Effect of four oral contraceptives on thyroid hormones, adrenal and blood pressure parameters

Resting Energy Expenditure, Metabolic and Sex Hormones in Two Phases of the Menstrual and Hormonal Contraceptive Cycles

INTRODUCTION

Resting energy expenditure (REE) may fluctuate during the menstrual cycle (MC), due to the physiological effects of estradiol (E2) and progesterone. This study examined changes in REE and metabolic hormones (leptin, ghrelin, thyroid hormones), and dietary intake in two hormonally distinct groups, naturally menstruating women (NoOC) and women using monophasic combined oral contraceptives (COC).

METHODS

Measurements included REE by indirect calorimetry, body composition by bioimpedance, and blood samples for hormone analysis in the early follicular and midluteal phases of the MC in the NoOC group ( n = 38) or the active and inactive phases of the COC cycle (COC; n = 19). Participants recorded their food intake for 3 d after measurements. A secondary analysis was completed for the NoOC group without REE outliers (difference between measurements >1.5 × interquartile range, n = 4).

RESULTS

In the NoOC group, luteal phase REE was 40 kcal higher than follicular phase REE (95% confidence interval (CI), -2 to 82 kcal·d -1 , d = 0.20, P = 0.061). Leptin ( d = 0.35, P < 0.001), triiodothyronine (T3; d = 0.26, P = 0.05), and fat intake ( d = 0.48, P = 0.027) were higher, and thyroxine ( d = 0.21, P = 0.041) was lower in the luteal phase. After excluding outliers, REE was 44 kcal higher in the luteal phase than in the follicular phase (95% CI, 12-76 kcal·d -1 , d = 0.22, P = 0.007). In the COC group, the mean difference in REE was -2 kcal (95% CI, -82 to 79 kcal·d -1 ) between active and inactive phases, whereas T3 was higher in the inactive phase ( d = 0.01, P = 0.037).

CONCLUSIONS

REE increases only slightly from the follicular to the luteal phase but remains unchanged between COC phases. Increases in T3, leptin, and fat intake during the luteal phase might echo metabolic fluctuations that parallel female sex hormones during the MC.

Mass spectrometry in measurement of thyroid biomarkers

In 2022, the number of patients with thyroid disease in China exceeded 200 million (10 million with hyperthyroidism, 90 million with hypothyroidism, and 100 million with other thyroid disease such as goiter, thyroid nodules, and thyroid cancer). Well-established markers include FT3, FT4, TT3, TT4, and TSH tested by a number of immunoassay methods. This approach is based on the primary binding of antigen with antibody and a subsequent secondary chemical reaction that provides an indirect measure. The use of traceable standards for quantitation remains an important factor to ensure inter-assay reliability and precision. Recently, mass spectrometry (MS) has received considerable attention as an analytic tool due to high resolution and quantitative accuracy. In addition, MS allows for sensitive determination of low-abundance markers making it ideal for development of traceable standards. Furthermore, this technology will allow for the development of highly accurate thyroid biomarker assays to facilitate diagnosis, enable early treatment and improve outcomes. Herein, we provide a systematic review and summary of MS in enhancing the analysis of thyroid biomarkers.

Effects of estradiol- and ethinylestradiol-based contraceptives on adrenal steroids: A randomized trial

OBJECTIVES

Ethinylestradiol (EE)-based combined oral contraceptives (COC) affect adrenal function by altering steroid and corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG) synthesis that may contribute to adverse effects related to these drugs. The effects of COCs containing natural estrogens remain unclear. We compared the effects of COCs containing estradiol valerate (EV) and EE on cortisol and other adrenal steroid hormones.

STUDY DESIGN

A spin-off study of a randomized, open-label trial. Fifty-nine healthy women were allocated to groups that engaged in the continuous use of EV+dienogest (DNG), EE+DNG, or DNG only for 9 weeks. We measured changes in adrenal steroids, CBG, and the free cortisol index (FCI).

RESULTS

Treatment with EE+DNG increased total cortisol (mean increment 668 nmol/L, p < 0.001) and cortisone (10 nmol/L, p= 0.001) levels, whereas the change from the baseline was insignificant for the EV+DNG and DNG-only groups. Dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate decreased by 24% in the EE+DNG group but remained unchanged in the EV+DNG and DNG-only groups. Aldosterone and 17-hydroxyprogesterone levels did not differ between the groups. All preparations increased CBG, but the increase in the EE+DNG group (median increment 42 µg/mL, p < 0.001) was 9- and 49-fold higher than that in the EV+DNG and DNG-only groups, respectively. The FCI remained unchanged in all study groups, indicating that cortisol and CBG mainly increased in parallel, although some individuals demonstrated larger alterations in the cortisol-CBG balance.

CONCLUSION

In COCs, EV had a milder effect on circulating CBG and adrenal steroid levels than EE; however, further research is necessary to determine the long-term effects.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02352090 IMPLICATIONS: EV-based COC had reduced effects on circulating CBG and adrenal steroids compared to EE, probably due to a lower hepatic impact. Whether the sensitization of the adrenals to ACTH varies according to COC contents and whether it relates to experienced side effects needs to be investigated. These results encourage further research and development of contraceptives containing natural estrogens.

The interactive effects of ethinylestradiol and progesterone on transcriptional expression of genes along the hypothalamus-pituitary-thyroid axis in embryonic zebrafish (Danio rerio)

Progestins and estrogens are widespread in various aquatic environments and their potential endocrine disruption effects to aquatic organisms have drawn growing concern. However, their combined effects in aquatic organisms remain elusive. The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of the binary mixtures of gestodene (GES) and 17α-ethinylestradiol (EE2) on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis of zebrafish (Danio rerio) using the eleuthero-embryos. Embryos were exposed to GES and EE2 alone or in combination at concentrations ranging from 41 to 5329 ng L^-1 (nominal ones from 50 to 5000 ng L^-1) for 48 h, 96 h and 144 h post fertilization (hpf). The results showed that the transcripts of the genes along the HPT axis displayed pronounced alterations. There was no clear pattern in the change of the transcripts of these genes over time and with concentrations. However, in general, the transcripts of the genes were inversely affected by EE2 (increase 0.5 to 4.2-folds) and GES (inhibition 0.4 to 4.9-folds), and their mixtures showed interactive effects in embryonic zebrafish. In addition, physiological data (mortality, malformation, body length and heart rate etc.) denoted higher toxicity of the two chemicals in combination than alone based on the developmental toxicity and neurotoxicity (locomotor behavior). These results indicated that the interactive effects of these two chemicals might be different between at the transcriptional level and at the whole organismal level. In summary, GES and EE2 affect the HPT axis (related genes expression and thyroid hormones (THs) levels) and exhibit developmental toxicity and neurotoxicity.

Thyroid Dysfunction after Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Agonist Administration in Women with Thyroid Autoimmunity

GnRH agonists (GnRHa) are a useful tool for pretreatment before artificial endometrial preparation for frozen-thawed embryo-transfer (FET). Their prolonged administration has been associated with thyroid dysfunction, both hyper and hypothyroidism. The aim of this study is to investigate the impact of GnRHa administration on thyroid function in women undergoing artificial endometrial preparation. Seventy-eight euthyroid women undergoing endometrial preparation with hormone replacement for FET were retrospectively reviewed. They were divided into two groups according to pretreatment with GnRHa (group A, 42 women) or with an oral contraceptive (group B, 36 women). Group A was subsequently divided into two subgroups according to thyroid autoimmunity presence. Thyroid function has been evaluated and compared among groups and subgroups. Our results did not show any statistically significant differences in age, body mass index, and basal thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH). Total estradiol dosage, duration of treatment, and endometrial thickness were comparable among groups. When TSH was measured 14 days after embryo transfer, no significant differences between the two groups were reported. Among women of group A, TSH was significantly higher only in women with thyroid autoimmunity. GnRHa seems to be associated with thyroid dysfunction in women with thyroid autoimmunity undergoing hormone replacement therapy for FET.

