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Guarraci FA, Frohardt RJ. "What a Girl Wants": What Can We Learn From Animal Models of Female Sexual Motivation? Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:216. [PMID: 31619975 PMCID: PMC6763560 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00216] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2019] [Accepted: 08/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Sexual motivation is notably different than other motivations such as hunger and thirst, because it lacks homeostatic drive. Sexual motivation poses no threat to physical well-being; individual survival is not at stake. Nevertheless, sexual motivation is a powerful drive and is critical for species survival. Understanding the complexity of sexual motivation has the potential to advance our understanding of other motivations, even pathological motivations, such as those associated with substance abuse. The study of motivation that is unique to females has often been neglected. A number of paradigms have been developed to investigate female sexual motivation beyond measuring only the lordosis reflex. Lordosis is a reflexive posture displayed by female mammals in response to male sexual stimulation to facilitate intromission. The lordosis reflex is essential, but studying the drive to mate is compromised in the absence of robust lordosis. Therefore, appetitive measures of sexual behavior (e.g., preferences, solicitation behaviors) are more specific and more sensitive indicators of sexual motivation than lordosis alone. Paradigms designed to study female sexual motivation often provide a female subject with the choice to interact with a sexually vigorous male or either a non-sexual partner (i.e., female, castrated male) or to remain alone. The study of appetitive measures of sexual motivation has elucidated the role of hormones in female sexual motivation, as well as the underlying neural pathways. The present review describes methods for studying female rats to advance our understanding of sexual motivation and sexual dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fay A Guarraci
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX, United States
| | - Russell J Frohardt
- Academic Success, Northwest Vista College, San Antonio, TX, United States
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Rudzinskas SA, Williams KM, Mong JA, Holder MK. Sex, Drugs, and the Medial Amygdala: A Model of Enhanced Sexual Motivation in the Female Rat. Front Behav Neurosci 2019; 13:203. [PMID: 31551730 PMCID: PMC6746834 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2019.00203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2019] [Accepted: 08/19/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is a psychomotor stimulant that is reported to enhance sexual desire and behavior in both men and women, leading to increases in unplanned pregnancies, sexually-transmitted infections, and even comorbid psychiatric conditions. Here, we discuss our rodent model of increased sexually-motivated behaviors in which the co-administration of METH and the ovarian hormones, estradiol and progesterone, intensify the incentive properties of a sexual stimulus and increases measures of sexually-motivated behavior in the presence of an androgen-specific cue. We then present the neurobiological mechanisms by which this heightened motivational salience is mediated by the actions of METH and ovarian hormones, particularly progestins, in the posterodorsal medial nucleus of the amygdala (MePD), a key integration site for sexually-relevant sensory information with generalized arousal. We finally demonstrate the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying this facilitation of sexual motivation by METH, including the upregulation, increased phosphorylation, and activation of progestin receptors (PRs) in the MePD by METH in the presence of ovarian hormones. Taken together, this work extends our understanding of the neurobiology of female sexual motivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah A Rudzinskas
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Katrina M Williams
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Geriatric Research Education and Clinical Center, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jessica A Mong
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States.,Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Mary K Holder
- School of Psychology, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States
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Zhu Y, Zhong N, Su H, Ruan X, Bao J, Zhang L, Du J, Xu D, Ding R, Xiao K, Zhao M. Strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis of reinitiation into methamphetamine abusers: qualitative findings from an exploration of methamphetamine abusers in Shanghai, China. Gen Psychiatr 2019; 32:e100062. [PMID: 31423475 PMCID: PMC6677938 DOI: 10.1136/gpsych-2019-100062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Revised: 04/24/2019] [Accepted: 04/25/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Despite high relapse rate among methamphetamine (MA) abusers, there still have been little empirical data to date detecting the risk factors related to craving and relapse from the perspective of MA abusers. Therefore, the aim of this study was to use qualitative research methods exploring the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threat factors that could facilitate or impede individuals' abstinence in a real-life context from the perspectives of MA abusers. Aim To use qualitative research methods exploring the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threat factors relating to individuals' abstinence in a real-life context. Method Semistructured interviews were conducted with 32 MA abusers recruited in Shanghai guided by open-ended questions on narrating the real-life catalysts and inhibitors related to craving, initiation, relapse and abstinence. All data were transcribed verbatim and analysed using a strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis. Results The results of the SWOT analysis revealed that contextual factors including peer influence, prevalence and availability of MA, familiar venue of MA use, discrimination, sexual behaviours, alcohol, emotional states and their attitudes towards smoking MA were important factors that contribute to reinitiation and relapse. Surveillance systems, antidrug social workers, vocational skills trainings, moving to another city and family responsibility might serve as counter measures targeting those mentioned weaknesses and threats above. Conclusion This SWOT analysis highlights the complex nature of relapse. Comprehensive interventions strengthening coping skills such as virtual reality techniques are desperately needed to facilitate individuals' sustained abstinence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youwei Zhu
