for periodontitis detection

Periodontitis, a chronic inflammatory condition caused by bacteria, often causes gradual destruction of the components that support teeth, such as the alveolar bone, cementum, periodontal ligament, and gingiva. This ultimately results in teeth becoming loose and eventually falling out. Timely identification has a crucial role in preventing and controlling its progression. Clinical measures are used to diagnose periodontitis. However, now, there is a hunt for alternative diagnostic and monitoring methods due to the progress of technology. Various biomarkers have been assessed using multiple bodily fluids as sample sources. Furthermore, conventional periodontal categorization factors do not provide significant insights into the present disease activity, severity and amount of tissue damage, future development, and responsiveness to treatment. In recent times, there has been a growing utilization of nanoparticle (NP)-based detection strategies to create quick and efficient detection assays. Every single one of these platforms leverages the distinct characteristics of NPs to identify periodontitis. Plasmonic NPs include metal NPs, quantum dots (QDs), carbon base NPs, and nanozymes, exceptionally potent light absorbers and scatterers. These find application in labeling, surface-enhanced spectroscopy, and color-changing sensors. Fluorescent NPs function as photostable and sensitive instruments capable of labeling various biological targets. This article presents a comprehensive summary of the latest developments in the effective utilization of various NPs to detect periodontitis.

Signal-Amplified Nanobiosensors for Virus Detection Using Advanced Nanomaterials

Rapid diagnosis and treatment of infectious illnesses are crucial for clinical outcomes and public health. Biosensing developments enhance diagnostics at the point of care. This is superior to traditional procedures, which need centralized lab facilities, specialized personnel, and large equipment. The emerging coronavirus epidemic threatens global health and economic security. Increasing viral surveillance and regulatory actions against disease transmission necessitate rapid, sensitive testing tools for viruses. Due to their sensitivity and specificity, biosensors offer a possible reliable and quantifiable viral detection method. Current advances in genetic engineering, such as genetic alteration and material engineering, have provided several opportunities to enhance biosensors' sensitivity, selectivity, and recognition efficiency. This chapter explains biosensing techniques, biosensor varieties, and signal amplification technologies. Challenges and potential developments for viral microorganisms based on biosensors and signal amplification were also investigated.

Emerging Applications of Nanobiosensors in Pathogen Detection in Water and Food

Food and waterborne illnesses are still a major concern in health and food safety areas. Every year, almost 0.42 million and 2.2 million deaths related to food and waterborne illness are reported worldwide, respectively. In foodborne pathogens, bacteria such as Salmonella, Shiga-toxin producer Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, and Listeria monocytogenes are considered to be high-concern pathogens. High-concern waterborne pathogens are Vibrio cholerae, leptospirosis, Schistosoma mansoni, and Schistosima japonicum, among others. Despite the major efforts of food and water quality control to monitor the presence of these pathogens of concern in these kinds of sources, foodborne and waterborne illness occurrence is still high globally. For these reasons, the development of novel and faster pathogen-detection methods applicable to real-time surveillance strategies are required. Methods based on biosensor devices have emerged as novel tools for faster detection of food and water pathogens, in contrast to traditional methods that are usually time-consuming and are unsuitable for large-scale monitoring. Biosensor devices can be summarized as devices that use biochemical reactions with a biorecognition section (isolated enzymes, antibodies, tissues, genetic materials, or aptamers) to detect pathogens. In most cases, biosensors are based on the correlation of electrical, thermal, or optical signals in the presence of pathogen biomarkers. The application of nano and molecular technologies allows the identification of pathogens in a faster and high-sensibility manner, at extremely low-pathogen concentrations. In fact, the integration of gold, silver, iron, and magnetic nanoparticles (NP) in biosensors has demonstrated an improvement in their detection functionality. The present review summarizes the principal application of nanomaterials and biosensor-based devices for the detection of pathogens in food and water samples. Additionally, it highlights the improvement of biosensor devices through nanomaterials. Nanomaterials offer unique advantages for pathogen detection. The nanoscale and high specific surface area allows for more effective interaction with pathogenic agents, enhancing the sensitivity and selectivity of the biosensors. Finally, biosensors' capability to functionalize with specific molecules such as antibodies or nucleic acids facilitates the specific detection of the target pathogens.

