A gene family encoding glutathione peroxidase homologues in Hordeum vulgare (barley)

The homeostasis of ions and reactive oxygen species in root and shoot play crucial roles in the tolerance of alfalfa to salt alkali stress

High pH saline-alkali stress, mainly NaHCO3, limited the development of animal husbandry in Songnen Plain. Ion imbalance and reactive oxygen species (ROS) metabolism disorder caused by saline-alkali stress inhibited plant growth. In this study, we compared the differences in ion absorption, transport and ROS metabolism between saline-tolerant alfalfa (ZD) and saline-sensitive alfalfa (ZM) under NaHCO3 stress using physiology and transcripomics techniques. WGCNA analysis identified key genes associated with NaHCO3 stress-induced changes. NaHCO3 stress inhibited the absorption of K+ and Mg2+, but activated Ca2+ signal. Furthermore, ZD maintained higher K+, Mg2+ and Ca2+ contents and the K+/Na+ ratio than ZM, this is mainly related to the higher expression of proteins or channel-encoding genes involved in ion absorption and transport in ZD. Antioxidant enzyme systems can be activated in response to NaHCO3 stress. Peroxidase (EC 1.11.1.6), catalase (EC 1.11.1.7) and glutathione transferase (EC 2.5.1.18) activities were higher in ZD than ZM, and most genes encoding the relevant enzymes also demonstrated a stronger up-regulation trend in ZD. Although NaHCO3 stress inhibited Trx-Prx pathway, ZD related enzymes and their genes were also inhibited less than ZM. WGCNA results identified many genes involved in ion absorption, transport and antioxidant systems that play an important role in NaHCO3 stress adaptation. Collectively, ZD has the stronger ion homeostasis regulation and ROS scavenging ability, so it's more resistant to NaHCO3. The results provide theoretical guidance for further understanding of the molecular mechanism of NaHCO3 resistance and provide potential genes for research to improve saline-alkali tolerance in alfalfa.

Characterization of GPX Gene Family in Pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) under Abiotic Stress and ABA Treatment

Plant glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) are important enzymes for removing reactive oxygen species in plant cells and are closely related to the stress resistance of plants. This study identified the GPX gene family members of pepper (Capsicum annuum L.), "CM333", at the whole-genome level to clarify their expression patterns and enzyme activity changes under abiotic stress and ABA treatment. The results showed that eight CaGPX genes were unevenly distributed across four chromosomes and one scaffold of the pepper genome, and their protein sequences had Cys residues typical of the plant GPX domains. The analysis of collinearity, phylogenetic tree, gene structure, and conserved motifs indicated that the CaGPX gene sequence is conserved, structurally similar, and more closely related to the sequence structure of Arabidopsis. Meanwhile, many cis elements involved in stress, hormones, development, and light response were found in the promoter region of the CaGPX gene. In addition, CaGPX1/4 and CaGPX6 were basically expressed in all tissues, and their expression levels were significantly upregulated under abiotic stress and ABA treatment. Subcellular localization showed that CaGPX1 and CaGPX4 are localized in chloroplasts. Additionally, the variations in glutathione peroxidase activity (GSH-Px) mostly agreed with the variations in gene expression. In summary, the CaGPXs gene may play an important role in the development of peppers and their response to abiotic stress and hormones.

The selenium-independent phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase from Theobroma cacao (TcPHGPX) protects plant cells against damages and cell death

Proteins from the glutathione peroxidase (GPX) family, such as GPX4 or PHGPX in animals, are extensively studied for their antioxidant functions and apoptosis inhibition. GPXs can be selenium-independent or selenium-dependent, with selenium acting as a potential cofactor for GPX activity. However, the relationship of plant GPXs to these functions remains unclear. Recent research indicated an upregulation of Theobroma cacao phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase gene (TcPHGPX) expression during early witches' broom disease stages, suggesting the use of antioxidant mechanisms as a plant defense strategy to reduce disease progression. Witches' broom disease, caused by the hemibiotrophic fungus Moniliophthora perniciosa, induces cell death through elicitors like MpNEP2 in advanced infection stages. In this context, in silico and in vitro analyses of TcPHGPX's physicochemical and functional characteristics may elucidate its antioxidant potential and effects against cell death, enhancing understanding of plant GPXs and informing strategies to control witches' broom disease. Results indicated TcPHGPX interaction with selenium compounds, mainly sodium selenite, but without improving the protein function. Protein-protein interaction network suggested cacao GPXs association with glutathione and thioredoxin metabolism, engaging in pathways like signaling, peroxide detection for ABA pathway components, and anthocyanin transport. Tests on tobacco cells revealed that TcPHGPX reduced cell death, associated with decreased membrane damage and H2O2 production induced by MpNEP2. This study is the first functional analysis of TcPHGPX, contributing to knowledge about plant GPXs and supporting studies for witches' broom disease control.

