Efficient radical trapping at the surface and inside the phospholipid membrane is responsible for highly potent antiperoxidative activity of the carotenoid astaxanthin

Oral administration of astaxanthin mitigates chronological skin aging in mice

Intrinsic skin aging is a chronological decline in skin texture and function influenced largely by genetic factors. Aged skin exhibits morphological alterations, including wrinkling, dryness, and roughness, along with dysfunctional changes in the skin barrier. In this study, the in vivo anti-intrinsic aging efficacy of dietary astaxanthin extracted from Haematococcus pluvialis on the skin was evaluated using aged C57BL/6 J mice. As a result, dietary supplementation of 0.1% astaxanthin significantly alleviated the defects in skin's water retention capacity, viscoelasticity, and reduced wrinkle formation induced by intrinsic aging. Furthermore, gene expression analysis revealed that dietary astaxanthin was capable of mediating genes related to the proliferation and differentiation of skin cells, degradation of proteins in the extracellular matrix and dermal-epidermal junction, synthesis of natural moisturizing factors, and maintenance of skin barrier function. Together, our data indicate that dietary astaxanthin has potential applications as a novel ingredient in nutricosmetics against chronological skin aging.

Biological activities of astaxanthin in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases

INTRODUCTION

Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) develop with the gradual advancement of neuronal damage and dysfunction in the central nervous system (CNS). These disorders are mostly the outcomes of the improper sedimentation and accumulation of proteins, such as amyloid-β (Aβ), α-synuclein, and prions. Astaxanthin (AST) exists in different types of living organisms and displays antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions. This review has concentrated on the therapeutic characteristics of AST on NDs.

METHODS

Data was collected by searching Scopus, PubMed, and Google Scholar databases. Articles selected for this review reported results on the neuroprotective properties of AST on NDs of studies conducted during the years 2000 to 2024.

RESULTS

AST decreases soluble Aβ levels by stimulating the Aβ degradation enzyme. It also reduces inflammation in the substantia nigra (SN) by decreasing IBA1 expression, thereby lessening microglia activity. This carotenoid reduces demyelination by increasing the survival of oligodendrocytes cells and increasing the number of their progenitor cells. AST has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic properties and can play a role in the treatment of many NDs.

CONCLUSION

There is no definitive treatment for some NDs. The use of AST and natural compounds can be an optimal method for preventing and treating NDs with few side effects.

Astaxanthin Supplementation as a Potential Strategy for Enhancing Mitochondrial Adaptations in the Endurance Athlete: An Invited Review

Astaxanthin, a potent antioxidant found in marine organisms such as microalgae and krill, may offer ergogenic benefits to endurance athletes. Originally used in fish feed, astaxanthin has shown a greater ability to mitigate various reactive oxygen species and maintain the structural integrity of mitochondria compared to other exogenous antioxidants. More recent work has shown that astaxanthin may improve: (1) cycling time trial performance, (2) cardiorespiratory measures such as submaximal heart rate during running or cycling, (3) recovery from delayed-onset muscle soreness, and (4) endogenous antioxidant capacity such as whole blood glutathione within trained populations. In this review, the history of astaxanthin and its chemical structure are first outlined before briefly describing the various adaptations (e.g., mitochondrial biogenesis, enhanced endogenous antioxidant capacity, etc.) which take place specifically at the mitochondrial level as a result of chronic endurance training. The review then concludes with the potential additive effects that astaxanthin may offer in conjunction with endurance training for the endurance athlete and offers some suggested practical recommendations for athletes and coaches interested in supplementing with astaxanthin.

The effects of astaxanthin supplementation on liver enzyme levels

According to previous studies, astaxanthin exerts various biological effects due to its anti-inflammatory and antioxidant capabilities; however, its effects on liver enzymes have not yet been well elucidated. Therefore, we conducted a meta-analysis to assess astaxanthin's effects on liver enzymes. A systematic literature search was conducted using scientific databases including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, the Cochrane databases, and Google Scholar up to February 2023 to find relevant randomized controlled trials (RCTs) examining the effects of astaxanthin supplementation on alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST), gamma-glutamyl transferase (GGT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). A random-effects model was used for the estimation of the pooled weighted mean difference (WMD). Overall, we included five trials involving 196 subjects. The duration of the intervention was between 4 and 48 weeks, and the dose was between 6 and 12 mg/day. ALT levels increased in the intervention group compared to the control group following astaxanthin supplementation (WMD: 1.92 U/L, 95% CI: 0.16 to 3.68, P=0.03), whereas supplementation with astaxanthin had a non-significant effect on AST (WMD: 0.72 U/L, 95% CI: -0.85 to 2.29, P=0.36), GGT (WMD: 0.48 U/L, 95% CI: -2.71 to 3.67, P=0.76), and ALP levels (WMD: 2.85 U/L, 95% CI: -7.94 to 13.63, P=0.60) compared to the placebo group. Our data showed that astaxanthin supplementation increases ALT concentrations in adults without affecting the levels of other liver enzymes. Further long-term and well-designed RCTs are necessary to assess and confirm these findings.

Advancements in Understanding and Enhancing Antioxidant-Mediated Sperm Cryopreservation in Small Ruminants: Challenges and Perspectives

Cryopreservation poses significant challenges to the preservation of sperm integrity and function, particularly in small ruminants where cryodamage is pronounced. This review explores the molecular mechanisms underlying sperm cryodamage and strategies for improving cryopreservation outcomes, with a focus on the role of antioxidants. Cryopreservation-induced alterations in proteins and RNA transcripts critical for sperm function, including motility, capacitation, fertilization, and embryo development, are discussed. Proteomic, transcriptomic, and epigenomic advancements have provided valuable insights into these mechanisms, offering potential biomarkers for predicting sperm freezability and enhancing cryopreservation strategies. Combining technologies such as mass spectrometry and flow cytometry allows for a comprehensive understanding of molecular and cellular changes induced by the freezing-thawing process. However, challenges remain in optimizing cryoprotectant formulations and antioxidant supplementation to improve post-thaw sperm fertility. Further research is needed to explore a wider range of novel cryoprotectants, antioxidants, and proteins for cryopreservation media, as well as to validate their efficacy in enhancing sperm viability and function. Additionally, investigations into the effects of cryopreservation on RNA transcripts and epigenetic factors in small ruminant species are warranted to advance our understanding of sperm preservation. Overall, this review highlights the importance of antioxidants in mitigating cryodamage and underscores the need for continued research to refine cryopreservation protocols and improve reproductive outcomes in small ruminants.

Marine Compounds and Age-Related Diseases: The Path from Pre-Clinical Research to Approved Drugs for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases and Diabetes

Ageing represents a main risk factor for several pathologies. Among them, cardiovascular diseases (CVD) and type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) are predominant in the elderly population and often require prolonged use of multiple drugs due to their chronic nature and the high proportion of co-morbidities. Hence, research is constantly looking for novel, effective molecules to treat CVD and T2DM with minimal side effects. Marine active compounds, holding a great diversity of chemical structures and biological properties, represent interesting therapeutic candidates to treat these age-related diseases. This review summarizes the current state of research on marine compounds for the treatment of CVD and T2DM, from pre-clinical studies to clinical investigations and approved drugs, highlighting the potential of marine compounds in the development of new therapies, together with the limitations in translating pre-clinical results into human application.

Astaxanthin suppresses the malignant behaviors of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cells by blocking PI3K/AKT and NF-κB pathways via miR-29a-3p

BACKGROUND

As a natural extraction, astaxanthin is gaining increasing attention because of its safety and anti-tumor properties. It has been reported to participate in the progression of various types of cancer such as gastric cancer and ovarian cancer. Nevertheless, the role of astaxanthin in nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) has not been investigated.