Optical Biosensors for the Diagnosis of COVID-19 and Other Viruses-A Review

The sudden outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic led to a huge concern globally because of the astounding increase in mortality rates worldwide. The medical imaging computed tomography technique, whole-genome sequencing, and electron microscopy are the methods generally used for the screening and identification of the SARS-CoV-2 virus. The main aim of this review is to emphasize the capabilities of various optical techniques to facilitate not only the timely and effective diagnosis of the virus but also to apply its potential toward therapy in the field of virology. This review paper categorizes the potential optical biosensors into the three main categories, spectroscopic-, nanomaterial-, and interferometry-based approaches, used for detecting various types of viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. Various classifications of spectroscopic techniques such as Raman spectroscopy, near-infrared spectroscopy, and fluorescence spectroscopy are discussed in the first part. The second aspect highlights advances related to nanomaterial-based optical biosensors, while the third part describes various optical interferometric biosensors used for the detection of viruses. The tremendous progress made by lab-on-a-chip technology in conjunction with smartphones for improving the point-of-care and portability features of the optical biosensors is also discussed. Finally, the review discusses the emergence of artificial intelligence and its applications in the field of bio-photonics and medical imaging for the diagnosis of COVID-19. The review concludes by providing insights into the future perspectives of optical techniques in the effective diagnosis of viruses.

Antibody Phage Display Technology for Sensor-Based Virus Detection: Current Status and Future Prospects

Viruses are widespread in the environment, and many of them are major pathogens of serious plant, animal, and human diseases. The risk of pathogenicity, together with the capacity for constant mutation, emphasizes the need for measures to rapidly detect viruses. The need for highly sensitive bioanalytical methods to diagnose and monitor socially significant viral diseases has increased in the past few years. This is due, on the one hand, to the increased incidence of viral diseases in general (including the unprecedented spread of a new coronavirus infection, SARS-CoV-2), and, on the other hand, to the need to overcome the limitations of modern biomedical diagnostic methods. Phage display technology antibodies as nano-bio-engineered macromolecules can be used for sensor-based virus detection. This review analyzes the commonly used virus detection methods and approaches and shows the prospects for the use of antibodies prepared by phage display technology as sensing elements for sensor-based virus detection.

Rapid point-of-care detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA with smartphone-based upconversion luminescence diagnostics

Accurate COVID-19 screening via molecular technologies is still hampered by bulky instrumentation, complicated procedure, high cost, lengthy testing time, and the need for specialized personnel. Herein, we develop point-of-care upconversion luminescence diagnostics (PULD), and a streamlined smartphone-based portable platform facilitated by a ready-to-use assay for rapid SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid (N) gene testing. With the complementary oligo-modified upconversion nanoprobes and gold nanoprobes specifically hybridized with the target N gene, the luminescence resonance energy transfer effect leads to a quenching of fluorescence intensity that can be detected by the easy-to-use diagnostic system. A remarkable detection limit of 11.46 fM is achieved in this diagnostic platform without the need of target amplification, demonstrating high sensitivity and signal-to-noise ratio of the assay. The capability of the developed PULD is further assessed by probing 9 RT-qPCR-validated SARS-CoV-2 variant clinical samples (B.1.1.529/Omicron) within 20 min, producing reliable diagnostic results consistent with those obtained from a standard fluorescence spectrometer. Importantly, PULD is capable of identifying the positive COVID-19 samples with superior sensitivity and specificity, making it a promising front-line tool for rapid, high-throughput screening and infection control of COVID-19 or other infectious diseases.