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Na Zhong
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Hang Su
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaolu Ruan
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiayi Bao
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiang Du
- Shanghai Mental Health Center, Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China
| | - Ding Xu
- Shanghai Bureau of Drug Administration, Shanghai, China
| | - Rongjie Ding
- Shanghai Gaojing Compulsory Drug Dependence Treatment Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Ke Xiao
- Shanghai Gaojing Compulsory Drug Dependence Treatment Center, Shanghai, China
| | - Min Zhao
- Shanghai Key Laboratory of Psychotic Disorders, Shanghai, China
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Understanding how Age-Related Decline in Testosterone Affects Male Sexual Behavior: Neurosteroids as the Missing Piece. CURRENT SEXUAL HEALTH REPORTS 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s11930-018-0175-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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van den Brink WJ, Palic S, Köhler I, de Lange ECM. Access to the CNS: Biomarker Strategies for Dopaminergic Treatments. Pharm Res 2018; 35:64. [PMID: 29450650 PMCID: PMC5814527 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-017-2333-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Despite substantial research carried out over the last decades, it remains difficult to understand the wide range of pharmacological effects of dopaminergic agents. The dopaminergic system is involved in several neurological disorders, such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia. This complex system features multiple pathways implicated in emotion and cognition, psychomotor functions and endocrine control through activation of G protein-coupled dopamine receptors. This review focuses on the system-wide effects of dopaminergic agents on the multiple biochemical and endocrine pathways, in particular the biomarkers (i.e., indicators of a pharmacological process) that reflect these effects. Dopaminergic treatments developed over the last decades were found to be associated with numerous biochemical pathways in the brain, including the norepinephrine and the kynurenine pathway. Additionally, they have shown to affect peripheral systems, for example the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Dopaminergic agents thus have a complex and broad pharmacological profile, rendering drug development challenging. Considering the complex system-wide pharmacological profile of dopaminergic agents, this review underlines the needs for systems pharmacology studies that include: i) proteomics and metabolomics analysis; ii) longitudinal data evaluation and mathematical modeling; iii) pharmacokinetics-based interpretation of drug effects; iv) simultaneous biomarker evaluation in the brain, the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma; and v) specific attention to condition-dependent (e.g., disease) pharmacology. Such approach is considered essential to increase our understanding of central nervous system (CNS) drug effects and substantially improve CNS drug development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Willem Johan van den Brink
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Semra Palic
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Isabelle Köhler
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Elizabeth Cunera Maria de Lange
- Division of Systems Biomedicine and Pharmacology, Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden University, Einsteinweg 55, 2333 CC, Leiden, The Netherlands.
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Methamphetamine and Ovarian Steroid Responsive Cells in the Posteriodorsal Medial Amygdala are Required for Methamphetamine-enhanced Proceptive Behaviors. Sci Rep 2017; 7:39817. [PMID: 28045134 PMCID: PMC5206624 DOI: 10.1038/srep39817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Methamphetamine (Meth) is a psychomotor stimulant strongly associated with increases in sexual drive and impulse in both men and women. These changes in sexual motivation have a greater impact on women due to their likelihood of facing the greater burden of unplanned pregnancies, as well as increased risk for psychiatric co-morbidities such as depression. We have previously established a rodent model of Meth-induced increases in sexual motivation. Using this model, we have identified the posteriodorsal medial amygdala (MePD) via excitotoxic lesion studies as a necessary nucleus in Meth-facilitated female sexual motivation. While lesion studies give us insight into key nuclei that may be targets of Meth action, such an approach does not give insight into the identity of the specific MePD neurons or neural circuitry involved in Meth-induced increases in proceptive behaviors. Using the DAUN02 inactivation method, a recently established technique for removing behaviorally relevant cell populations, we present evidence that the ovarian steroid/Meth responsive cells in the MePD are necessary for Meth-induced facilitation of proceptive behaviors. These findings form the basis for future work that will allow for the classification of neuronal subtypes involved in the MePD’s modulation of proceptive behavior as well as a stronger understanding of the neurocircuitry of female sexual motivation.