OBJECT

The study aimed to explore the anticancer mechanism of astaxanthin in regulating NPC cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, apoptosis, migration, and invasion.

METHODS

Human NPC cells (C666-1) were treated with different concentrations of astaxanthin (0, 1, 10, 20 mg/mL) followed by detection of cell viability. Then, C666-1 cell proliferation, apoptosis, cell cycle progression, invasion, and migration in response to 10 mg/mL astaxanthin, LY294002 (PI3K/AKT inhibitor) or parthenolide (PTL; NF-κB inhibitor) treatment were measured using cell counting kit-8 assay, colony forming assay, flow cytometry analyses, Transwell assay, and wound healing assay, respectively. Western blotting was performed to quantify protein levels of factors involved in PI3K/AKT and NF-κB signaling pathways, cell cycle phase markers (Cyclin D1, p21) and apoptotic markers (Bcl-2 and Bax).

RESULTS

C666-1 cell proliferation, invasion, and migration were significantly suppressed by astaxanthin while cell apoptosis and cell cycle arrest at G1 phase were effectively enhanced in the context of 10 mg/mL astaxanthin. Protein levels of p-AKT, p-P65 and p-IκB levels were suppressed by astaxanthin treatment. After LY294002 or PTL treatment, the suppressive impact of astaxanthin on C666-1 cell process was strengthened, accompanied by the more obvious decrease in cell activity and cell colony number, more enhanced cell apoptosis and G1 phase arrest, and further inhibited cell migration and invasion. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of astaxanthin on Cyclin D1 and Bcl-2 protein levels as well as the promoting impact of astaxanthin on p21 and Bax were also amplified in combination with LY294002 or PTL treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Astaxanthin significantly suppresses NPC cell proliferation, cell cycle arrest, migration, invasion while promoting cell apoptosis by inactivating PI3K/AKT and NF-κB pathways. The study first reveals the anticancer role of astaxanthin in NPC, providing a potential candidate for NPC treatment.

Innovative Bioactive Products with Medicinal Value from Microalgae and Their Overall Process Optimization through the Implementation of Life Cycle Analysis-An Overview

Microalgae are being recognized as valuable sources of bioactive chemicals with important medical properties, attracting interest from multiple industries, such as food, feed, cosmetics, and medicines. This review study explores the extensive research on identifying important bioactive chemicals from microalgae, and choosing the best strains for nutraceutical manufacturing. It explores the most recent developments in recovery and formulation strategies for creating stable, high-purity, and quality end products for various industrial uses. This paper stresses the significance of using Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) as a strategic tool with which to improve the entire process. By incorporating LCA into decision-making processes, researchers and industry stakeholders can assess the environmental impact, cost-effectiveness, and sustainability of raw materials of several approaches. This comprehensive strategy will allow for the choosing of the most effective techniques, which in turn will promote sustainable practices for developing microalgae-based products. This review offers a detailed analysis of the bioactive compounds, strain selection methods, advanced processing techniques, and the incorporation of LCA. It will serve as a valuable resource for researchers and industry experts interested in utilizing microalgae for producing bioactive products with medicinal properties.

Astaxanthin and meclizine extend lifespan in UM-HET3 male mice; fisetin, SG1002 (hydrogen sulfide donor), dimethyl fumarate, mycophenolic acid, and 4-phenylbutyrate do not significantly affect lifespan in either sex at the doses and schedules used

In genetically heterogeneous (UM-HET3) mice produced by the CByB6F1 × C3D2F1 cross, the Nrf2 activator astaxanthin (Asta) extended the median male lifespan by 12% (p = 0.003, log-rank test), while meclizine (Mec), an mTORC1 inhibitor, extended the male lifespan by 8% (p = 0.03). Asta was fed at 1840 ± 520 (9) ppm and Mec at 544 ± 48 (9) ppm, stated as mean ± SE (n) of independent diet preparations. Both were started at 12 months of age. The 90th percentile lifespan for both treatments was extended in absolute value by 6% in males, but neither was significant by the Wang-Allison test. Five other new agents were also tested as follows: fisetin, SG1002 (hydrogen sulfide donor), dimethyl fumarate, mycophenolic acid, and 4-phenylbutyrate. None of these increased lifespan significantly at the dose and method of administration tested in either sex. Amounts of dimethyl fumarate in the diet averaged 35% of the target dose, which may explain the absence of lifespan effects. Body weight was not significantly affected in males by any of the test agents. Late life weights were lower in females fed Asta and Mec, but lifespan was not significantly affected in these females. The male-specific lifespan benefits from Asta and Mec may provide insights into sex-specific aspects of aging.

Skin Protection by Carotenoid Pigments

Sunlight, despite its benefits, can pose a threat to the skin, which is a natural protective barrier. Phototoxicity caused by overexposure, especially to ultraviolet radiation (UVR), results in burns, accelerates photoaging, and causes skin cancer formation. Natural substances of plant origin, i.e., polyphenols, flavonoids, and photosynthetic pigments, can protect the skin against the effects of radiation, acting not only as photoprotectors like natural filters but as antioxidant and anti-inflammatory remedies, alleviating the effects of photodamage to the skin. Plant-based formulations are gaining popularity as an attractive alternative to synthetic filters. Over the past 20 years, a large number of studies have been published to assess the photoprotective effects of natural plant products, primarily through their antioxidant, antimutagenic, and anti-immunosuppressive activities. This review selects the most important data on skin photodamage and photoprotective efficacy of selected plant carotenoid representatives from in vivo studies on animal models and humans, as well as in vitro experiments performed on fibroblast and keratinocyte cell lines. Recent research on carotenoids associated with lipid nanoparticles, nanoemulsions, liposomes, and micelles is reviewed. The focus was on collecting those nanomaterials that serve to improve the bioavailability and stability of carotenoids as natural antioxidants with photoprotective activity.

Astaxanthin Improved the Quality of Hu Ram Semen by Increasing the Antioxidant Capacity and Mitochondrial Potential and Mitigating Free Radicals-Induced Oxidative Damage

The objective of this research was to investigate the effect of astaxanthin supplementations of semen extender on the quality of Hu ram semen after up to five days of preservation at 4 °C. Semen samples were collected from five healthy Hu rams using an artificial vagina during breeding season (April to August 2023) and diluted with a basic extender supplemented with control (0), 1 µM, 2 µM, 3.5 µM, or 4.5 µM of AXT. Overall, 170 semen ejaculate samples (34 repetitions) from five healthy Hu rams were used in our research study. The results revealed that the addition of AXT (3.5 µM) significantly (p ≤ 0.05) increased the sperm kinematic indexes (T.M%, P.M%, MAD%, STR%, and LIN %), sperm viability, plasma membrane integrity, acrosome integrity, total antioxidant content (T-AOC), and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) of the Hu rams spermatozoa after up to five days of preservation at 4 °C. Contrary to that, the addition of the best concentration of AXT (3.5 µM) to the semen extender significantly (p ≤ 0.05) reduced the reactive oxygen species (ROS) and malondialdehyde (MDA) concentration of Hu ram semen. In conclusion, the results of the current study indicate that the addition of a semen extender with AXT improves the quality of Hu ram spermatozoa by increasing the total antioxidant capacity (T-AOC) and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP). On the other hand, reducing free radicals induced oxidative (ROS) and per oxidative (MDA) damage to Hu ram semen.