Interfacial Assembly of Ti3 C2 Tx /ZnIn2 S4 Heterojunction for High-Performance Photodetectors

Two-dimensional (2D) materials have emerged as prospective candidates for electronics and optoelectronics applications as they can be easily fabricated through liquid exfoliation and used to fabricate various structures by further subsequent processing methods in addition to their extraordinary and unique optoelectronic properties. Herein, the Ti3 C2 Tx /ZIS heterostructure with nanometer-thick Ti3 C2 Tx -MXene and ZnIn2 S4 (ZIS) films is fabricated by successive interfacial assembly of liquid exfoliated 2D MXene and ZnIn2 S4 nanoflakes. Benefiting from the superior light-harvesting capability and low dark current of ZnIn2 S4 , the limited absorbance, large scattering coefficient, and high dark current disadvantages of MXene are ameliorated. Meanwhile, the separation and transport of photogenerated carriers in ZnIn2 S4 are improved due to the excellent electrical conductivity of Ti3 C2 Tx nanoflakes. As a result, the as-prepared Ti3 C2 Tx /ZIS heterostructure photodetector has excellent optoelectronic characteristics in terms of a high responsivity of 1.04 mA W-1 , a large specific detectivity up to 1 × 1011  Jones, a huge on/off ratio at around 105 , and an ultralow dark current at ≈10-12  A. This work demonstrates a convenient method to construct heterostructured photodetectors by liquid exfoliated 2D nanoflakes, the as-fabricated Ti3 C2 Tx /ZIS heterostructured photodetectors show promising application potential for low-cost, reliable, and high-performance photodetectors.

Emerging nanophotonic biosensor technologies for virus detection

Highly infectious viral diseases are a serious threat to mankind as they can spread rapidly among the community, possibly even leading to the loss of many lives. Early diagnosis of a viral disease not only increases the chance of quick recovery, but also helps prevent the spread of infections. There is thus an urgent need for accurate, ultrasensitive, rapid, and affordable diagnostic techniques to test large volumes of the population to track and thereby control the spread of viral diseases, as evidenced during the COVID-19 and other viral pandemics. This review paper critically and comprehensively reviews various emerging nanophotonic biosensor mechanisms and biosensor technologies for virus detection, with a particular focus on detection of the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus. The photonic biosensing mechanisms and technologies that we have focused on include: (a) plasmonic field enhancement via localized surface plasmon resonances, (b) surface enhanced Raman scattering, (c) nano-Fourier transform infrared (nano-FTIR) near-field spectroscopy, (d) fiber Bragg gratings, and (e) microresonators (whispering gallery modes), with a particular emphasis on the emerging impact of nanomaterials and two-dimensional materials in these photonic sensing technologies. This review also discusses several quantitative issues related to optical sensing with these biosensing and transduction techniques, notably quantitative factors that affect the limit of detection (LoD), sensitivity, specificity, and response times of the above optical biosensing diagnostic technologies for virus detection. We also review and analyze future prospects of cost-effective, lab-on-a-chip virus sensing solutions that promise ultrahigh sensitivities, rapid detection speeds, and mass manufacturability.

Advances in upconversion luminescence nanomaterial-based biosensor for virus diagnosis

Various infectious viruses have been posing a major threat to global public health, especially SARS-CoV-2, which has already claimed more than six million lives up to now. Tremendous efforts have been made to develop effective techniques for rapid and reliable pathogen detection. The unique characteristics of upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) pose numerous advantages when employed in biosensors, and they are a promising candidate for virus detection. Herein, this Review will discuss the recent advancement in the UCNP-based biosensors for virus and biomarkers detection. We summarize four basic principles that guide the design of UCNP-based biosensors, which are utilized with luminescent or electric responses as output signals. These strategies under fundamental mechanisms facilitate the enhancement of the sensitivity of UCNP-based biosensors. Moreover, a detailed discussion and benefits of applying UCNP in various virus bioassays will be presented. We will also address some obstacles in these detection techniques and suggest routes for progress in the field. These progressions will undoubtedly pose UCNP-based biosensors in a prominent position for providing a convenient, alternative approach to virus detection.