Low Corticosterone Response to Stress in a Perimenopausal Rat Model Is Associated with the Hypoactivation of PaMP Region of the Paraventricular Nucleus and Can Be Corrected by Exogenous Progesterone Supplementation

INTRODUCTION

The transition to menopause is characterized by mood, behavioral and metabolic changes. However, little is known about the changes in adrenal response to stress.

AIMS

The aim of the study was to evaluate, in an animal model of perimenopause induced by 4-vinylcyclohexene diepoxide (VCD), (1) the endocrine and neuronal stress system activity in response to acute restraint stress and (2) the effect of hormonal therapy in this response.

METHODS

Prepubertal female Wistar rats received daily injections (s.c) of oil or VCD (160 mg/kg) for 15 days. On 56th-66th days after treatment onset, the groups to be stressed received s.c implants containing placebo (PL), 17β-estradiol (E2), progesterone (P4), or E2P4. At 80 ± 5 days after VCD/oil injections, stress was applied for 30 min. Blood samples were collected immediately after and 60 min after the end of stress session from the tail tip followed by transcardial perfusion with PFA 4% for the assessment of c-Fos expression in the medial and posterior parvocellular (PaMP and PaPo) subdivisions of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) and c-Fos/tyrosine hydroxylase in the locus coeruleus (LC) using immunohistochemistry. Control groups were not stressed nor received hormone therapy.

RESULTS

While basal corticosterone levels were similar between VCD-periestropausal and control rats, the secretion in response to stress in the VCD group was lower. This effect was prevented by P4 therapy. Inversely, basal levels of P4 were lower in VCD-periestropausal rats than in the controls, and no differences were found in response to stress between the groups. As expected, 30-min restraint stress increased c-Fos immunoreactivity in all brain areas studied in both control and VCD-periestropausal rats. However, the c-Fos increase in the PaMP region was attenuated. In all areas examined, there were no significant differences in the number of c-Fos-positive neurons across hormonal therapies.

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSION

This is the first study to demonstrate in a perimenopausal rat model that reproductive aging is accompanied by inadequate secretion of corticosterone in response to acute stress in association with the hypoactivation of the PaMP region of the PVN, while adrenal P4 response is preserved. Moreover, P4 therapy was shown to attenuate the effects of progressive ovarian failure on adrenal functioning during stress.

Combined Oral Contraceptive Pill-Induced Hypertension and Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy: Shared Mechanisms and Clinical Similarities

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Oral contraceptive pill-induced hypertension (OCPIH) and hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (HDP) share common risk factors and pathophysiological mechanisms, yet the bidirectional relationship between these two conditions is not well-established. We review and describe OCPIH and HDP to better understand how hormonal and metabolic imbalances affect hypertension.

RECENT FINDINGS

Oral contraceptive pills continue to be a popular method of contraception, with an incidence of OCPIH ranging from 1-8.5% among OCP users. HDP have an incidence of 5-10% of all pregnancies in the USA and have been shown to be a powerful predictor of lifetime adverse cardiovascular outcomes, including future hypertension. OCPIH and HDP share common risk factors such as age, BMI, past personal and family history of hypertension, as well as pathogenic mechanisms, including alterations in hormonal metabolism and the renin angiotensin aldosterone system; imbalance of vasodilator-vasoconstrictor compounds; and changes in the cardiovascular system. Future research should address additional potential mechanisms that underlie hypertension in these two conditions where endocrine changes, either physiological (pregnancy) or iatrogenic (use of OCP), play a role. This may lead to novel, targeted treatment options to improve hypertension management and overall cardiovascular risk profile management in this subset of young female patients.

Evaluating the effects of oral contraceptive use on biomarkers and body composition during a competitive season in collegiate female soccer players

High training demands throughout the competitive season in female collegiate soccer players have been shown to induce changes in biomarkers indicative of stress, inflammation, and reproduction, which may be exacerbated in athletes using oral contraceptives (OCs). This study aimed to compare biomarkers and body composition between OC-using and nonusing (CON) female soccer players throughout a competitive season. Female collegiate soccer players were stratified into two groups based on their reported OC use at the start of preseason (OC: n = 6; CON: n = 17). Before the start of preseason and immediately postseason, athletes underwent a battery of performance tests. Blood draws and body composition assessments were performed before preseason, on wks 2, 4, 8, and 12 of the season, and postseason. Area-under-the-curve ratios (OC_AUC:CON_AUC) indicated the OC group were exposed to substantially higher levels of sex hormone-binding globulin (AUC_ratio = 1.4, probability = P > 0.999), total cortisol (1.7; P > 0.999), C-reactive protein (5.2; P > 0.999), leptin (1.4; P = 0.990), growth hormone (1.5; P = 0.97), but substantively lower amounts of estradiol (0.36; P < 0.001), progesterone (0.48; P = 0.008), free testosterone (0.58; P < 0.001), follicle-stimulating hormone (0.67; P < 0.001), and creatine kinase (0.33, P < 0.001) compared with the CON across the season. Both groups increased fat free mass over the season, but CON experienced a greater magnitude of increase along with decreased body fat percentage. Although similar training loads were observed between groups over the season, the elevated exposure to stress, inflammatory, and metabolic biomarkers over the competitive season in OC users may have implications on body composition, training adaptations, and recovery in female athletes.NEW & NOTEWORTHY This study highlights the influence of OC use on physiological changes that occur over a 4-mo intense, competitive season and the differential systemic exposure to biomarkers, specifically those of inflammation, stress, anabolism, and energy balance, between OC-using and nonusing soccer players. Additionally, this study provides insight into changes in body composition with prolonged training between female athletes with and without OC use.

Effects of oral contraceptives on thyroid function and vice versa

BACKGROUND

Thyroid gland dysfunction represents an epidemiologically relevant disease in the female gender, where treatment with oral contraceptives (OCs) is frequently prescribed. Although OCs are able to impact the thyroid gland function, scanty data have been released on this matter so far.

AIM

The aim of this article was to review how hormonal OCs, including estrogen- or progesterone-only containing medications, interact with the hepatic production of thyroid-binding globulin (TBG) and, consequently, their effects on serum levels of thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). We also reviewed the effect of Levo-T4 (LT4) administration in women taking OCs and how they influence the thyroid function in both euthyroid women and in those receiving LT4.

REVIEW

The estrogenic component of the pills is capable of increasing various liver proteins, such as TBG, sex hormone-binding protein (SHBG) and coagulation factors. On the other hand, the role of progestogens is to modulate estrogen-dependent effects mainly through their anti-androgenic action. In fact, a reduction in the effects of androgens is useful to keep the thromboembolic and cardiovascular risks low, whereas OCs increase it especially in women with subclinical hypothyroidism or in those treated with LT4. Accordingly, subclinical hypothyroidism is known to be associated with a higher mean platelet volume than normal and this increases cardiovascular risk due to platelet hyperactivity caused by incomplete thrombocytopoietic maturation.

Clinical, hormonal and metabolic parameters in women with PCOS with different combined oral contraceptives (containing chlormadinone acetate versus drospirenone)

INTRODUCTION

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine disorder affecting 5-10% of women of reproductive age. It is characterized by chronic anovulation leading to menstrual disorders, and increased infertility. The syndrome can also manifest as hirsutism and acne.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of the study was to compare, over a duration of 6 months, the effects of drospirenone (DRSP) versus chlormadinone acetate (CMA) containing oral contraceptives (OCs) on clinical, hormonal, and metabolic parameters in 120 PCOS women.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

120 women with the diagnosis of PCOS according to the Rotterdam 2003 criteria were recruited to the study. All patients were divided to two treatment groups of OCs, containing: 3 mg DRSP/30 mcg EE (ethinylestradiol) (60 patients) and 2 mg CMA/30 mcg EE (60 patients). Clinical parameters such as hirsutismus and acne were evaluated. Metabolic parameters such as serum insulin, glucose concentration, homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance, body mass index, systolic and diastolic blood pressures were also measured. Among hormonal parameters, serum estradiol, luteinizing hormone, follicle-stimulating hormone, prolactin, testosterone, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, thyroid-stimulating hormone, and free thyroxine were measured.