Astaxanthin supplementation impact on insulin resistance, lipid profile, blood pressure, and oxidative stress in polycystic ovary syndrome patients: A triple-blind randomized clinical trial

Astaxanthin (ASX) is a natural carotenoid compound found in several of microorganisms and seafood. It may have numerous therapeutic benefits for polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) patients. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of ASX on lipid profile, insulin resistance (IR), blood pressure (BP), and oxidative stress (OS) levels in infertile PCOS patients. Overall, 58 infertile women with diagnosed PCOS participated in this triple-blind randomized clinical trial. They were randomly assigned to two groups, taking either a placebo or ASX (2 × 6 mg/day) for 8 weeks. Blood serum samples were collected from patients before and after the intervention. Fasting Insulin (FI), fasting blood glucose (FBS), OS markers (malondialdehyde [MDA], superoxide dismutase [SOD], and total antioxidant capacity [TAC]), and lipid profiles were evaluated in serum. Moreover, based on the relevant formula, several indices associated with IR were calculated. BP was also assessed at the start and end of the study. After 8 weeks of ASX consumption, a significant reduction was observed in fasting blood sugar, HOMA-IR, FI, MDA, low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol, and TC/HDL-C. Conversely, ASX significantly increased TAC, HDL-C, and QUICKI. After adjusting the analysis for the baseline values of age, body mass index, and biochemical parameters, non-significant values were obtained for QUICKI and FI, along with no changes in other findings. Overall, ASX appears to be an effective and safe supplement that alleviates insulin metabolism, lipid profile parameters, and OS in infertile PCOS patients.

The Protective Effects of Astaxanthin (AST) in the Liver of Weaned Piglets

During the weaning period, piglets are exposed to high levels of stress, which often causes problems with the digestive system. This stress also promotes the production of free radicals, resulting in oxidative stress. Astaxanthin (AST) stands out as one of the most potent antioxidants. Its resistance to light and heat makes it particularly valuable in compound feed production. This study was to determine the effect of AST impact on liver histology and gene expression in piglets. For our experiment, we used 16 weaned piglets of the PL breed, which we divided into two groups: Group I (control group with no AST supplementation) and Group II (supplemented with AST at 0.025 g/kg). Both feed mixtures were iso-proteins and iso-energetic, meeting the nutritional requirements of the piglets. The experiment lasted from day 35 to day 70 of the piglets' age, during which they had ad libitum access. The results indicate that the addition of AST prevents liver fibrosis due to reduced collagen deposition in the tissue. Analysis of gene expression supported these results. In the AST-supplemented group, we noted a decrease in NR1H3 expression, an increase in CYP7A1 expression, and reductions in the expression of NOTCH1 and CREB genes.

Astaxanthin attenuated the stress-induced intestinal motility disorder via altering the gut microbiota

Gut microbiota and short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) are recognized as key factors in the pathophysiology of irritable bowel syndrome. Astaxanthin is a carotenoid with strong antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. In this study, we examined the effects of astaxanthin on gut microbiota-, SCFAs-, and corticotropin-releasing factor (CRH)-induced intestinal hypermotility. Male Wistar rats (n=12 per group) were fed a diet with or without 0. 02% (w/w) astaxanthin for four weeks and CRH or saline was administered intravenously. The number of fecal pellets was counted 2 h after injection. Then the rats were sacrificed, and the cecal content were collected 3 h after injection. The number of feces was significantly increased by CRH injection in the control group (2.0 vs. 6.5; p=0.028), but not in the astaxanthin group (1.0 vs. 2.2; p=0.229) (n=6 per group). The cecal microbiota in the astaxanthin group was significantly altered compared with that in the control group. The concentrations of acetic acid (81.1 μmol/g vs. 103.9 μmol/g; p=0.015) and butyric acid (13.4 μmol/g vs. 39.2 μmol/g; p<0.001) in the astaxanthin group were significantly lower than that in the control group (n=12 per group). Astaxanthin attenuates CRH-induced intestinal hypermotility and alters the composition of gut microbiota and SCFAs.

Protective effect of astaxanthin nanoemulsion on mammalian inner ear hair cells

Background

Aminoglycoside antibiotics are used for treating certain acute infections. However, these drugs cause ototoxicity by inducing inner ear hair cell death.

Aims/Objectives

We investigated the protective effect of a nanoemulsion of the carotenoid astaxanthin on mammalian inner ear hair cells against neomycin-induced ototoxicity.

Material and Methods

Dose-response relationship, quantification of hair cell loss, and reactive oxygen species production were assayed in response to neomycin with and without astaxanthin in cultured utricles of CBA/N mice. In addition, auditory brain response (ABR) and hair cell loss after exposure to the nanoformulation and loud noise were examined in vivo in guinea pigs.

Results

Astaxanthin suppressed neomycin-induced reduction of hair cells by reducing the production of hydroxy radicals. Furthermore, hair cell loss in the second rotation of the cochlea was significantly lower in the astaxanthin group than in the noise-only group.

Conclusions and Significance

The blood-labyrinth barrier limits the successful delivery of drugs for inner ear complications. However, in the nanoemulsion form, astaxanthin can penetrate the round window (fenestra ovale) membrane, enabling topical administration. Thus, astaxanthin nanoemulsion could be useful in treating ototoxicity in individuals with inner ear complications.

Combined Donepezil with Astaxanthin via Nanostructured Lipid Carriers Effective Delivery to Brain for Alzheimer's Disease in Rat Model

Introduction

Donepezil (DPL), a specific acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, is used as a first-line treatment to improve cognitive deficits in Alzheimer's disease (AD) and it might have a disease modifying effect. Astaxanthin (AST) is a natural potent antioxidant with neuroprotective, anti-amyloidogenic, anti-apoptotic, and anti-inflammatory effects. This study aimed to prepare nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) co-loaded with donepezil and astaxanthin (DPL/AST-NLCs) and evaluate their in vivo efficacy in an AD-like rat model 30 days after daily intranasal administration.

Methods

DPL/AST-NLCs were prepared using a hot high-shear homogenization technique, in vitro examined for their physicochemical parameters and in vivo evaluated. AD induction in rats was performed by aluminum chloride. The cortex and hippocampus were isolated from the brain of rats for biochemical testing and histopathological examination.

Results

DPL/AST-NLCs showed z-average diameter 149.9 ± 3.21 nm, polydispersity index 0.224 ± 0.017, zeta potential -33.7 ± 4.71 mV, entrapment efficiency 81.25 ±1.98% (donepezil) and 93.85 ±1.75% (astaxanthin), in vitro sustained release of both donepezil and astaxanthin for 24 h, spherical morphology by transmission electron microscopy, and they were stable at 4-8 ± 2°C for six months. Differential scanning calorimetry revealed that donepezil and astaxanthin were molecularly dispersed in the NLC matrix in an amorphous state. The DPL/AST-NLC-treated rats showed significantly lower levels of nuclear factor-kappa B, malondialdehyde, β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme-1, caspase-3, amyloid beta (Aβ1‑42), and acetylcholinesterase, and significantly higher levels of glutathione and acetylcholine in the cortex and hippocampus than the AD-like untreated rats and that treated with donepezil-NLCs. DPL/AST-NLCs showed significantly higher anti-amyloidogenic, antioxidant, anti-acetylcholinesterase, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic effects, resulting in significant improvement in the cortical and hippocampal histopathology.

Conclusion

Nose-to-brain delivery of DPL/AST-NLCs is a promising strategy for the management of AD.