Plant Glutathione Peroxidases: Non-Heme Peroxidases with Large Functional Flexibility as a Core Component of ROS-Processing Mechanisms and Signalling

Glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) are non-heme peroxidases catalyzing the reduction of H₂O₂ or organic hydroperoxides to water or corresponding alcohols using glutathione (GSH) or thioredoxin (TRX) as a reducing agent. In contrast to animal GPXs, the plant enzymes are non-seleno monomeric proteins that generally utilize TRX more effectively than GSH but can be a putative link between the two main redox systems. Because of the substantial differences compared to non-plant GPXs, use of the GPX-like (GPXL) name was suggested for Arabidopsis enzymes. GPX(L)s not only can protect cells from stress-induced oxidative damages but are crucial components of plant development and growth. Due to fine-tuning the H₂O₂ metabolism and redox homeostasis, they are involved in the whole life cycle even under normal growth conditions. Significantly new mechanisms were discovered related to their transcriptional, post-transcriptional and post-translational modifications by describing gene regulatory networks, interacting microRNA families, or identifying Lys decrotonylation in enzyme activation. Their involvement in epigenetic mechanisms was evidenced. Detailed genetic, evolutionary, and bio-chemical characterization, and comparison of the main functions of GPXs, demonstrated their species-specific roles. The multisided involvement of GPX(L)s in the regulation of the entire plant life ensure that their significance will be more widely recognized and applied in the future.

Going Forward and Back: The Complex Evolutionary History of the GPx

Simple Summary

Glutathione peroxidases (GPxs) are considered as one of the main antioxidant enzymes, which reduce peroxides into less toxic compounds. This family of enzymes is found in most eukaryotic organisms, but it is highly divergent regarding its structure, catalytic mechanism, and substrate usage. Furthermore, it is still unclear how these enzymes are dispersed in the animal kingdom. Through robust phylogenetic and sequence analyses, we show that all GPx genes originated from a common ancestor and evolved independently across different kingdoms. In Metazoa, GPx genes expanded into three main groups before the rise of bilaterian animals, and they were further expanded in vertebrates. These expansions allowed GPx enzymes to diversify, not only structurally, but also functionally. Our study contributes to the understanding of how this abundant class of antioxidant enzymes evolved. The evolution of GPxs appears to be a continuous process, leading to the diversification of their functions.

Abstract

There is large diversity among glutathione peroxidase (GPx) enzymes regarding their function, structure, presence of the highly reactive selenocysteine (SeCys) residue, substrate usage, and reducing agent preference. Moreover, most vertebrate GPxs are very distinct from non-animal GPxs, and it is still unclear if they came from a common GPx ancestor. In this study, we aimed to unveil how GPx evolved throughout different phyla. Based on our phylogenetic trees and sequence analyses, we propose that all GPx encoding genes share a monomeric common ancestor and that the SeCys amino acid was incorporated early in the evolution of the metazoan kingdom. In addition, classical GPx and the cysteine-exclusive GPx07 have been present since non-bilaterian animals, but they seem to have been lost throughout evolution in different phyla. Therefore, the birth-and-death of GPx family members (like in other oxidoreductase families) seems to be an ongoing process, occurring independently across different kingdoms and phyla.

Tissue-Biased and Species-Specific Regulation of Glutathione Peroxidase (GPx) Genes in Scallops Exposed to Toxic Dinoflagellates

Marine bivalves could accumulate paralytic shellfish toxins (PSTs) produced by toxic microalgae, which might induce oxidative stress. Glutathione peroxidases (GPxs) are key enzymes functioning in the antioxidant defense, whereas our understanding of their roles in PST challenge in bivalves is limited. Herein, through genome-wide screening, we identified nine (CfGPx) and eight (PyGPx) GPx genes in Zhikong scallop (Chlamys farreri) and Yesso scallop (Patinopecten yessoensis), respectively, and revealed the expansion of GPx3 sub-family in both species. RNA-Seq analysis revealed high expression of scallop GPx3s after D stage larva during early development, and in adult hepatopancreas. However, in scallops exposed to PST-producing dinoflagellates, no GPx was significantly induced in the hepatopancreas. In scallop kidneys where PSTs were transformed to higher toxic analogs, most CfGPxs were up-regulated, with CfGPx3s being acutely and chronically induced by Alexandrium minutum and A. catenella exposure, respectively, but only one PyGPx from GPx3 subfamily was up-regulated by A. catenella exposure. Our results suggest the function of scallop GPxs in protecting kidneys against the oxidative stresses by PST accumulation or transformation. The tissue-, species-, and toxin-dependent expression pattern of scallop GPxs also implied their functional diversity in response to toxin exposure.