RESULTS

The use of both DRSP- or CMA-containing OCs provided similar positive therapeutic effects with regard to clinical, metabolic, and hormonal parameters. Among clinical parameters, like hirsutismus, after 6 months of continuous OC treatment, a statistically significant improvement was observed in both groups: DRSP (p <  0.0001) and CMA OC treatment (p < 0.0001). In addition, significant improvement was showed according to acne lesions both after DRSP (p < 0.0001) and CMA treatments (p < 0.0001). Among glucose, insulin levels and HOMA-IR, there were statistically significant higher levels in both groups after DRSP (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001, p < 0.05) and CMA OC treatment (p < 0.02, p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001). Hormonal parameters such as LH, FSH, prolactin, testosterone and DHEA-S were statistically significant lower in both groups after DRSP (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001, p < 0.01, p < 0,002, and p < 0.0001) and CMA OC treatment (p < 0.0001, p < 0.0001, p < 0.04, p < 0.002, and p < 0.0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Further research, however, is needed not only to define optimal duration, and to clarify the effects of treatment on long-term metabolic outcomes, but also to explore different treatment options and possible combined therapies.

Investigation of the Relationship between MR-Based Supraclavicular Fat Fraction and Thyroid Hormones

PURPOSE

Brown adipose tissue (BAT) plays a potential role in energy and glucose metabolism in humans. Thyroid hormones (TH) are main regulators of BAT development and function. However, it remains unknown how the magnetic resonance (MR)-based proton density fat fraction (PDFF) of supraclavicular adipose tissue used as a surrogate marker for BAT presence relates to TH. Therefore, the purpose of this analysis was to investigate the relationship between supraclavicular PDFF and serum levels of TH.

METHODS

In total, 96 adult volunteers from a large cross-sectional study who underwent additional MR examination of the neck and pelvis were included in this analysis. Segmented PDFF maps of the supraclavicular and gluteal subcutaneous adipose tissue were generated. Delta PDFF was calculated as the difference between gluteal and supraclavicular PDFF and grouped as high (≥12%) or low (<12%) based on the median and the clinical rationale of a high versus low probability of BAT being present. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (mIU/L), free triiodothyronine (FT3, pg/mL) and free thyroxine (FT4, ng/dL) levels were determined in blood samples. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight (kg)/height (m)2. Statistical analyses included the use of paired samples ttest, simple linear regression analysis and a multivariable linear regression analysis.

RESULTS

The median age of the subjects (77% female) was 33 years, BMI ranged from 17.2 to 43.1 kg/m2. Supraclavicular and gluteal PDFF differed significantly (76.5 ± 4.8 vs. 89.4 ± 3.5 %, p < 0.01). Supraclavicular PDFF was associated with FT3 in subjects with high delta PDFF (R2 = 0.17, p < 0.01), with higher FT3 being associated with lower supraclavicular PDFF (y = 85.2 + -3.6 x). In a multivariable linear regression analysis considering further potential prognostic factors, the interaction between the delta PDFF group and FT3 remained a predictor for supraclavicular PDFF (B = -4.65, p < 0.01).

DISCUSSION/CONCLUSIONS

Supraclavicular PDFF corresponds to the presence of BAT. In the present analysis, supraclavicular PDFF is correlated with FT3 in subjects with high delta PDFF. Therefore, the present findings suggest that biologically active T3 may be involved in the development of supraclavicular BAT.

Posttraumatic stress disorder and incidence of thyroid dysfunction in women

BACKGROUND

Abnormal thyroid function is prevalent among women and has been linked to increased risk of chronic disease. Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) has been linked to thyroid dysfunction in some studies; however, the results have been inconsistent. Thus, we evaluated trauma exposure and PTSD symptoms in relation to incident thyroid dysfunction in a large longitudinal cohort of civilian women.

METHODS

We used data from 45 992 women from the ongoing Nurses' Health Study II, a longitudinal US cohort study that began in 1989. In 2008, history of trauma and PTSD were assessed with the Short Screening Scale for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, fourth edition, PTSD, and incident thyroid dysfunction was determined by participants' self-report in biennial questionnaires of physician-diagnosed hypothyroidism and Graves' hyperthyroidism. The study period was from 1989 to 2013. Proportional hazard models were used to estimate multivariable-adjusted hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for incident hypothyroidism and Graves' hyperthyroidism.

RESULTS

In multivariable-adjusted models, we found significant associations for PTSD only with hypothyroidism [p-trend <0.001; trauma with no PTSD symptoms, 1.08 (95% CI 1.02-1.15); 1-3 PTSD symptoms, 1.12 (95% CI 1.04-1.21); 4-5 PTSD symptoms, 1.23 (95% CI 1.13-1.34); and 6-7 PTSD symptoms, 1.26 (95% CI 1.14-1.40)]. PTSD was not associated with risk of Graves' hyperthyroidism (p-trend = 0.34). Associations were similar in sensitivity analyses restricted to outcomes with onset after 2008, when PTSD was assessed.

CONCLUSIONS

PTSD was associated with higher risk of hypothyroidism in a dose-dependent fashion. Highlighted awareness for thyroid dysfunction may be especially important in women with PTSD.

Estradiol modulation of the renin-angiotensin system and the regulation of fear extinction

Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is more prevalent in women than men, yet much remains to be determined regarding the mechanism underlying this sex difference. Clinical and preclinical studies have shown that low estradiol levels during extinction of fear conditioning in rodents (i.e., cue exposure therapy in humans) leads to poor extinction consolidation and increased fear during extinction recall. The renin-angiotensin system (RAS) is also associated with stress-related pathologies, and RAS antagonists can enhance extinction consolidation in males. However, less is known about how estradiol and the RAS converge to alter fear extinction consolidation in females. Since estradiol downregulates the RAS, we determined the role of surgically (via ovariectomy [OVX]) and pharmacologically (via the hormonal contraceptive [HC], levonorgestrel) clamping estradiol at low levels in female rats on fear-related behavior, serum estradiol and angiotensin II (Ang II) levels, and angiotensin II type I receptor (AT1R) binding in the brain. We then tested whether the AT1R antagonist losartan would alter fear-related behavior in an estradiol-dependent manner. We found that both OVX and HC treatment produced extinction consolidation deficits relative to intact female rats in proestrus (when estradiol levels are high), and that losartan treatment mitigated these deficits and reduced freezing. OVX, but not HC, altered AT1R ligand binding, though HC reduced estradiol and increased Ang II levels in plasma. These findings have significant clinical implications, indicating that administration of an AT1R antagonist, especially if estradiol levels are low, prior to an exposure therapy session may improve treatment outcomes in females.