More Than Pigments: The Potential of Astaxanthin and Bacterioruberin-Based Nanomedicines

Carotenoids are natural products regulated by the food sector, currently used as feed dyes and as antioxidants in dietary supplements and composing functional foods for human consumption. Of the nearly one thousand carotenoids described to date, only retinoids, derived from beta carotene, have the status of a drug and are regulated by the pharmaceutical sector. In this review, we address a novel field: the transformation of xanthophylls, particularly the highly marketed astaxanthin and the practically unknown bacterioruberin, in therapeutic agents by altering their pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and pharmacodynamics through their formulation as nanomedicines. The antioxidant activity of xanthophylls is mediated by routes different from those of the classical oral anti-inflammatory drugs such as corticosteroids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs): remarkably, xanthophylls lack therapeutic activity but also lack toxicity. Formulated as nanomedicines, xanthophylls gain therapeutic activity by mechanisms other than increased bioavailability. Loaded into ad hoc tailored nanoparticles to protect their structure throughout storage and during gastrointestinal transit or skin penetration, xanthophylls can be targeted and delivered to selected inflamed cell groups, achieving a massive intracellular concentration after endocytosis of small doses of formulation. Most first reports showing the activities of oral and topical anti-inflammatory xanthophyll-based nanomedicines against chronic diseases such as inflammatory bowel disease, psoriasis, atopic dermatitis, and dry eye disease emerged between 2020 and 2023. Here we discuss in detail their preclinical performance, mostly targeted vesicular and polymeric nanoparticles, on cellular models and in vivo. The results, although preliminary, are auspicious enough to speculate upon their potential use for oral or topical administration in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Toxicology of pharmaceutical and nutritional longevity compounds

Aging is the most prominent risk factor for many diseases, which is considered to be a complicated biological process. The rate of aging depends on the effectiveness of important mechanisms such as the protection of DNA from free radicals, which protects the structural and functional integrity of cells and tissues. In any organism, not all organs may age at the same rate. Slowing down primary aging and reaching maximum lifespan is the most basic necessity. In this process, it may be possible to slow down or stabilise some diseases by using the compounds for both dietary and pharmacological purposes. Natural compounds with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects, mostly plant-based nutraceuticals, are preferred in the treatment of age-related chronic diseases and can also be used for other diseases. An increasing number of long-term studies on synthetic and natural compounds aim to elucidate preclinically and clinically the mechanisms underlying being healthy and prolongation of life. To delay age-related diseases and prolong the lifespan, it is necessary to take these compounds with diet or pharmaceuticals, along with detailed toxicological results. In this review, the most promising and utilised compounds will be highlighted and it will be discussed whether they have toxic effects in short/long-term use, although they are thought to be used safely.

Astaxanthin protects human ARPE-19 retinal pigment epithelium cells from blue light-induced phototoxicity by scavenging singlet oxygen

Age-related macular degeneration (AMD) is one of an increasing number of diseases that causes irreversible impairment and loss of vision in the elderly. AMD occurs by oxidative stress-mediated apoptosis of retinal pigment epithelium cells. The onset of AMD may be positively correlated with the exposure to blue light. We screened food-derived carotenoids for cytoprotective action against blue light irradiation using human ARPE-19 retinal pigment epithelium cells. This study revealed that blue light irradiation triggered apoptosis and oxidative stress in all-trans-retinal (atRAL)-exposed ARPE-19 cells by generating singlet oxygen (1O2), leading to significant cell death. We found that astaxanthin, a potent anti-oxidative xanthophyll abundant in several marine organisms including microalgae, salmon, and shrimp, significantly suppresses blue light-induced apoptotic cell death of atRAL-exposed ARPE-19 cells by scavenging 1O2. Mechanistic studies using the blue-light irradiated cells also demonstrated that the cytoprotective effects of astaxanthin can be attributed to scavenging of 1O2 directly. Our results suggest the potential value of astaxanthin as a dietary strategy to prevent blue light-induced retinal degeneration including AMD.

Fungal Pigments: Carotenoids, Riboflavin, and Polyketides with Diverse Applications

Natural pigments and colorants have seen a substantial increase in use over the last few decades due to their eco-friendly and safe properties. Currently, customer preferences for more natural products are driving the substitution of natural pigments for synthetic colorants. Filamentous fungi, particularly ascomycetous fungi (Monascus, Fusarium, Penicillium, and Aspergillus), have been shown to produce secondary metabolites containing a wide variety of pigments, including β-carotene, melanins, azaphilones, quinones, flavins, ankaflavin, monascin, anthraquinone, and naphthoquinone. These pigments produce a variety of colors and tints, including yellow, orange, red, green, purple, brown, and blue. Additionally, these pigments have a broad spectrum of pharmacological activities, including immunomodulatory, anticancer, antioxidant, antibacterial, and antiproliferative activities. This review provides an in-depth overview of fungi gathered from diverse sources and lists several probable fungi capable of producing a variety of color hues. The second section discusses how to classify coloring compounds according to their chemical structure, characteristics, biosynthetic processes, application, and present state. Once again, we investigate the possibility of employing fungal polyketide pigments as food coloring, as well as the toxicity and carcinogenicity of particular pigments. This review explores how advanced technologies such as metabolic engineering and nanotechnology can be employed to overcome obstacles associated with the manufacture of mycotoxin-free, food-grade fungal pigments.

Nose to Brain Delivery of Astaxanthin–Loaded Nanostructured Lipid Carriers in Rat Model of Alzheimer’s Disease: Preparation, in vitro and in vivo Evaluation

Background

Astaxanthin (AST) is a second-generation antioxidant with anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective properties and could be a promising candidate for Alzheimer's disease (AD) therapy, but is shows poor oral bioavailability due to its high lipophilicity.

Purpose

This study aimed to prepare and evaluate AST-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), for enhanced nose-to-brain drug delivery to improve its therapeutic efficacy in rat model of AD.

Methods

AST-NLCs were prepared using hot high-pressure homogenization technique, and processing parameters such as total lipid-to-drug ratio, solid lipid-to-liquid lipid ratio, and concentration of surfactant were optimized.

Results

The optimized AST-NLCs had a mean particle size of 142.8 ± 5.02 nm, polydispersity index of 0.247 ± 0.016, zeta potential of -32.2 ± 7.88 mV, entrapment efficiency of 94.1 ± 2.46%, drug loading of 23.5 ± 1.48%, and spherical morphology as revealed by transmission electron microscopy. Differential scanning calorimetry showed that AST was molecularly dispersed in the NLC matrix in an amorphous state, whereas Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy indicated that there is no interaction between AST and lipids. AST displayed a biphasic release pattern from NLCs; an initial burst release followed by sustained release for 24 h. AST-NLCs were stable at 4-8 ±2°C for six months. Intranasal treatment of AD-like rats with the optimized AST-NLCs significantly decreased oxidative stress, amyloidogenic pathway, neuroinflammation and apoptosis, and significantly improved the cholinergic neurotransmission compared to AST-solution. This was observed by the significant decline in the levels of malondialdehyde, nuclear factor-kappa B, amyloid beta (Aβ_1‑42), caspase-3, acetylcholinesterase, and β-site amyloid precursor protein cleaving enzyme-1 expression, and significant increase in the contents of acetylcholine and glutathione after treatment with AST-NLCs.

Conclusion

NLCs enhanced the intranasal delivery of AST and significantly improved its therapeutic properties.

Targeting Mitochondrial Dysfunction in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Expanding the Therapeutic Approaches by Plant-Derived Natural Products

Mitochondria are the primary source of energy production in neurons, supporting the high energy consumption of the nervous system. Inefficient and dysfunctional mitochondria in the central nervous system have been implicated in neurodegenerative diseases. Therefore, targeting mitochondria offers a new therapeutic opportunity for neurodegenerative diseases. Many recent studies have proposed that plant-derived natural products, as pleiotropic, safe, and readily obtainable sources of new drugs, potentially treat neurodegenerative diseases by targeting mitochondria. In this review, we summarize recent advances in targeting mitochondria in neurotherapeutics by employing plant-derived natural products. We discuss the mechanism of plant-derived natural products according to their mechanism of action on mitochondria in terms of regulating biogenesis, fusion, fission, bioenergetics, oxidative stress, calcium homeostasis, membrane potential, and mitochondrial DNA stability, as well as repairing damaged mitochondria. In addition, we discuss the potential perspectives and challenges in developing plant-derived natural products to target mitochondria, highlighting the clinical value of phytochemicals as feasible candidates for future neurotherapeutics.