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Guarraci FA, Holifield C, Morales-Valenzuela J, Greene K, Brown J, Lopez R, Crandall C, Gibbs N, Vela R, Delgado MY, Frohardt RJ. Exposure to methylphenidate during peri-adolescence affects endocrine functioning and sexual behavior in female Long–Evans rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2016; 142:36-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2015.12.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2015] [Revised: 11/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/13/2015] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Holder MK, Veichweg SS, Mong JA. Methamphetamine-enhanced female sexual motivation is dependent on dopamine and progesterone signaling in the medial amygdala. Horm Behav 2015; 67:1-11. [PMID: 25448531 PMCID: PMC4291296 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2014.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2014] [Revised: 09/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/31/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is a psychomotor stimulant strongly associated with increases in sexual drive and impulsive sexual behaviors that often lead to unsafe sexual practices. In women METH users, such practices have been associated with increases in unplanned pregnancies and sexually transmitted diseases. Despite this significant heath concern, the neural mechanisms underlying this drug-sex association are not known. We previously established a rodent model of METH-facilitated female sexual behavior in which estradiol and progesterone interact with METH to increase motivational components of female behavior and neuronal activation in the posterodorsal medial amygdala (MePD) (Holder et al., 2010; Holder and Mong, 2010). The current study more directly examines the mechanisms underlying the drug-sex interaction. Here, we hypothesize that METH-induced increases in MePD dopamine signaling bridge the METH-hormone interaction. In support of this hypothesis, we found that excitotoxic lesions targeted to the MePD attenuated the METH-induced increases in proceptive behavior. Furthermore, infusion of a D1 agonist into the MePD increased proceptive behavior, while infusion of a D1 antagonist blocked the ability of METH to increase proceptive behaviors. Additionally, we found that METH-treatment increased progesterone receptor (PR) immunoreactivity in the MePD, suggesting an interaction between dopamine and progesterone signaling. Indeed, infusions of the PR antagonist, RU486, prevented METH-induced increases in sexual behavior. Thus, taken together, the current findings suggest that dopamine in the MePD modulates enhanced sexual motivation via an amplification of progesterone signaling and contributes to a better understanding of the neurobiology of drug-enhanced sexual behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Holder
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
| | - Shaun S Veichweg
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Jessica A Mong
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA; Department of Pharmacology, University of Maryland, Baltimore, School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
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Infusion of endomorphin-1 (EM-1) in the MPOA and the Me modulate sexual and socio-sexual behavior in the male rat. Brain Res 2013; 1517:36-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2012] [Revised: 03/06/2013] [Accepted: 04/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Thibodeau RB, Ornelas LC, Romero J, Memos N, Scheible M, Avila A, Schumacher A, Navarro A, Zimmermann K, Cuenod BA, Frohardt RJ, Guarraci FA. Acute withdrawal but not long-term withdrawal from methamphetamine affects sexual behavior in female rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2013; 103:701-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2012.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2012] [Revised: 12/12/2012] [Accepted: 12/15/2012] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Schober J, Weil Z, Pfaff D. How generalized CNS arousal strengthens sexual arousal (and vice versa). Horm Behav 2011; 59:689-95. [PMID: 20950622 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2010] [Revised: 09/23/2010] [Accepted: 10/02/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Heightened states of generalized CNS arousal are proposed here to facilitate sexual arousal in both males and females. Genetic, pharmacologic and biophysical mechanisms by which this happens are reviewed. Moreover, stimulation of the genital epithelia, as triggers of sex behavior, is hypothesized to lead to a greater generalized arousal in a manner that intensifies sexual motivation. Finally, launched from histochemical studies intended to characterize cells in the genital epithelium, a surprising idea is proposed that links density of innervation with the efficiency of wound healing and with the capacity of that epithelium to stimulate generalized CNS arousal. Thus, bidirectional arousal-related mechanisms that foster sexual behaviors are envisioned as follows: from specific to generalized (as with genital stimulation) and from generalized to specific.