The progestin norethisterone affects thyroid hormone-dependent metamorphosis of Xenopus laevis tadpoles at environmentally relevant concentrations

Previously, levonorgestrel (LNG) has been shown to be an endocrine disruptor of the amphibian thyroid system. In the present study, we investigated whether anti-thyroidal effects are a common property of progestins other than LNG. Premetamorphic Xenopus laevis tadpoles were exposed to norethisterone (NET) and dienogest DIE (each at 0.1-10nM) and LNG (10nM) until completion of metamorphosis. LNG and NET at all concentrations caused a significant developmental retardation whereas DIE did not impair time to metamorphosis. In LNG and 10nM NET exposed animals, tsh mRNA levels increased considerably later than the developmental delay occurred and thyroid histopathology showed no signs of TSH-hyperstimulation. Instead, thyroid glands from these treatments appeared inactive in producing thyroid hormones. Thyroidal transcript levels of dio2 and dio3 were increased by treatments with LNG and NET at 1nM and 10nM, whereas iyd mRNA was reduced by LNG and 10nM NET. Expression of slc5α5 was not changed by any treatment. Effects of DIE differed from those induced by LNG and NET. No developmental delay was measurable; however, tshβ and dio2 mRNAs were increased in pituitary glands of tadpoles exposed to 1.0nM and 10nM DIE. Thyroid histopathology displayed no abnormalities and thyroidal mRNA expression of the genes analyzed (slc5α5, iyd, dio2, dio3) was not changed by DIE. Overall, our results provide evidence that the anti-thyroidal effects already known from LNG are also present in another progestin, namely NET, even at environmentally relevant concentrations. In conclusion we suggest that progestins do not only pose an environmental risk in terms of their impact on reproductive success of aquatic vertebrates, but also with respect to their anti-thyroidal properties affecting amphibian metamorphosis.

Differentiating constitutional thinness from anorexia nervosa in DSM 5 era

INTRODUCTION

Constitutional thinness (CT) is an underweight state characterized by normal menstruations and no change in feeding behaviour. Thinness is the only resemblance between Anorexia Nervosa (AN) and CT. Removal of amenorrhea from the new DSM 5 definition of AN might result in misdiagnosis between these two populations. The objective of this study was to compare CT, AN and Control subjects in terms of biological, anthropometric, and psychological markers in order to better distinguish AN from CT subjects.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Body composition, nutritional markers, pituitary hormones, bone markers and psychological scores were evaluated in three groups of young women: fifty-six CT, forty restrictive-type AN and fifty-four Control subjects. For every marker, a receiver Operator Characteristics (ROC) curve was calculated to evaluate the accuracy of differentiation between AN and CT groups.

RESULTS

For most studied parameters, CT subjects were similar to Controls but dramatically different from AN subjects. DEBQ Restrained Eating subscale score was identified by ROC data analysis as the only psychological parameter tested to successfully differentiate AN from CT. Free-T3 and Leptin were shown to be powerful markers to differentiate AN and CT populations as they were highly specific and sensitive ones.

CONCLUSION

The exclusive use of psychological testing criteria is not always sufficient to differentiate AN and CT patients. Minimally, additional testing of Free T3 levels, which is cheap and widely accessible for general practitioners, should be completed to avoid misdiagnosis which could result in the implementation of ineffective treatment plans and social stigmatization for CT women.

Hormonal and reproductive risk factors of papillary thyroid cancer: A population-based case-control study in France

The three times higher incidence of thyroid cancer in women compared to men points to a role of female sex hormones in its etiology. However the effects of these factors are poorly understood. We analyzed the association between thyroid cancer and hormonal and reproductive factors among women enrolled in CATHY, a population-based case-control study conducted in France. The study included 430 cases of papillary thyroid cancer and 505 controls frequency-matched on age and area of residence. The odds ratios for thyroid cancer increased with age at menarche (p trend 0.05). Postmenopausal women were at increased risk, as compared to premenopausal women, particularly if menopause followed an ovariectomy, and for women with age at menopause <55years. In addition, use of oral contraceptives and menopausal hormone therapy reduced the association with thyroid cancer by about one third, and breastfeeding by 27%. Overall, these findings provide evidence that the risk of thyroid cancer increases with later age at menarche and after menopause, and decreases with use of oral contraceptives and menopausal hormone therapy. These findings confirm an implication of hormonal factors in papillary thyroid cancer risk, whose mechanisms need to be elucidated.

Progestins used in endocrine therapy and the implications for the biosynthesis and metabolism of endogenous steroid hormones

Steroidogenesis refers to the de novo synthesis of steroid hormones from cholesterol by a number of sequential enzyme catalysed reactions in the adrenal and the gonads. In addition, circulating steroid hormone precursors are further metabolised in selected peripheral tissues. It has been suggested that the biosynthesis of endogenous steroid hormones can be modulated by progestins, used widely by women in female reproductive medicine. However, as a number of structurally diverse progestins with different pharmacological properties are available, it is possible that these synthetic compounds may vary in their effects on steroidogenesis. This review summarises the evidence indicating that progestins influence the biosynthesis of steroid hormones in the adrenal and gonads, as well as the metabolism of these endogenous hormones in the breast, highlighting the limitations to the current knowledge and directions for future research.

The synthetic gestagen levonorgestrel directly affects gene expression in thyroid and pituitary glands of Xenopus laevis tadpoles

The synthetic gestagen levonorgestrel (LNG) was previously shown to perturb thyroid hormone-dependent metamorphosis in Xenopus laevis. However, so far the mechanisms underlying the anti-metamorphic effects of LNG remained unknown. Therefore, a series of in vivo and ex vivo experiments was performed to identify potential target sites of LNG action along the pituitary-thyroid axis of X. laevis tadpoles. Prometamorphic tadpoles were treated in vivo with LNG (0.01-10nM) for 72h and brain-pituitary and thyroid tissue was analyzed for marker gene expression. While no treatment-related changes were observed in brain-pituitary tissue, LNG treatment readily affected thyroidal gene expression in tadpoles including decreased slc5a5 and iyd mRNA expression and a strong induction of dio2 and dio3 expression. When using an ex vivo organ explant culture approach, direct effects of LNG on both pituitary and thyroid gland gene expression were detecTable Specifically, treatment of pituitary explants with 10nM LNG strongly stimulated dio2 expression and concurrently suppressed tshb expression. In thyroid glands, ex vivo LNG treatment induced dio2 and dio3 mRNA expression in a thyrotropin-independent manner. When thyroid explants were cultured in thyrotropin-containing media, LNG caused similar gene expression changes as seen after 72h in vivo treatment including a very strong repression of thyrotropin-induced slc5a5 expression. Concerning the anti-thyroidal activity of LNG as seen under in vivo conditions, our ex vivo data provide clear evidence that LNG directly affects expression of genes important for thyroidal iodide handling as well as genes involved in negative feedback regulation of pituitary tshb expression.

Biomarkers of PAH exposure and hematologic effects in subjects exposed to combustion emission during residential (and professional) cooking practices in Pakistan

The aim of this study was to evaluate and compare the exposure of household women and professional male workers to combustion emission in the indoor and semi-outdoor environments, respectively, by using biochemical parameters and the biomarkers of exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH). Female (WR n = 60) and male "cooks" (WC n = 60) exposed to the combustion emission of fuel wood and coal in rural/suburban areas of Pakistan were recruited in this study and compared to non-exposed female (CF) and male (CM) groups (n = 32 and 34, respectively). Urinary biomarkers of PAH exposure including 1-hyroxypyrene (1-OHPyr), α-naphthol, and β-naphthol were analyzed together with the biomarkers of effect, including the serum c-reactive proteins (CRP), white blood cells (WBCs), hemoglobin (Hb), red blood cells (RBC), and platelet (PLT) count. In addition, blood superoxide dismutase (SOD) and urinary level of 8-hydroxydeoxyguanosine (8-OHdG) were evaluated to determine the oxidative stress and DNA damage, respectively. A questionnaire was used to document demographic-, health-, and exposure-related information. The results showed that urinary β-naphthol was almost 44% higher in WR subjects than WC (median 7.69 vs. 3.39 μmol/mol-Cr, respectively; p = 0.01) and respective controls (CF). Higher urinary 8-OHdG were observed in WR (71.1 ng/mg-Cr) than WC (56.37 ng/mg-Cr) (p < 0.001), and lower life status and higher degree of headache were observed in WR than WC. In WCs, however, a low Hb and high WBC (8.29 × 10(3) μL(-1), ranging between 6.1 and 10.6 × 10(3) μL(-1)) were observed in comparison with CM. The study shows that WC subjects used larger amount of fuel and were subjected to prolonged exposure. It was concluded that the role of ventilation is fundamental and WR were more exposed to PAHs despite the fact that WC spent more time in cooking (due to occupational requirement) than WR.