Antioxidants encapsulated milk-derived exosomes for functional food development

Reactive oxygen species are known to be involved in various diseases, and antioxidant ingredients are expected to essentially prevent diseases and contribute to improving health. However, antioxidants are easily degraded by enzymes before being absorbed in the intestine, so a means of transport that prevents their degradation in the body is necessary. Exosomes, which play an important role in communication between individual cells, have attracted attention as a new transport carrier of miRNA and DNA, but not yet fully exploited in food research. More recently, exosomes extracted from bovine milk began to be widely used as a cost-effective transport carrier not in clinical medicine but also in functional food materials. To develop practical applications as carriers for functional foods, systematic studies are necessary to clarify the introduction efficiency and the properties of encapsulated substances. In this study, we applied electroporation and incubation to encapsulate antioxidants into the exosomes and studied the encapsulation efficiency into the exosomes and the anticancer activity.

Anti-Oxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Astaxanthin on Gastrointestinal Diseases

A moderate amount of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is produced under normal conditions, where they play an important role in cell signaling and are involved in many aspects of the immune response to pathogens. On the other hand, the excessive production of ROS destructs macromolecules, cell membranes, and DNA, and activates pro-inflammatory signaling pathways, which may lead to various pathologic conditions. Gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa is constantly exposed to ROS due to the presence of bacteria and other infectious pathogens in food, as well as alcohol consumption, smoking, and the use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAID). Prolonged excessive oxidative stress and inflammation are two major risk factors for GI disorders such as ulcers and cancers. Bioactive food compounds with potent anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory activity have been tested in experimental GI disease models to evaluate their therapeutic potential. Astaxanthin (AST) is a fat-soluble xanthophyll carotenoid that is naturally present in algae, yeast, salmon, shrimp, and krill. It has been shown that AST exhibits protective effects against GI diseases via multiple mechanisms. Residing at the surface and inside of cell membranes, AST directly neutralizes ROS and lipid peroxyl radicals, enhances the activity of anti-oxidant enzymes, and suppresses pro-inflammatory transcription factors and cytokines. In addition, AST has been shown to inhibit cancer cell growth and metastasis via modulating cell proliferation-related pathways, apoptosis, and autophagy. Considering the potential benefits of AST in GI diseases, this review paper aims to summarize recent advances in AST research, focusing on its anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory effects against gastric and intestinal ulcers and cancers.

Integrated pathway engineering and transcriptome analysis for improved astaxanthin biosynthesis in Yarrowia lipolytica

Astaxanthin is a high value carotenoid with a broad range of commercial applications due to its superior antioxidant properties. In this study, β-carotene-producing Yarrowia lipolytica XK17 constructed in the lab was employed for astaxanthin biosynthesis. The catalytic effects of β-carotene ketolase CrtW and β-carotene hydroxylase CrtZ from various species were investigated. The PspCrtW from Paracoccus sp. and HpCrtZ# from Haematococcus pluvialis were confirmed to be the best combination in converting β-carotene. Several key bottlenecks in biomass and astaxanthin biosynthesis were effectively eliminated by optimizing the expression of the above enzymes and restoring uracil/leucine biosynthesis. In addition, the effects of astaxanthin biosynthesis on cell metabolism were investigated by integrated analysis of pathway modification and transcriptome information. After further optimization, strain DN30 was able to synthesize up to 730.3 mg/L astaxanthin in laboratory 5-L fermenter. This study provides a good metabolic strategy and a sustainable development platform for high-value carotenoid production.

Astaxanthin absorption modulated antioxidant enzyme activity and targeted specific metabolic pathways in rats

BACKGROUND

Saponification contributed to an increase in the in vitro antioxidant activity of astaxanthin (Asta) extracts derived from Penaeus sinensis (Solenocera crassicornis) by-products. However, the influence of non-saponification (N-Asta) and saponification Asta (S-Asta) absorption on antioxidant activity in vivo was limited. The antioxidant properties of N-Asta and S-Asta were therefore compared in Sprague Dawley male rats after 6 h and 12 of absorption using biochemistry assays combined with an untargeted metabonomics strategy.

RESULTS

Non-saponified Asta and S-Asta showed similar digestive properties in a stimulated gastrointestinal tract. Increased glutathione content and decreased malondialdehyde content were measured in the liver tissues of N-Asta and S-Asta treated rats after 12 h of absorption. Absorption of N-Asta increased liver total superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase activity. Treatment with S-Asta up-regulated NAD(P)H: quinine oxidoreductase-1, and heme oxygenase-1 expression was associated with the nuclear erythroid 2-related factor 2/antioxidant responsive element pathway at the end of 12 h absorption. With partial least square-discriminant analysis and metabolite heatmap profiles, the S-Asta group was clearly separated from the N-Asta group. The S-Asta treatment also demonstrated stronger influences on plasma metabolites than the N-Asta treatment. Both N-Asta and S-Asta absorption showed critical roles in the regulation of specific metabolites, and 15 potential biomarkers were identified in eight key pathways to separate these experimental groups after 12 h of absorption. However, an increased serotonin level was only detected in the S-Asta group after 12 h absorption.

CONCLUSION

Absorption of N-Asta and S-Asta induced different antioxidant effects in normal rats, which were associated with metabolite changes. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

The Role of Astaxanthin as a Nutraceutical in Health and Age-Related Conditions

The current review provides an up-to-date analysis of scientific data on astaxanthin (ASX) sources and experimental studies on its health benefits as a potent antioxidant in the aging process. ASX is a liposoluble carotenoid nutrient and reddish-orange pigment, naturally synthesized by numerous microalgae, yeasts, and bacteria as secondary metabolites. Provides a reddish hue to redfish and shellfish flesh that feed on ASX-producing microorganisms. The microalga Haematococcus pluvialis is the most important source for its industrial bioproduction. Due to its strong antioxidant properties, numerous investigations reported that natural ASX is a more significant antioxidant agent than other antioxidants, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, and β-carotene. Furthermore, several data show that ASX possesses important nutraceutical applications and health benefits, especially in healthy aging processes. However, further studies are needed for a deeper understanding of the potential mechanisms through which ASX could lead to its effective role in the healthy aging process, such as supporting brain health and skin homeostasis. This review highlights the current investigations on the effective role of ASX in oxidative stress, aging mechanisms, skin physiology, and central nervous system functioning, and shows the potential clinical implications related to its consumption.

Astaxanthin attenuates osteoarthritis progression via inhibiting ferroptosis and regulating mitochondrial function in chondrocytes

Ferroptosis is a novel form of regulated cell death that has a close association with mitochondrial dysfunction and is characterized by iron overload, the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and lipid ROS. Chondrocytes ferroptosis accelerates the progression of osteoarthritis (OA). Astaxanthin (ATX) is a xanthophyll carotenoid that possesses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties and has been explored in research studies for the treatment of diabetes and cardiovascular disease. However, the role it plays in OA, particularly in chondrocyte ferroptosis, has not yet been reported. In this study, ferroptosis-related events were analyzed in rat chondrocytes in vitro. A surgical destabilized medial meniscus was performed for the establishment of in vivo OA model. The results showed that interleukin-1β (IL-1β) induced inflammatory injury in chondrocytes through the promotion of the expressions of inflammatory factors including inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX2). IL-1β triggered chondrocyte ferroptosis by increasing the levels of intracellular ROS, lipid ROS, iron, and mitochondrial iron and inhibiting the expressions of SLC7A11/glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) and Ferritin. The above indices were ameliorated by ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1, a classic ferroptosis inhibitor) and ATX. Furthermore, Fer-1 and ATX rescued the IL-1β-induced down-regulating collagen type II (collagen Ⅱ) and up-regulating matrix metalloproteinase 13 (MMP13). Following treatment with IL-1β, mitochondrial membrane potential decreased and the mitochondrial membrane was broken. At the same time, the mitochondrion shrank, becoming deformed as the mitochondrial cristae reduced and became disrupted. These changes were entirely consistent with ferroptosis features. All the aforementioned phenomena were reversed by Fer-1 and ATX. In addition, intra-articular injection of Fer-1 and ATX delayed articular cartilage degradation and OA progression. This study demonstrated that IL-1β can induce inflammatory damage and ferroptosis in chondrocytes. Both Fer-1 and ATX have the ability to mitigate chondrocyte injury and osteoarthritis progression by inhibiting ferroptosis and the regulation of mitochondrial function. Targeting ferroptosis has the potential to be a promising future treatment method for OA.