Safety Concerns for the Management of End-of-Life Lithium-Ion Batteries

Lithium-ion battery (LIB) usage is growing dramatically worldwide. Relatedly, there is a need for the management of end-of-life (EOL) LIBs. EOL requires closed-loop systems and supply chains. Although many studies related to managing EOL in closed-loop supply chains exist, one especially pernicious issue is overlooked-safety. This study seeks to address this major safety oversight for EOL LIBs using closed-loop supply chains that are critical to a larger circular economy environment. The evaluation is completed along a technology-organization-environment (TOE) framework; potential research directions for mitigating safety issues are part of the analysis of this study. Specific and general research questions pertaining to secure management of EOL LIBs are put forward to help advance academic research. Practical concerns are also described for policymakers and organizations. This study reveals implications of these questions for the intersection of materials science, supply chain management, and fire-protection engineering.

Multiplexed detection of SARS-CoV-2 based on upconversion luminescence nanoprobe/MXene biosensing platform for COVID-19 point-of-care diagnostics

Multiplexed detection is essential in biomedical sciences since it is more efficient and accurate than single-analyte detection. For an accurate early diagnosis of COVID-19, a multiplexed detection strategy is required to avoid false negatives with the existing gold standard assay. Nb₂CT_x nanosheets were found to efficiently quench the fluorescence emission of lanthanide-doped upconversion luminescence nanoparticles at wavelengths ranging from visible to near-infrared spectrum. Using this broad-spectrum quencher, we developed a label-free FRET-based biosensor for rapid and accurate detection of SARS-CoV-2 RNA. To target ORF and N genes, two types of oligo-modified lanthanide-doped upconversion nanoparticles can be used simultaneously to identify-two sites in one assay via upconversion fluorescence enhancement intensity measurement with detection limits of 15 pM and 914 pM, respectively. Moreover, with multisite cross-validation, this multiplexed and sensitive biosensor is capable of simultaneous and multicolor analysis of two gene fragments of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant within minutes in a single homogeneous solution, which significantly improves the detection efficiency. The diagnosis result via our assay is consistent with the PCR result, demonstrating its application in the rapid and accurate screening of multiple genes of SARS-CoV-2 and other infectious diseases.

Rapid and ultrasensitive detection of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein based on upconversion luminescence biosensor for COVID-19 point-of-care diagnostics

Here, we firstly introduce a detection system consisting of upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) and Au nanorods (AuNRs) for an ultrasensitive, rapid, quantitative and on-site detection of SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein based on Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) effect. Briefly, the UCNPs capture the S protein of lysed SARS-CoV-2 in the swabs and subsequently they are bound with the anti-S antibodies modified AuNRs, resulting in significant nonradiative transitions from UCNPs (donors) to AuNRs (acceptors) at 480 nm and 800 nm, respectively. Notably, the specific recognition and quantitation of S protein can be realized in minutes at 800 nm because of the low autofluorescence and high Yb-Tm energy transfer in upconversion process. Inspiringly, the limit of detection (LOD) of the S protein can reach down to 1.06 fg mL-1, while the recognition of nucleocapsid protein is also comparable with a commercial test kit in a shorter time (only 5 min). The established strategy is technically superior to those reported point-of-care biosensors in terms of detection time, cost, and sensitivity, which paves a new avenue for future on-site rapid viral screening and point-of-care diagnostics.

The Pivotal Role of Quantum Dots-Based Biomarkers Integrated with Ultra-Sensitive Probes for Multiplex Detection of Human Viral Infections

The spread of viral diseases has caused global concern in recent years. Detecting viral infections has become challenging in medical research due to their high infectivity and mutation. A rapid and accurate detection method in biomedical and healthcare segments is essential for the effective treatment of pathogenic viruses and early detection of these viruses. Biosensors are used worldwide to detect viral infections associated with the molecular detection of biomarkers. Thus, detecting viruses based on quantum dots biomarkers is inexpensive and has great potential. To detect the ultrasensitive biomarkers of viral infections, QDs appear to be a promising option as biological probes, while physiological components have been used directly to detect multiple biomarkers simultaneously. The simultaneous measurement of numerous clinical parameters of the same sample volume is possible through multiplex detection of human viral infections, which reduces the time and cost required to record any data point. The purpose of this paper is to review recent studies on the effectiveness of the quantum dot as a detection tool for human pandemic viruses. In this review study, different types of quantum dots and their valuable properties in the structure of biomarkers were investigated. Finally, a vision for recent advances in quantum dot-based biomarkers was presented, whereby they can be integrated into super-sensitive probes for the multiplex detection of human viral infections.