Effects of sex and gender on adaptations to space: reproductive health

In this report, sex/gender research relevant to reproduction on Earth, in conjunction with the extant human and animal observations in space, was used to identify knowledge gaps and prioritize recommendations for future sex- and gender-specific surveillance and monitoring of male and female astronauts. With overall increased durations of contemporary space missions, a deeper understanding of sex/gender effects on reproduction-related responses and adaptations to the space environment is warranted to minimize risks and insure healthy aging of the men and women who travel into space.

Thyroid volume and Doppler evaluation of inferior thyroid artery in ultrasound: Comparison between current and previous users of oral contraceptives

BACKGROUND

This study aimed to compare thyroid volume and Doppler sonographic evaluation of the inferior thyroid artery using ultrasound in current and previous users of oral contraceptives (OCs).

METHODS

We evaluated 119 women who either currently use (n = 66) or have previously used OCs (n = 53) using color Doppler ultrasound for thyroid volume and resistance index, peak-systolic, and end-diastolic velocities of the inferior thyroid artery. Previous OC users were divided into two groups: previous OC use for <1 year and previous OC use for ≥1 year.

RESULTS

A comparison of the thyroid volume revealed an increased volume in women with previous OC use for ≥1 year and in current users compared with those with previous OC use for <1 year (previous OC use for ≥1 year: 7.49 mL versus previous OC use for <1 year: 6.13 mL; p < 0.01). The relationship between OC use and an enlarged thyroid remained after adjusting for thyroid-stimulating hormone levels (p = 0.03). There were no differences in the inferior thyroid artery blood flow measurements.

CONCLUSIONS

In healthy women, current use and previous OC use for ≥1 year were associated with increased thyroid volume that was unrelated to increased blood flow in the gland.

Progesterone and norgestrel alter transcriptional expression of genes along the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis in zebrafish embryos-larvae

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of progestins on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis in the early stage of zebrafish. Zebrafish embryos were exposed to progesterone (P4) or norgestrel (NGT) at 5, 50 and 100 ng L(-1) for 144 h post fertilization (hpf), and the transcriptional levels of target genes along the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis were determined daily. The results showed that P4 had only minor effects on the mRNA expression of thyroglobulin (Tg), iodothyronine deiodinase type Ι (Dio1) and thyroid hormone receptor β (Thrb) genes. Similarly, the effects of NGT on transcripts of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (Trh), Dio1, iodothyronine deiodinase type II (Dio2) and thyroid hormone receptor α (Thra) genes were generally low. In addition, NGT resulted in some alterations of Tg and Thrb transcripts at different time points. However, a strong induction of Nis mRNA by P4 and NGT was observed in zebrafish embryos-larvae. The overall results showed that besides Nis no effects on the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis are observed following exposure to P4 and NGT, which imply that both P4 and NGT have potential effects on the thyroid endocrine system by inducing transcript of Nis gene during the early stage of zebrafish.

Multinational, multicentre, randomised, open-label study evaluating the impact of a 91-day extended regimen combined oral contraceptive, compared with two 28-day traditional combined oral contraceptives, on haemostatic parameters in healthy women

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the impact of a 91-day extended regimen combined oral contraceptive (150 μg levonorgestrel [LNG]/30 μg ethinylestradiol [EE] for 84 days, followed by 10 μg EE for seven days [Treatment 1]) compared with two traditional 21/7 regimens (21 days 150 μg LNG/30 μg EE [Treatment 2] or 150 μg desogestrel [DSG]/30 μg EE [Treatment 3], both with seven days' hormone free), on several coagulation factors and thrombin formation markers.

METHODS

Randomised, open-label, parallel-group comparative study involving healthy women (18-40 years). The primary endpoint was change from baseline in prothrombin fragment 1 + 2 (F1 + 2) levels over six months.

RESULTS

A total of 187 subjects were included in the primary analysis. In all groups, mean F1 + 2 values were elevated after six months of treatment. Changes were comparable between Treatments 1 and 2 (least squares mean change: 170 pmol/L and 158 pmol/L, respectively) but noticeably larger after Treatment 3 (least squares mean change: 592 pmol/L). The haemostatic effects of Treatment 1 were comparable to those of Treatment 2 and noninferior to those of Treatment 3 (lower limit of 95% confidence interval [- 18.3 pmol/L] > - 130 pmol/L).

CONCLUSIONS

The LNG/EE regimens had similar effects on F1 + 2. Noninferiority was demonstrated between extended regimen LNG/EE and DSG/EE.

Estradiol valerate/dienogest: a novel combined oral contraceptive

BACKGROUND

Estradiol valerate/dienogest (E2V/DNG) is a combined oral contraceptive (COC) with 2 new hormonal entities and a unique 4-phasic dosing regimen indicated for women to prevent pregnancy.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this article is to review the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, clinical efficacy, tolerability, and cost of E2V/DNG.

METHODS

MEDLINE (1966-June 2011) and EMBASE (1966-June 2011) were searched for original research and review articles published in the English language using the terms Natazia or Qlaira or estradiol valerate and dienogest. The reference lists of identified articles were reviewed for additional pertinent publications. Abstracts from the 2005 to 2011 American Society of Reproductive Medicine and American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists meetings were searched using the same terms.

RESULTS

The search provided 56 articles that addressed the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, clinical efficacy, and tolerability of E2V/DNG in women of reproductive age. Articles reporting efficacy or tolerability in the setting of menopause were excluded. The initial efficacy of E2V/DNG on ovulation inhibition was investigated in 2 prospective, randomized, open-label, Phase II dose-finding studies. The dose that was approved by the Food and Drug Administration resulted in 3.13% of women ovulating in the second cycle of treatment (90% CI, 0.2%-6.05%). Rate of pregnancy prevention with this agent was reported with a Pearl Index ranging from 0.73 to 1.27 (unadjusted) to 0.34 to 0.72 (adjusted for method failure only). The mean duration of withdrawal bleeding was 4.3 days (range, 4.0-4.6 days) among 2266 women receiving 13 treatment cycles. Adverse events reported in >1% of patients included abdominal pain, acne, breast pain, dysmenorrhea, emotional lability, headache, nausea, and weight increase.

CONCLUSIONS

Estradiol valerate/dienogest is a new contraceptive formulation. It offers efficacy, tolerability, and an acceptable safety profile with a potentially better bleeding pattern than levonorgestrel-containing COCs. This COC may be especially useful for older women of reproductive age who are adherent to therapy and looking for shorter and/or lighter menstrual cycles. Studies will need to be performed to determine whether clinically significant differences in outcomes exist among E2V/DNG and other available COCs.

Effects of a monophasic combined oral contraceptive containing nomegestrol acetate and 17β-oestradiol in comparison to one containing levonorgestrel and ethinylestradiol on markers of endocrine function

Objectives

To compare the effects of two monophasic combined oral contraceptives, containing either nomegestrol acetate/17β-oestradiol (NOMAC/E2) or levonorgestrel/ ethinylestradiol (LNG/EE) on endocrine function, androgens, and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG).

Methods

Randomised, open-label, multi-centre trial involving 121 healthy women, aged 18-50 years old. Participants received NOMAC/E2 (2.5 mg/1.5 mg) in a 24/4-day regimen (n = 60) or LNG/EE (150 μg/30 μg) in a 21/7-day regimen (n = 61) for six cycles. The primary outcome was the change from baseline to cycle 6 in markers of adrenal and thyroid function, androgens, and SHBG.

Results

Total cortisol, corticosteroid-binding globulin (CBG), and thyroxine-binding globulin (TBG) increased from baseline in both groups, with significantly greater increases in the LNG/EE group. No relevant changes from baseline or differences between the groups were observed for thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and free thyroxine (T₄). Androgens and androgen precursors decreased from baseline in both groups, with significantly greater decreases in the LNG/EE group (except for free testosterone). A greater increase in SHBG was observed with NOMAC/E2 than with LNG/EE.