The pharmaco-therapy potential of astaxanthin: human and animal targeting roles

The recent pandemic stress and the impacts of climatic changes on humans’ and animals’ health status and well-being resulted in severe drawbacks. Initially, stress-induced oxidation resulting from the generation of free radicals leading to the impairment of cellular function and a high possibility of attack with infection. Astaxanthin is a bioactive material derived from fish, crustaceans, and algae with high antioxidative potential. Astaxanthin is a lipid-soluble carotenoid that can easily cross through the cellular membrane layers to catch the reactive oxygen metabolites. Astaxanthin also has pigmentation properties making it suitable for pharmaceutical, cosmetic, nutraceutical, agriculture, and aquaculture sectors. Recently, astaxanthin is suggested as a natural scavenger for free radicals induced by COVID-19. Besides, using astaxanthin as antioxidative and immunostimulant agents is well-reported in several clinical studies. The output of these investigations should be simplified and presented to the scientific community to utilize the available information and fill the gap of knowledge. Also, it is necessary to update the researchers with the recent recommendations of applying astaxanthin in vivo and in vitro to help in proposing new horizons for engaging natural antioxidative agents to protect human and animal health. Herein, this review article tackled the nature, sources, potential roles, applicable sides, and availability of astaxanthin to fortify the scientific community with the required knowledge for further research efforts.

Quantification and Improvement of the Dynamics of Human Serum Albumin and Glycated Human Serum Albumin with Astaxanthin/Astaxanthin-Metal Ion Complexes: Physico-Chemical and Computational Approaches

Glycated human serum albumin (gHSA) undergoes conformational changes and unfolding events caused by free radicals. The glycation process results in a reduced ability of albumin to act as an endogenous scavenger and transporter protein in diabetes mellitus type 2 (T2DM) patients. Astaxanthin (ASX) in native form and complexed with metal ions (Cu²⁺ and Zn²⁺) has been shown to prevent gHSA from experiencing unfolding events. Furthermore, it improves protein stability of gHSA and human serum albumin (HSA) as it is shown through molecular dynamics studies. In this study, the ASX/ASX-metal ion complexes were reacted with both HSA/gHSA and analyzed with electronic paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, rheology and zeta sizer (particle size and zeta potential) analysis, circular dichroism (CD) spectroscopy and UV-Vis spectrophotometer measurements, as well as molecular electrostatic potential (MEP) and molecular docking calculations. The addition of metal ions to ASX improves its ability to act as an antioxidant and both ASX or ASX-metal ion complexes maintain HSA and gHSA stability while performing their functions.

Randomized controlled trial of astaxanthin impacts on antioxidant status and assisted reproductive technology outcomes in women with polycystic ovarian syndrome

PURPOSE

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), the most common endocrinopathy in women, is typically accompanied by a defective oxidative defense system. Here, we investigated the effect of astaxanthin (AST) as a powerful antioxidant on the oxidative stress (OS) response and assisted reproductive technology (ART) outcomes in PCOS patients.

METHODS

In this double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial, PCOS patients were randomly assigned into two groups. The intervention group received 8 mg AST, and the control group received the placebo daily for 40 days. The primary outcomes were the serum and follicular fluid (FF) levels of the OS biomarkers and the expression levels of the specific genes and proteins in the oxidative stress response pathway. The secondary outcomes were considered ART outcomes.

RESULTS

According to our findings, a 40-day course of AST supplementation led to significantly higher levels of serum CAT and TAC in the AST group compared to the placebo group. However, there were no significant intergroup differences in the serum MDA and SOD levels, as well as the FF levels of OS markers. The expression of Nrf2, HO-1, and NQ-1 was significantly increased in the granulosa cells (GCs) of the AST group. Moreover, the MII oocyte and high-quality embryo rate were significantly increased in the AST group compared to the placebo group. We found no significant intergroup difference in the chemical and clinical pregnancy rates.

CONCLUSION

AST treatment has been shown to increase both serum TAC levels and activation of the Nrf2 axis in PCOS patients' GCs.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClincialTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03991286.

Effects of astaxanthin supplementation in fertilization medium and/or culture medium on the fertilization and development of mouse oocytes

Objective

We investigated the effect of supplementing fertilization medium and/or culture medium with astaxanthin (AST) on the two phases of in vitro fertilization: gamete fertilization and embryo development.

Methods

Mouse cumulus-oocyte complexes were divided into four groups with 5 µM AST added to the fertilization medium (group 3, n=300), culture medium (group 2, n=300), or both media (group 4, n=290). No AST was added to the control group (group 1, n=300).

Results

The fertilization rate was significantly higher (p<0.001) in the groups using AST supplemented fertilization medium (group 3, 79.0%; group 4, 81.4%) than those without AST (group 1, 56.3%; group 2, 52.3%). The blastocyst rate calculated from the two-cell stage was significantly lower (p<0.001) in the groups using AST-supplemented embryo culture medium (group 2, 58.0%; group 4, 62.3%) than in those without AST (group 1, 82.8%; group 3, 79.8%). The blastocyst rate calculated from the number of inseminated oocytes was highest in group 3 (189/300, 63.0%) and lowest in group 2 (91/300, 30.3%) with statistical significance compared to other groups (p<0.001). There were significantly higher numbers of cells in the inner cell mass and trophectoderm, as well as significantly higher total blastocyst cell counts, in group 3 than in the control group.

Conclusion

An increased blastocyst formation rate and high-quality blastocysts were found only in the fertilization medium that had been supplemented with AST. In contrast, AST supplementation of the embryo culture medium was found to impair embryo development.

Astaxanthin Attenuates D-Galactosamine-Induced Pancreatic Injury by Activating Antioxidant Enzymes and Inhibiting VEGF-C Gene Expression

&lt;b&gt;Background and Objective:&lt;/b&gt; Astaxanthin (3,3'-dihydroxy-β-β-carotene-4,4'-dione) is a carotenoid, commonly found in marine environments has been reported to possess versatile biological properties including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant. In this study, the pancreatic protective effect of astaxanthin was investigated in D-Galactosamine-induced pancreas injury in rats. &lt;b&gt;Materials and Methods:&lt;/b&gt; In this experimental study, MTT assay was used to determine cytotoxic effects of the Astaxanthin on pnc1 cells. A total of 30 adult albino rats divided into 5 groups, six rats in each. Group I was given an equal amount of distilled water, group II was received 400 mg kg&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; b.wt. D-galactosamine on 15th day, groups III-V were treated with astaxanthin (50 and 100 mg kg&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) and/or silymarin (50 mg kg&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) for 14 days + 400 mg kg&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt; b.wt. D-galactosamine on the 15th day, respectively. &lt;b&gt;Results:&lt;/b&gt; IC&lt;sub&gt;50 &lt;/sub&gt;of Astaxanthin against the pnc1 cell line was 92.9 μg mL&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;. The daily oral administration of astaxanthin (50 and 100 mg kg&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) as well as silymarin (50 mg kg&lt;sup&gt;1&lt;/sup&gt;) for 14 days to rats treated with D-galactosamine resulted in a significant improvement in plasma AST, ALT, ALP as well as pancreatic TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-10, NO and VEGF-C gene expression. On the other hand, inducible oral administration of astaxanthin increased the activity of pancreatic GSH, SOD, GPx, GR, CAT and the level of TBARs in D-galactosamine-treated pancreatic of rats. Furthermore, Astaxanthin almost normalized these effects in pancreatic tissue histoarchitecture and MRI examination. &lt;b&gt;Conclusion:&lt;/b&gt; The obtained results showed that Astaxanthin protected experimental animals against D-galactosamine-induced pancreatic injury through activation of antioxidant enzymes and IL-10 and inhibition of VEGF-C activation.