The dichotomy of nanotechnology as the cutting edge of agriculture: Nano-farming as an asset versus nanotoxicity

The unprecedented setbacks and environmental complications, faced by global agro-farming industry, have led to the advent of nanotechnology in agriculture, which has been recognized as a novel and innovative approach in development of sustainable farming practices. The agricultural regimen is the "head honcho" of the world, however presently certain approaches have been imposing grave danger to the environment and human civilization. The nano-farming paradigm has successfully elevated the growth and development of plants, parallel to the production, quality, germination/transpiration index, photosynthetic machinery, genetic progression, and so on. This has optimized the traditional farming into precision farming, utilising nano-based sensors and nanobionics, smart delivery tools, nanotech facets in plant disease management, nanofertilizers, enhancement of plant adaptive potential to external stress, role in bioenergy conservation and so on. These applications portray nanorevolution as "the big cheese" of global agriculture, mitigating the bottlenecks of conventional practices. Besides the applications of nanotechnology, the review identifies the limitations, like possible harmful impact on environment, mankind and plants, as the "Achilles heel" in agro-industry, aiming to establish its defined role in agriculture, while simultaneously considering the risks, in order to resolve them, thus abiding by "technology-yes, but safety-must". The authors aim to provide a significant opportunity to the nanotech researchers, Botanists and environmentalists, to promote judicial use of nanoparticles and establish a secure and safe environment.

Aptamer-Based Lateral Flow Assays: Current Trends in Clinical Diagnostic Rapid Tests

The lateral flow assay (LFA) is an extensively used paper-based platform for the rapid and on-site detection of different analytes. The method is user-friendly with no need for sophisticated operation and only includes adding sample. Generally, antibodies are employed as the biorecognition elements in the LFA. However, antibodies possess several disadvantages including poor stability, high batch-to-batch variation, long development time, high price and need for ethical approval and cold chain. Because of these limitations, aptamers screened by an in vitro process can be a good alternative to antibodies as biorecognition molecules in the LFA. In recent years, aptamer-based LFAs have been investigated for the detection of different analytes in point-of-care diagnostics. In this review, we summarize the applications of aptamer technology in LFAs in clinical diagnostic rapid tests for the detection of biomarkers, microbial analytes, hormones and antibiotics. Performance, advantages and drawbacks of the developed assays are also discussed.

A review on colorimetric assays for DNA virus detection

Early detection is one of the ways to deal with DNA virus widespread prevalence, and it is necessary to know new diagnostic methods and techniques. Colorimetric assays are one of the most advantageous methods in detecting viruses. These methods are based on color change, which can be seen either with the naked eye or with special devices. The aim of this study is to introduce and evaluate effective colorimetric methods based on amplification, nanoparticle, CRISPR/Cas, and Lateral flow in the diagnosis of DNA viruses and to discuss the effectiveness of each of the updated methods. Compared to the other methods, colorimetric assays are preferred for faster detection, high efficiency, cheaper cost, and high sensitivity and specificity. It is expected that the spread of these viruses can be prevented by identifying and developing new methods.