Conclusions

NOMAC/E2 has significantly less influence on markers of adrenal and thyroid function and androgens than LNG/EE. The clinical relevance of these findings requires further study.

The synthetic gestagen levonorgestrel impairs metamorphosis in Xenopus laevis by disruption of the thyroid system

Synthetic gestagens, including levonorgestrel (LNG), are active compounds in contraceptives, and several studies report their occurrence in surface waters. However, information about endocrine-disrupting effects in nontarget organisms is scarce. The present study investigated effects of LNG exposure on thyroid hormone-dependent metamorphosis of Xenopus laevis. Premetamorphic X. laevis tadpoles at Nieuwkoop and Faber (NF) stage 48 were exposed in a flow-through culture system to four LNG concentrations (10(-11), 10(-10), 10(-9), and 10(-8)M) over the period of metamorphosis. At NF 58 and 66, tadpoles were examined sex specifically. Developmental time and organismal responses were recorded and correlated with molecular and histopathological endpoints. Exposure to 10(-8)M LNG caused an inhibition of metamorphosis resulting in developmental arrest at early climax stages as giant tadpoles or tailed frogs. In brain-pituitary tissue of NF 58 tadpoles, gene expression of thyroid-stimulating hormone (β-subunit; TSHβ), TH receptor β (TRβ), and deiodinase type 3 (D3) was not changed. Instead, prolactin (PRL) messenger RNA (mRNA) was significantly increased by 10(-9)M LNG in females and by 10(-8)M LNG in both sexes. In NF 66 tadpoles, mRNA levels of TSHβ mRNA were significantly increased in the 10(-9) and 10(-8)M LNG treatment groups indicating a hypothyroid state. No changes of TRβ, D3, and PRL gene expression were detected. Histopathological evaluation of thyroid gland sections revealed no typical sign of hypothyroidism but rather an inactivated appearance of the thyroid. In conclusion, our data demonstrate for the first time a completely new aspect of thyroid system disruption caused by synthetic gestagens in developing amphibians.

Nutrition and human health from a sex-gender perspective

Nutrition exerts a life-long impact on human health, and the interaction between nutrition and health has been known for centuries. The recent literature has suggested that nutrition could differently influence the health of male and female individuals. Until the last decade of the 20th century, research on women has been neglected, and the results obtained in men have been directly translated to women in both the medicine and nutrition fields. Consequently, most modern guidelines are based on studies predominantly conducted on men. However, there are many sex-gender differences that are the result of multifactorial inputs, including gene repertoires, sex steroid hormones, and environmental factors (e.g., food components). The effects of these different inputs in male and female physiology will be different in different periods of ontogenetic development as well as during pregnancy and the ovarian cycle in females, which are also age dependent. As a result, different strategies have evolved to maintain male and female body homeostasis, which, in turn, implies that there are important differences in the bioavailability, metabolism, distribution, and elimination of foods and beverages in males and females. This article will review some of these differences underlying the impact of food components on the risk of developing diseases from a sex-gender perspective.

Ethinylestradiol/dienogest in oral contraception

The low-dose combined oral contraceptive of ethinylestradiol 30 microg and dienogest 2 mg was launched in Germany in 1995, and is now the most commonly prescribed oral contraceptive in this country. Dienogest is a novel 19-nortestosterone-derived progestin with a unique pharmacokinetic and pharmacological profile, including antiandrogenic properties. Clinical studies have demonstrated that ethinylestradiol/dienogest is a reliable ovulation inhibitor with high contraceptive efficacy that is comparable with other combined oral contraceptives. It also provides effective cycle control, with reduced intensity and duration of menstrual bleeding, and improves dysmenorrhoea. The combination of ethinylestradiol and dienogest reduces serum androgen levels, and increases the levels of thyroid hormones; however, although thyroid hormone levels increase, there is no increased activity due to increases in transporter protein. Like other low-dose oral contraceptives, ethinylestradiol/dienogest has only minor influences on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism, adrenal hormones and blood pressure parameters, and appears to have a balanced effect on the haemostatic system. Ethinylestradiol/dienogest also has beneficial effects on hair and skin; a number of studies have reported decreased hair and skin greasiness, and improvements in acne vulgaris following treatment with ethinylestradiol/dienogest. After discontinuation of ethinylestradiol/dienogest, there may be a small delay in conception during the first three cycles, but there is no subsequent impairment of fertility. Furthermore, the duration of use of ethinylestradiol/dienogest does not seem to influence the rate of conception or time to conception. Ethinylestradiol/dienogest is well tolerated; adverse reactions associated with treatment include breast pain, headache and nausea/vomiting. These adverse reactions are rare and decrease in incidence over time.

Acute HPA axis response to naltrexone differs in female vs. male smokers

BACKGROUND

Both opioid antagonist administration and cigarette smoking acutely increase hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity as measured by adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) and cortisol levels. However, male and female smokers may differ in their response to the opioid antagonist naltrexone, which may be partially mediated by sex differences in HPA axis function. Smokers, as a group, have frequently been shown to have HPA axis dysfunction, which may have relevance to the course and maintenance of nicotine dependence. The purpose of this study was to examine possible sex differences in HPA axis function by comparing stress-hormone response to naltrexone within healthy male and female smokers. Additionally, exploratory analyses compared the combined effects of naltrexone and cigarette smoking on hormonal responsivity between the sexes.

METHOD

Thirty-eight healthy smokers (22 men) were tested in two separate morning sessions after 12h of smoking abstinence. For women, self-reports of menstrual cycle information were obtained prior to each session (date of last menstruation, cycle length, reproductive phase, etc.). Each participant received 50mg naltrexone or placebo capsule (in random order) and plasma levels of ACTH and cortisol were assessed at regular intervals for several hours. A subgroup of 12 participants underwent a similar, additional session in which they smoked a single cigarette three hours after naltrexone administration.

RESULTS

Naltrexone significantly increased ACTH and cortisol levels in women, but not men (DrugxSexxTime, p<0.05). A post hoc analysis suggested that women at an estimated 'high estrogen' phase had a greater cortisol response (DrugxEstrogen level, p<0.05) than those at an estimated 'low estrogen' phase. Exploratory analyses showed that smoking a single cigarette potentiated naltrexone-induced increases in ACTH (p<0.05) and cortisol (p<0.01) in all participants.

CONCLUSION

The findings support the hypothesis that women are more sensitive to opioid antagonism at the level of the HPA axis. Although further studies are needed to examine mechanisms underlying these responses, both results may have clinical implications for the use of naltrexone as a treatment for nicotine dependence.

Effects of oral contraceptives on diurnal profiles of insulin, insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1, growth hormone and cortisol in endurance athletes with menstrual disturbance

BACKGROUND

Menstrual disturbances in female athletes are often explained as a consequence of energy deficiency. Oral contraceptive (OC) treatment may have favorable metabolic effects. We evaluated effects of OCs on diurnal secretions of insulin, insulin-like growth factor binding protein 1 (IGFBP-1), growth hormone (GH) and cortisol in relation to changes in body composition in athletes with menstrual disturbance compared with regularly menstruating athletes and controls.

METHODS

Age- and BMI-matched groups of endurance athletes with menstrual disturbance (OAM, n = 9) and regularly cycling athletes (RM, n = 8) and sedentary controls (CTRL, n = 8) were examined, and hormone levels measured, before and after 8 months of treatment with a low-dose combined OC (30 µg ethinyl estradiol + 150 µg levonorgestrel).