Astaxanthin as a Novel Mitochondrial Regulator: A New Aspect of Carotenoids, beyond Antioxidants

Astaxanthin is a member of the carotenoid family that is found abundantly in marine organisms, and has been gaining attention in recent years due to its varied biological/physiological activities. It has been reported that astaxanthin functions both as a pigment, and as an antioxidant with superior free radical quenching capacity. We recently reported that astaxanthin modulated mitochondrial functions by a novel mechanism independent of its antioxidant function. In this paper, we review astaxanthin’s well-known antioxidant activity, and expand on astaxanthin’s lesser-known molecular targets, and its role in mitochondrial energy metabolism.

Disease-modifying treatment of Parkinson's disease by phytochemicals: targeting multiple pathogenic factors

Parkinson's disease is characterized by typical motor symptoms, loss of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra, and accumulation of Lewy body composed of mutated α-synuclein. However, now it is considered as a generalized disease with multiple pathological features. Present available treatments can ameliorate symptoms at least for a while, but only a few therapies could delay progressive neurodegeneration of dopamine neurons. Lewy body accumulates in peripheral tissues many years before motor dysfunction becomes manifest, suggesting that disease-modifying therapy should start earlier during the premotor stage. Long-termed regulation of lifestyle, diet and supplement of nutraceuticals may be possible ways for the disease-modification. Diet can reduce the incidence of Parkinson's disease and phytochemicals, major bioactive ingredients of herbs and plant food, modulate multiple pathogenic factors and exert neuroprotective effects in preclinical studies. This review presents mechanisms underlying neuroprotection of phytochemicals against neuronal cell death and α-synuclein toxicity in Parkinson's disease. Phytochemicals are antioxidants, maintain mitochondrial function and homeostasis, prevent intrinsic apoptosis and neuroinflammation, activate cellular signal pathways to induce anti-apoptotic and pro-survival genes, such as Bcl-2 protein family and neurotrophic factors, and promote cleavage of damaged mitochondria and α-synuclein aggregates. Phytochemicals prevent α-synuclein oligomerization and aggregation, and dissolve preformed α-synuclein aggregates. Novel neuroprotective agents are expected to develop based on the scaffold of phytochemicals permeable across the blood-brain-barrier, to increase the bioavailability, ameliorate brain dysfunction and prevent neurodegeneration.

Multi-Mechanistic Antidiabetic Potential of Astaxanthin: An Update on Preclinical and Clinical Evidence

Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a cluster of physiological dysfunctions typified by persistent hyperglycemia. Diet plays a paramount role in human health, and regular consumption of a fruit- and vegetable-rich diet can delay or prevent DM and its associated complications. The promising effect of fruits and vegetables could be partly attributed to their antioxidant constituents, including carotenoids. Carotenoids are natural antioxidants that occur in many vegetables, fruits, microalgae, and other natural sources. Astaxanthin is a xanthophyll carotenoid predominantly present in microalgae and some red-colored marine organisms. It is currently marketed as a health supplement and is well-known for its antioxidant capacity. Accumulating evidence indicates that astaxanthin exerts its beneficial effects against DM by acting on various molecular targets and signaling pathways in multiple organs/tissues. Astaxanthin can lower blood glucose levels by preserving β-cell function, improving insulin resistance (IR), and increasing insulin secretion. This manuscript summarizes the connection between glucose homeostasis, oxidative stress, and DM. This is followed by a review of recent studies on astaxanthin's pharmacological effects against IR, microvascular (diabetic retinopathy, diabetic nephropathy, and neurological damage), and macrovascular DM complications emphasizing the cellular and molecular mechanisms involved. A few lines of clinical evidence supporting its antidiabetic potential are also highlighted.

Astaxanthin Delivery Systems for Skin Application: A Review

Astaxanthin (AST) is a biomolecule known for its powerful antioxidant effect, which is considered of great importance in biochemical research and has great potential for application in cosmetics, as well as food products that are beneficial to human health and medicines. Unfortunately, its poor solubility in water, chemical instability, and low oral bioavailability make its applications in the cosmetic and pharmaceutical field a major challenge for the development of new products. To favor the search for alternatives to enhance and make possible the use of AST in formulations, this article aimed to review the scientific data on its application in delivery systems. The search was made in databases without time restriction, using keywords such as astaxanthin, delivery systems, skin, cosmetic, topical, and dermal. All delivery systems found, such as liposomes, particulate systems, inclusion complexes, emulsions, and films, presented peculiar advantages able to enhance AST properties, among which are stability, antioxidant potential, biological activities, and drug release. This survey showed that further studies are needed for the industrial development of new AST-containing cosmetics and topical formulations.

Optimization of ultrasonic-assisted extraction of astaxanthin from green tiger (Penaeus semisulcatus) shrimp shell

This study was aimed at optimizing the astaxanthin extraction efficiency from shrimp shell (green tiger, Penaeus semisulcatus). Astaxanthin was extracted using selected nonpolar/polar solvents (petroleum ether, n-hexane, ethanol, acetone) individually and in ternary mixtures of petroleum ether, acetone, and water in ratios of 15:50:35, 50:45:5, and 15:75:10 for different times (2,4 and 6 h). The results showed that solvents with higher polarity were more suitable for the extraction of astaxanthin, and increasing the extraction time from 2 to 6 h improved the extraction yield. The conditions of extraction of astaxanthin with the desirable solvent were then optimized with the ultrasonic method using the Box-Behnken design [variables included: extraction temperature (25 to 45 °C), extraction time (5 to 15 min), and ultrasound amplitude (20 to 100%)]. Optimal extraction conditions were determined as the ultrasonic amplitude of 23.6%, extraction time of 13.9 min, and extraction temperature of 26.3 °C. Under this optimum condition, the amount of astaxanthin, ferric reducing antioxidant power, and free radical scavenging capacity of the extract were obtained as 51.5%, 1705 μmol of Fe2+/g, and 73.9%, respectively. Extraction and analysis of the extract at the optimum point were used to validate the results.

Therapeutic potential of astaxanthin and superoxide dismutase in Alzheimer's disease

Oxidative stress, the imbalance of the antioxidant system, results in an accumulation of neurotoxic proteins in Alzheimer's disease (AD). The antioxidant system is composed of exogenous and endogenous antioxidants to maintain homeostasis. Superoxide dismutase (SOD) is an endogenous enzymatic antioxidant that converts superoxide ions to hydrogen peroxide in cells. SOD supplementation in mice prevented cognitive decline in stress-induced cells by reducing lipid peroxidation and maintaining neurogenesis in the hippocampus. Furthermore, SOD decreased expression of BACE1 while reducing plaque burden in the brain. Additionally, Astaxanthin (AST), a potent exogenous carotenoid, scavenges superoxide anion radicals. Mice treated with AST showed slower memory decline and decreased depositions of amyloid-beta (Aβ) and tau protein. Currently, the neuroprotective potential of these supplements has only been examined separately in studies. However, a single antioxidant cannot sufficiently resist oxidative damage to the brain, therefore, a combinatory approach is proposed as a relevant therapy for ameliorating pathological changes in AD.