Development of high-resolution melting (HRM) assay to differentiate the species of Shigella isolates from stool and food samples

Shigella species, a group of intracellular foodborne pathogens, are the main causes of bacillary dysentery and shigellosis in humans worldwide. It is essential to determine the species of Shigella in outbreaks and food safety surveillance systems. The available immunological and molecular methods for identifying Shigella species are relatively complicated, expensive and time-consuming. High resolution melting (HRM) assay is a rapid, cost-effective, and easy to perform PCR-based method that has recently been used for the differentiation of bacterial species. In this study, we designed and developed a PCR-HRM assay targeting rrsA gene to distinguish four species of 49 Shigella isolates from clinical and food samples and evaluated the sensitivity and specificity of the assay. The assay demonstrated a good analytical sensitivity with 0.01–0.1 ng of input DNA template and an analytical specificity of 100% to differentiate the Shigella species. The PCR-HRM assay also was able to identify the species of all 49 Shigella isolates from clinical and food samples correctly. Consequently, this rapid and user-friendly method demonstrated good sensitivity and specificity to differentiate species of the Shigella isolates from naturally contaminated samples and has the potential to be implemented in public health and food safety surveillance systems.

One-Step, DNA-Programmed, and Flash Synthesis of Anisotropic Noble Metal Nanostructures on MXene

Precise morphological control over anisotropic noble metal nanoparticles (ANPs) is one of the key issues in the nano-research field owing to their unique optoelectronic, magnetic, mechanical, and catalytic properties. Although nanostructures fabricated by the directed assembly of adsorbate have been widely demonstrated recently, facile yet universal synthesis of nanocrystal with tunable morphologies, green templates, no seeds, and high yield remains challenging. Herein, we develop a versatile method, allowing for the rapid, one-step, seedless, surfactant-free synthesis of a noble metal nanostructure with tunable anisotropy on MXene in a sequence-dependent manner through a single-DNA molecular regulator. Based on the mild reducibility of MXene and the selective affinity of the DNA to the specific facets in the crystals, oriented aggregations and the growth of ANPs (Au, Pt, Pd) can be achieved and the resulting asymmetric morphology from polyhedrons, or flowers, or nanoplates to dendrites is observed. The ability to align such ANPs on the MXene surface is expected to lead to improved photothermal effect and surface-enhanced Raman scattering. Furthermore, our work makes the fabrication of the ANPs or ANP-MXene heterostructure easier, stimulating further explorations of physical, chemical, and biological applications.

Nanotechnology-based Colorimetric Approaches for Pathogenic Virus Sensing: A review

Fast and inexpensive virus identification protocols are paramount to hinder the further extent of pandemic diseases, minimize economic and social damages, and expedite proper clinical rehabilitation. Until now, various biosensors have been fabricated for the identification of pathogenic particles. But, they offer many difficulties. Nanotechnology resolves these difficulties and offers direct identification of pathogenic species in real-time. Among them, nanomaterial based-colorimetric sensing approach of pathogenic viruses by the naked eye has attracted much awareness because of their simplicity, speed, and low cost. In this review, the latest tendencies and advancements are overviewed in detecting pathogenic viruses using colorimetric concepts. We focus on and reconsider the use of distinctive nanomaterials such as metal nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, graphene oxide, and conducting polymer to form colorimetric pathogenic virus sensors.

Nanobiotechnology as a platform for the diagnosis of COVID-19: a review

A sensitive method for diagnosing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is highly required to fight the current and future global health threats due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV 2). However, most of the current methods exhibited high false‐negative rates, resulting in patient misdiagnosis and impeding early treatment. Nanoparticles show promising performance and great potential to serve as a platform for diagnosing viral infection in a short time and with high sensitivity. This review highlighted the potential of nanoparticles as platforms for the diagnosis of COVID-19. Nanoparticles such as gold nanoparticles, magnetic nanoparticles, and graphene (G) were applied to detect SARS-CoV 2. They have been used for molecular-based diagnosis methods and serological methods. Nanoparticles improved specificity and shorten the time required for the diagnosis. They may be implemented into small devices that facilitate the self-diagnosis at home or in places such as airports and shops. Nanoparticles-based methods can be used for the analysis of virus-contaminated samples from a patient, surface, and air. The advantages and challenges were discussed to introduce useful information for designing a sensitive, fast, and low-cost diagnostic method. This review aims to present a helpful survey for the lesson learned from handling this outbreak to prepare ourself for future  pandemic.