RESULTS

Before OC treatment, the diurnal profile of insulin was lower (P < 0.01) and levels of IGFBP-1 (P < 0.05) and cortisol (P < 0.05) were higher in OAM athletes than in CTRL, whereas GH secretion was higher than in RM athletes (P < 0.05). After treatment, diurnal secretions of these hormones were similar between groups with an increase of IGFBP-1 in the regularly menstruating subjects only (P < 0.001). OC treatment increased body fat mass in OAM athletes (P < 0.01 versus baseline). The change in total fat mass correlated positively with pretreatment diurnal levels of GH (r_s = 0.67, P < 0.01) and cortisol (r_s = 0.64, P < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

OC treatment in endurance athletes with menstrual disturbance increases body fat mass and results in diurnal levels of insulin, IGFBP-1, GH and cortisol that are comparable to those in regularly menstruating subjects. These results suggest that OCs improve metabolic balance in OAM athletes.

A comparative study on the effects of a contraceptive vaginal ring NuvaRing®and an oral contraceptive on carbohydrate metabolism and adrenal and thyroid function

OBJECTIVES

To compare carbohydrate metabolism, adrenal and thyroid function during use of a combined contraceptive vaginal ring (NuvaRing, NV Organon, Oss, The Netherlands) with those of a combined oral contraceptive.

METHODS

Healthy women aged 18-40 years used either the vaginal ring, delivering 15 microg ethinylestradiol and 120 microg of etonogestrel per day, or a combined oral contraceptive containing 30 microg ethinylestradiol and 150 microg levonorgestrel, for six cycles. Each cycle comprised 3 weeks of use of the ring or the pill followed by 1 ring- or pill-free week. The following parameters were measured at baseline and at the end of cycles 3 and 6: carbohydrate metabolism (glucose, insulin, glycosylated hemoglobin); adrenal function (total cortisol, cortisol binding globulin, dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate); thyroid function (thyroid stimulating hormone, free thyroxine).

RESULTS

Small and similar increases in insulin were seen in both groups. Concentrations of cortisol binding globulin and total cortisol rose significantly less during ring use than during combined oral contraceptive use (cycle 3, p= 0.0002; cycle 6, p < 0.0001). Levels of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate did not change in either group. Thyroid stimulating hormone levels increased significantly more in the ring group at cycle 3 (p = 0.0016) but free thyroxine levels were unchanged in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Both the vaginal ring and the oral contraceptive have no clinically relevant effects on carbohydrate metabolism, adrenal or thyroid function.

20 microg versus >20 microg estrogen combined oral contraceptives for contraception

BACKGROUND

Concern about estrogen-related adverse effects has led to progressive reductions in the estrogen dose in combination oral contraceptives (COCs). However, reducing the amount of estrogen to improve safety could result in decreased contraceptive effectiveness and unacceptable changes in bleeding patterns.

OBJECTIVES

To test the hypothesis that COCs containing </=20 microg ethinyl estradiol (EE) perform similarly as those containing >20 microg in terms of contraceptive effectiveness, bleeding patterns, discontinuation, and side effects.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched computerized databases (CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and POPLINE) up to January 2008, and searched the references of eligible trials. We wrote to oral contraceptive manufacturers to identify eligible trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

English-language reports of randomized controlled trials were eligible that compare a COC containing </=20 microg EE with a COC containing >20 microg EE. We excluded studies where the interventions were designed to be administered for less than three consecutive cycles or to be used primarily as treatment for non-contraceptive conditions. Trials had to report on contraceptive effectiveness, bleeding patterns, trial discontinuation due to bleeding-related reasons or other side effects, or side effects to be included in the review.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The primary reviewer evaluated all titles and abstracts located in the literature searches to determine whether they met the inclusion criteria. Two reviewers independently extracted data from the studies identified for inclusion. We wrote to the authors when clarifications or additional data were needed. Data were entered and analyzed with RevMan 4.2.

MAIN RESULTS

No differences were found in contraceptive effectiveness for the 13 COC pairs for which this outcome was reported. Compared to the higher-estrogen pills, several COCs containing 20 microg EE resulted in higher rates of early trial discontinuation (overall and due to adverse events such as irregular bleeding) as well as increased risk of bleeding disturbances (both amenorrhea or infrequent bleeding and irregular, prolonged, frequent bleeding, or breakthrough bleeding or spotting).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

While COCs containing 20 microg EE may be theoretically safer, this review did not focus on the rare events required to assess this hypothesis. Data from existing randomized controlled trials are inadequate to detect possible differences in contraceptive effectiveness. Low-dose estrogen COCs resulted in higher rates of bleeding pattern disruptions. However, most trials compared COCs containing different progestin types, and changes in bleeding patterns could be related to progestin type as well as estrogen dose. Higher follow-up rates are essential for meaningful interpretation of results.

Effects of an oral contraceptive containing 30 mcg ethinyl estradiol and 2 mg dienogest on thyroid hormones and androgen parameters: conventional vs. extended-cycle use

BACKGROUND

This study was conducted to investigate the effects of an oral contraceptive containing 30 mcg ethinyl estradiol and 2 mg dienogest on thyroid hormones and androgen parameters.

STUDY DESIGN

Thyroid and androgen parameters were measured in 59 women treated with a monophasic combined oral contraceptive containing 30 mcg ethinyl estradiol and 2 mg dienogest (EE/DNG) either conventionally (13 cycles with 21 days of treatment+7 days without hormones) or according to an extended-cycle regimen (four extended cycles with 84 days of continuous administration of EE/DNG, followed by a hormone-free interval of 7 days). Blood samples were taken on Days 21-26 of the preceding control cycle and on Days 19-21 of the 3rd and 13th conventional cycle, or on Days 82-84 of the first and fourth extended cycle.

RESULTS

At both time points, the serum concentrations of thyroxine-binding globulin were elevated by about 65% in both treatment regimens. Likewise, both groups showed an increase in total triiodothyronine (T3) and total thyroxine (T4) by 30-40%, and no change in free T4. Until the 12th month of conventional treatment, the level of free T3 remained unchanged but decreased slightly during the extended-cycle regimen. In both groups there was a rise of sex hormone-binding globulin by 210-230% after 3 months and by 220-250% after 12 months. The levels of total testosterone were reduced by about 40% and those of free testosterone by 55-65% after 3 and 12 months.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that, during conventional and extended-cycle treatment with EE/DNG, a steady state in the effects on thyroid hormones and androgen parameters was reached within 3 months and that the changes in the various hormonal parameters did not substantially differ between conventional and extended-cycle regimen.

Estrogen effects on thyroid iodide uptake and thyroperoxidase activity in normal and ovariectomized rats

Sex steroids interfere with the pituitary-thyroid axis function, although the reports have been controversial and no conclusive data is available. Some previous reports indicate that estradiol might also regulate thyroid function through a direct action on the thyrocytes. In this report, we examined the effects of low and high doses of estradiol administered to control and ovariectomized adult female rats and to pre-pubertal females. We demonstrate that estradiol administration to both intact adult and pre-pubertal females causes a significant increase in the relative thyroid weight. Serum T3 is significantly decreased in ovariectomized rats, and is normalized by estrogen replacement. Neither doses of estrogen produced a significant change in serum TSH and total T4 in ovariectomized, adult intact and pre-pubertal rats. The highest, supraphysiological, estradiol dose produced a significant increase in thyroid iodide uptake in ovariectomized and in pre-pubertal rats, but not in control adult females. Thyroperoxidase activity was significantly higher in intact adult rats treated with both estradiol doses and in ovariectomized rats treated with the highest estradiol dose. Since serum TSH levels were not significantly changed, we suggest a direct action of estradiol on the thyroid gland, which depends on the age and on the previous gonad status of the animal.

New Reference Intervals for Thyrotropin and Thyroid Hormones Based on National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry Criteria and Regular Ultrasonography of the Thyroid

Background: The aim of our present study was to establish new reference intervals for thyrotropin (TSH) and thyroid hormones based on National Academy of Clinical Biochemistry (NACB) criteria and regular thyroid ultrasonography. We also assessed the effect of potentially confounding factors to modulate the limits of these intervals.