Beneficial effects and health benefits of Astaxanthin molecules on animal production: A review

Astaxanthin (AST) is a red pigment of carotenoid and is considered a high-quality keto-carotenoid pigment with food, livestock, cosmetic, therapeutic and nutraceutical proposes. Astaxanthin exists naturally in fish, crustacean, algae, and birds that naturally exists, principally as fatty acid esters. Many investigations have exhibited the beneficial impacts of astaxanthin when utilized as a pharmaceutical agent in animal nutrition. Astaxanthin has a variety of considerable biological actions, such as being antihypertensive, an antioxidant, anti-obesity properties, and anti-carcinogenic. Astaxanthin has recently acquired popularity as a powerful immunomodulator to maintain the health status and well-being of both animals and humans. The use of astaxanthin is broadly utilized in medical sciences and the nutrition pf aquatic species; however, it presently has limited applications in broader animal nutrition. Understanding astaxanthin's structure, source, and mode of action in the body provides a conceptual base for its clinical application and could enhance the screening of compounds associated with the treatment of many diseases. This review article aims to clarify the important aspects of astaxanthin such as its synthesis, bioavailability, and therapeutics actions, with special interest in practical applications. Awareness of this benefits and production is expected to aid the livestock industry to develop nutritional strategies that ensure the protection of animal health.

Carotenoids supplementation and inflammation: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized clinical trials

The aim of this study was to perform a systematic review and meta-analysis on randomized controlled trials investigating the effects of carotenoids on selected inflammatory parameters. PubMed, SCOPUS, and Web of science were searched from inception until April 2021. The random-effect model was used to analyze data and the overall effect size was computed as weighted mean difference (WMD) and corresponding 95% of confidence interval (CI). A total of 26 trials with 35 effect sizes were included in this meta-analysis. The results indicated significant effects of carotenoids on C-reactive protein (CRP) (WMD: ‒0.54 mg/L, 95% CI: ‒0.71, ‒0.37, P < 0.001), and interleukin-6 (IL-6) (WMD: ‒0.54 pg/mL, 95% CI: ‒1.01, ‒0.06, P = 0.025), however the effect on tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) was not significant (WMD: ‒0.97 pg/ml, 95% CI: ‒1.98, 0.03, P = 0.0.059). For the individual carotenoids, astaxanthin, (WMD: ‒0.30 mg/L, 95% CI: ‒0.51, ‒0.09, P = 0.005), lutein/zeaxanthin (WMD: ‒0.30 mg/L, 95% CI: ‒0.45, ‒0.15, P < 0.001), and β-cryptoxanthin (WMD: ‒0.35 mg/L, 95% CI: ‒0.54, ‒0.15, P < 0.001) significantly decreased CRP level. Also, only lycopene (WMD: ‒1.08 pg/ml, 95%CI: ‒2.03, ‒0.12, P = 0.027) led to a significant decrease in IL-6. The overall results supported possible protective effects of carotenoids on inflammatory biomarkers.

Astaxanthin for the Food Industry

Xanthophyll astaxanthin, which is commonly used in aquaculture, is one of the most expensive and important industrial pigments. It is responsible for the pink and red color of salmonid meat and shrimp. Due to having the strongest anti-oxidative properties among carotenoids and other health benefits, natural astaxanthin is used in nutraceuticals and cosmetics, and in some countries, occasionally, to fortify foods and beverages. Its use in food technology is limited due to the unknown effects of long-term consumption of synthetic astaxanthin on human health as well as few sources and the high cost of natural astaxanthin. The article characterizes the structure, health-promoting properties, commercial sources and industrial use of astaxanthin. It presents the possibilities and limitations of the use of astaxanthin in food technology, considering its costs and food safety. It also presents the possibilities of stabilizing astaxanthin and improving its bioavailability by means of micro- and nanoencapsulation.

Dietary supplementation with natural astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis improves antioxidant enzyme activity, free radical scavenging ability, and gene expression of antioxidant enzymes in laying hens

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effects of natural astaxanthin (ASTA) from Haematococcus pluvialis on production performance, egg quality, antioxidant enzyme activity, free radical scavenging ability, and gene expression of antioxidant enzymes in laying hens. Nongda No. 3 laying hens (n = 450) were randomly allocated to 1 of 5 dietary treatments. Each treatment had 6 replicates of 15 hens each. All birds were assigned to a corn-soybean meal-based diet containing 0, 20, 40, 80, or 160 mg/kg ASTA for 4 wk. With increasing dietary ASTA, no significant effects were observed on egg weight, feed consumption, feed efficiency, laying rate, Haugh unit, or eggshell strength. Yolk color darkened linearly with increasing dose of ASTA (P < 0.05). Glutathione peroxidase activity was improved in the kidney with dietary ASTA at levels of 40 mg/kg. Total superoxide dismutase (SOD) was significantly increased in the liver, kidney, and plasma with dietary ASTA supplementation at 40 mg/kg. With increasing dietary ASTA, the scavenging abilities of hydroxyl radicals and superoxide anions were linearly increased (P < 0.05), and the malondialdehyde content decreased linearly (P < 0.05). Compared with the control group, mRNA expression of Cu-Zn SOD (SOD1), Mn SOD (SOD2), and nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2) in the liver and kidney was significantly increased in the 40 mg/kg ASTA group (P < 0.05). The level of GPX4 mRNA in the liver and kidney was significantly increased with ASTA supplementation at 40 and 80 mg/kg (P < 0.05). The results demonstrate that dietary ASTA improves free radical scavenging ability and antioxidant enzyme activity, which may be related in part to the upregulated mRNA expression of genes encoding antioxidant enzymes and NRF2.

Therapeutic Potential of Astaxanthin in Diabetic Kidney Disease

Astaxanthin is a carotenoid that has potent protective effects on diabetic kidney disease (DKD) in diabetic mice models. DNA microarray study clearly demonstrated the involvement of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation pathway in the renal glomerular cells of diabetic mice and also showed that the expression of upregulated genes associated with this pathway was decreased by the treatment with astaxanthin. Proteomic analysis confirmed that the increases of 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE)- and N^ε-(hexanonyl)lysine (HEL)-modified proteins were inhibited by the treatment with astaxanthin. These results demonstrated that astaxanthin exerts a protective effect against hyperglycemia-induced DKD by attenuating mitochondrial oxidative stress and subsequent cellular dysfunction.

Phagocytosis of Astaxanthin-Loaded Microparticles Modulates TGFβ Production and Intracellular ROS Levels in J774A.1 Macrophages

Radiation-induced fibrosis is a serious long-lasting side effect of radiation therapy. Central to this condition is the role of macrophages that, activated by radiation-induced reactive oxygen species and tissue cell damage, produce pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ). This, in turn, recruits fibroblasts at the site of the lesion that initiates fibrosis. We investigated whether astaxanthin, an antioxidant molecule extracted from marine and freshwater organisms, could help control macrophage activation. To this purpose, we encapsulated food-grade astaxanthin from Haematococcus pluvialis into micrometer-sized whey protein particles to specifically target macrophages that can uptake material within this size range by phagocytosis. The data show that astaxanthin-loaded microparticles are resistant to radiation, are well-tolerated by J774A.1 macrophages, induce in these cells a significant reduction of intracellular reactive oxygen species and inhibit the release of active TGFβ as evaluated in a bioassay with transformed MFB-F11 fibroblasts. Micro-encapsulation of bioactive molecules is a promising strategy to specifically target phagocytic cells and modulate their own functions.