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Affiliation(s)
- Justine Schober
- Laboratory of Neurobiology and Behavior, The Rockefeller University, NY, USA
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Winland C, Haycox C, Bolton JL, Jampana S, Oakley BJ, Ford B, Ornelas L, Burbey A, Marquette A, Frohardt RJ, Guarraci FA. Methamphetamine enhances sexual behavior in female rats. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2011; 98:575-82. [PMID: 21396951 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2011.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2010] [Revised: 02/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
The present study evaluated the effects of methamphetamine (MA) on sexual behavior in female rats. In Experiment 1, ovariectomized, hormone-primed rats were injected with MA (1.0mg/kg, i.p.) or saline prior to a test for mate choice wherein females could mate with two males simultaneously. Female rats treated with saline returned to their preferred mate faster after receiving intromissions and visited their preferred mate at a higher rate than their non-preferred mate. In contrast, MA-treated female rats spent a similar amount of time with their preferred and non-preferred mate and failed to return to their preferred mate faster than to their non-preferred mate following intromissions. Two weeks later, the females received the same drug treatment but were tested for partner preference wherein females could spend time near a male or female stimulus rat. All subjects spent more time near the male stimulus than the female stimulus. However, the MA-treated rats visited the male stimulus more frequently and spent less time near the female stimulus than the saline-treated rats. Similar to Experiment 1, female rats in Experiment 2 were tested for mate choice and then two weeks later tested for partner preference; however, females received three daily injections of MA (1.0mg/kg, i.p.) or saline. Females treated chronically with MA returned to both males faster following intromissions than females treated with saline, independent of preference (i.e., preferred mate and non-preferred mate). Furthermore, MA-treated rats were more likely to leave either male (i.e., preferred or non-preferred mate) than saline-treated rats after receiving sexual stimulation. Although MA-treated subjects spent more time near the male stimulus than the female stimulus, they spent less time near either when compared to saline-treated subjects. The present results demonstrate that MA affects sexual behavior in female rats partly by increasing locomotion and partly by directly affecting sexual behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carissa Winland
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, United States
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Holder MK, Mong JA. Methamphetamine enhances paced mating behaviors and neuroplasticity in the medial amygdala of female rats. Horm Behav 2010; 58:519-25. [PMID: 20399784 PMCID: PMC2917509 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2010.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2010] [Revised: 04/08/2010] [Accepted: 04/09/2010] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Methamphetamine (METH) is a psychomotor stimulant strongly associated with increases in sexual drive and behavior in women and men. Even though men and women are equally as likely to be addicted to or use METH, studies of sexual behavior often focus on male users. The paucity in studies examining the effect of METH in women is of great concern, when one considers the high correlation with sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS and unplanned pregnancies. In fact, why METH so profoundly increases sexual drive is unknown. We have demonstrated that repeated exposure to METH enhances both receptivity and proceptivity in hormonally primed female rats. The current study examined whether a repeated exposure to METH enhanced female-initiated sexual behaviors in hormonally primed rats. In a paced mating paradigm, METH treatment significantly decreased the female's return latency following a mount (57%) and an ejaculation (44%), and the likelihood to leave the male following an intromission (37%) compared to controls. The METH-induced changes in paced mating behavior were accompanied by a 60% increase in spinophilin levels in the medial amygdala following hormonal priming and METH treatment. Taken together, these findings suggest that METH increases female sexual motivation and behavior in the rat potentially via changes in the neural substrate that require repeated exposure to the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary K Holder
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Maryland, Baltimore, School of Medicine Baltimore, MD 21201, USA.
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Hedges VL, Staffend NA, Meisel RL. Neural mechanisms of reproduction in females as a predisposing factor for drug addiction. Front Neuroendocrinol 2010; 31:217-31. [PMID: 20176045 PMCID: PMC2857768 DOI: 10.1016/j.yfrne.2010.02.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2009] [Revised: 02/12/2010] [Accepted: 02/13/2010] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
There is an increasing awareness that adolescent females differ from males in their response to drugs of abuse and consequently in their vulnerability to addiction. One possible component of this vulnerability to drug addiction is the neurobiological impact that reproductive physiology and behaviors have on the mesolimbic dopamine system, a key neural pathway mediating drug addiction. In this review, we examine animal models that address the impact of ovarian cyclicity, sexual affiliation, sexual behavior, and maternal care on the long-term plasticity of the mesolimbic dopamine system. The thesis is that this plasticity in synaptic neurotransmission stemming from an individual's normal life history contributes to the pathological impact of drugs of abuse on the neurobiology of this system. Hormones released during reproductive cycles have only transient effects on these dopamine systems, whereas reproductive behaviors produce a persistent sensitization of dopamine release and post-synaptic neuronal responsiveness. Puberty itself may not represent a neurobiological risk factor for drug abuse, but attendant behavioral experiences may have a negative impact on females engaging in drug use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerie L Hedges
- Department of Neuroscience and Graduate Neuroscience Program, 6-145 Jackson Hall, 321 Church St. SE, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States
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