Methods: We investigated 870 apparently healthy persons and excluded, step by step, those with a family history of thyroid disease, pathologic thyroid ultrasonography results, and increased anti-thyroid peroxidase or anti-thyroglobulin antibodies. Accordingly, only 453 of the 870 persons in the entire group were finally included as reference collective. We measured serum concentrations of TSH, total and free thyroxine (T4 and FT4), and total and free triiodothyronine (T3 and FT3) of the whole and the reference collective on the ELECSYS system assays (Roche Diagnostics) and calculated the 2.5th and 97.5th percentiles for comparison.

Results: The calculated lower limit for TSH differed significantly between the reference intervals for healthy persons with an assessed normal thyroid gland vs the nonselected group of healthy blood donors. Age was the only independent factor and was significantly inversely associated with TSH (P &lt;0.0001). Use of oral contracep-tives was a significant predictor for variation in T4 concentrations (P &lt;0.001). Age and oral contraceptives were independently associated with T3 variations (P &lt;0.05). For FT4 vs FT3 variation, gender and (inversely) age (P &lt;0.01) were independent modulating factors.

Conclusions: The selection of healthy persons according to NACB criteria combined with sonographic confirmation of a normal thyroid gland provide a valid basis for the reference interval for TSH. Factors indicating a preclinical disease state, such as family history, pathologic ultrasonography result, or increased anti-thyroid peroxidase and anti-thyroglobulin antibodies, can be associated with normal hormone concentrations. Additionally, patient age and gender as well as use of contraceptives should be considered in diagnostic evaluation of thyroid diseases.

Fatty acid reesterification but not oxidation is increased by oral contraceptive use in women

We evaluated the hypothesis that fatty acid reesterification would be increased during rest and exercise in the midluteal menstrual cycle phase and during oral contraceptive use, when ovarian hormone concentrations are high, compared with the early follicular phase. Subjects were eight moderately active, weight-stable, eumenorrheic women (24.8 ± 1.2 yr, peak oxygen consumption = 42.0 ± 2.3 ml·kg−1·min−1) who had not taken oral contraceptives for at least 6 mo. Plasma free fatty acid (FFA) kinetics were assessed in the 3-h postprandial state by continuous infusion of [1-13C]palmitate and [1,1,2,3,3-2H]glycerol during 90 min of rest and 60 min of exercise at 45% and 65% peak oxygen consumption in the early follicular and midluteal menstrual cycle phases and during the inactive- and high-dose phases following 4 mo of oral contraceptive use. Plasma FFA rates of appearance, disappearance, and oxidation increased significantly from rest to exercise with no differences noted between menstrual cycle or oral contraceptive phases or exercise intensities. Compared with either menstrual cycle phase, oral contraceptive use resulted in an increase in plasma-derived fatty acid reesterification and a decrease in the proportion of plasma FFA rate of disappearance that was oxidized at rest and during exercise. Endogenous and exogenous synthetic ovarian hormones do not exert a measurable influence on plasma FFA turnover or oxidation at rest or during moderate-intensity exercise in the 3-h postprandial state when carbohydrate use predominates. The increase in whole body lipolytic rate during exercise noted previously with oral contraceptive use is not matched by an increase in fatty acid oxidation and results in an increase in reesterification. Synthetic ovarian hormones contained in oral contraceptives increase lipolytic rate, but fatty acid oxidation during exercise is determined by exercise intensity and its metabolic and endocrine consequences.

20 mcg versus >20 mcg estrogen combined oral contraceptives for contraception

BACKGROUND

Concern about estrogen-related adverse effects has led to progressive reductions in the estrogen dose in combination oral contraceptives (COCs). However, reducing the amount of estrogen to improve safety also could result in decreased contraceptive effectiveness and unacceptable changes in bleeding patterns.

OBJECTIVES

To test the hypothesis that COCs containing </=20 mcg ethinyl estradiol (EE) perform similarly as those containing >20 mcg in terms of contraceptive effectiveness, bleeding patterns, discontinuation, and side effects.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched computerized databases (CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, and POPLINE) from their inception to November 2003, searched the references of eligible trials, and wrote to oral contraceptive manufacturers to identify eligible trials.

SELECTION CRITERIA

English-language reports of randomized controlled trials that compare a COC containing </=20 mcg EE with a COC containing >20 mcg EE were eligible. We excluded studies where the interventions were designed to be administered for less than three consecutive cycles or to be used primarily as treatment for non-contraceptive conditions. Trials had to report on contraceptive effectiveness, bleeding patterns, trial discontinuation due to bleeding-related reasons or other side effects, or side effects to be included in the review.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The primary reviewer evaluated all titles and abstracts located in the literature searches to determine whether they met the inclusion criteria. Two reviewers independently extracted data from the studies identified for inclusion. We wrote to the authors when clarifications or additional data were needed. Data were entered and analyzed with RevMan 4.2.

MAIN RESULTS

No differences were found in contraceptive effectiveness for the 11 COC pairs for which this outcome was reported. Several COCs containing 20 mcg EE resulted in higher rates of early trial discontinuation (overall and due to adverse events such as irregular bleeding) as well as increased risk of bleeding disturbances (both amenorrhea/infrequent bleeding and irregular, prolonged, frequent bleeding, or breakthrough bleeding or spotting) than their higher-estrogen comparison pills.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

While COCs containing 20 mcg EE may be theoretically safer, this review did not focus on the rare events required to assess this hypothesis. Data from randomized controlled trials are inadequate to detect possible differences in contraceptive effectiveness. Low-dose estrogen COCs resulted in higher rates of bleeding pattern disruptions. However, most trials compared COCs containing different progestin types, and changes in bleeding patterns could be related to progestin type as well as estrogen dose.

Sex differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics

The importance of reviewing and studying sex-based differences in pharmacologic parameters is demonstrated by the increasing data on gender variation in drug efficacy and toxicity profiles. Sex-based differences in the four major factors that contribute to interindividual pharmacokinetic variability--bioavailability, distribution, metabolism, and elimination--are theorized to stem from variations between men and women in factors such as body weight, plasma volume, gastric emptying time, plasma protein levels, cytochrome P450 activity, drug transporter function, and excretion activity. Sex-determined variations in pharmacodynamics have traditionally been more difficult to study, but a number of recent studies have explored these differences. This review examines the biologic basis of differences in pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics between the sexes and summarizes studies that have addressed these differences. As an example, sex-based variation in the efficacy and toxicity of antiretroviral therapy in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients is explored more thoroughly to illustrate some of the factors underlying sex-based differences in drug therapy.

Adrenocortical effects of oral estrogens and soy isoflavones in female monkeys

The goal of this study was to evaluate the long-term adrenocortical effects of premenopausal oral contraceptives (OC) and postmenopausal conjugated equine estrogens (CEE) and soy isoflavones in a female cynomolgus monkey model. Half of the animals received a triphasic OC for a period of 26 months, after which all monkeys were ovariectomized and randomized to one of three diet groups for 36 months: 1). isoflavone-depleted soy protein (control) (n = 54); 2). soy protein with isoflavones (129 mg/d equivalent) (SPI+) (n = 56); or 3). isoflavone-depleted soy protein with CEE (0.625 mg/d equivalent) (n = 59). In the premenopausal phase, OC treatment resulted in significantly higher cortisol (F) and lower dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, androstenedione, and testosterone relative to intact controls. In the postmenopausal phase, CEE treatment resulted in significantly higher basal F and lower dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, androstenedione, and testosterone when compared with control and SPI+ diets. Serum F and androgens in the SPI+ group did not differ significantly from the control group. The SPI+ group had significantly lower adrenal weight than either control or CEE groups, and this effect was localized primarily to the zona fasciculata region of the adrenal cortex. These findings suggest that long-term estrogen treatment may contribute to an androgen-deficient and hypercortisolemic state.