Structural and functional characterization of the glutathione peroxidase-like thioredoxin peroxidase from the fungus Trichoderma reesei

Glutathione peroxidases (GPx) are a family of enzymes with the ability to reduce organic and inorganic hydroperoxides to the corresponding alcohols using glutathione or thioredoxin as an electron donor. Here, we report the functional and structural characterization of a GPx identified in Trichoderma reesei (TrGPx). TrGPx was recombinantly expressed in a bacterial host and purified using affinity. Using a thioredoxin coupled assay, TrGPx exhibited activity of 28 U and 12.5 U in the presence of the substrates H₂O₂ and t-BOOH, respectively, and no activity was observed when glutathione was used. These results indicated that TrGPx is a thioredoxin peroxidase and hydrolyses H₂O₂ better than t-BOOH. TrGPx kinetic parameters using a pyrogallol assay resulted at K_mapp = 11.7 mM_, V_maxapp = 10.9 IU/μg TrGPx, k_cat = 19 s^-1 and a catalytic efficiency of 1.6 mM^-1 s^-1 to H₂O₂ as substrate. Besides that, TrGPx demonstrated an optimum pH ranging from 9.0-12.0 and a half-life of 36 min at 80 °C. TrGPx 3D-structure was obtained in a reduced state and non-catalytic conformation. The overall fold is similar to the other phospholipid-hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidases. These data contribute to understand the antioxidant mechanism in fungi and provide information for using antioxidant enzymes in biotechnological applications.

The Glutathione Peroxidase Gene Family in Gossypium hirsutum: Genome-Wide Identification, Classification, Gene Expression and Functional Analysis

The plant glutathione peroxidase (GPX) family consists of multiple isoenzymes with distinct subcellular locations, tissue-specific expression patterns and environmental stress responses. In this study, 13 putative GPXs from the genome of Gossypium hirsutum (GhGPXs) were identified and a conserved pattern among plant GPXs were exhibited, besides this they also responded to multiple environmental stresses and we predicted that they had hormone responsive cis-elements in their promoter regions. Most of the GhGPXs on expression in yeast can scavenge H2O2. Our results showed that different members of the GhGPX gene family were co-ordinately regulated under specific environmental stress conditions, and suggested the importance of GhGPXs in hormone treatments and abiotic stress responses.

A redox-dependent dimerization switch regulates activity and tolerance for reactive oxygen species of barley seed glutathione peroxidase

Monomeric and dimeric forms of recombinant barley (Hordeum vulgare subsp. vulgare) glutathione peroxidase 2 (HvGpx2) are demonstrated to display distinctly different functional properties in vitro. Monomeric HvGpx2 thus has five fold higher catalytic efficiency than the dimer towards tert-butyl hydroperoxide, but is more sensitive to inactivation by hydrogen peroxide. Treatment of the monomer with hydrogen peroxide results in dimer formation. This observed new behavior of a plant glutathione peroxidase suggests a mechanism involving a switch from a highly catalytically competent monomer to a less active, but more oxidation-resistant dimer.

Plant glutathione peroxidases: emerging role of the antioxidant enzymes in plant development and stress responses

The plant glutathione peroxidase (GPX) family consists of multiple isoenzymes with distinct subcellular locations which exhibit different tissue-specific expression patterns and environmental stress responses. Contrary to most of their counterparts in animal cells, plant GPXs contain cysteine instead of selenocysteine in their active site and while some of them have both glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin peroxidase functions, the thioredoxin regenerating system is much more efficient in vitro than the glutathione system. At present, the function of these enzymes in plants is not completely understood. The occurrence of thiol-dependent activities of plant GPX isoenzymes suggests that - besides detoxification of H2O2 and organic hydroperoxides - they may be involved in regulation of the cellular redox homeostasis by maintaining the thiol/disulfide or NADPH/NADP(+) balance. GPXs may represent a link existing between the glutathione- and the thioredoxin-based system. The various thiol buffers, including Trx, can affect a number of redox reactions in the cells most probably via modulation of thiol status. It is still required to identify the in vivo reductant for particular GPX isoenzymes and partners that GPXs interact with specifically. Recent evidence suggests that plant GPXs does not only protect cells from stress induced oxidative damage but they can be implicated in plant growth and development. Following a more general introduction, this study summarizes present knowledge on plant GPXs, highlighting the results on gene expression analysis, regulation and signaling of Arabidopsis thaliana GPXs and also suggests some perspectives for future research.

Expression of major photosynthetic and salt-resistance genes in invasive reed lineages grown under elevated CO2 and temperature

It is important to investigate the molecular causes of the variation in ecologically important traits to fully understand phenotypic responses to climate change. In the Mississippi River Delta, two distinct, sympatric invasive lineages of common reed (Phragmites australis) are known to differ in several ecophysiological characteristics and are expected to become more salt resistant due to increasing atmospheric CO2 and temperature. We investigated whether different patterns of gene expression can explain their ecophysiological differences and increased vigor under future climatic conditions. We compared the transcript abundance of photosynthetic genes of the Calvin cycle (Rubisco small subunit, RbcS; Phosphoglycerate kinase, PGK; Phosphoribulokinase, PRK), genes related with salt transport (Na(+)/H(+) antiporter, PhaNHA) and oxidative stress response genes (Manganese Superoxide dismutase, MnSOD; Glutathione peroxidase, GPX), and the total aboveground biomass production between two genotypes representing the two lineages. The two genotypes (Delta-type, Mediterranean lineage, and EU-type, Eurasian lineage) were grown under an ambient and a future climate scenario with simultaneously elevated CO2 and temperature, and under two different soil salinities (0‰ or 20‰). We found neither differences in the aboveground biomass production nor the transcript abundances of the two genotypes, but soil salinity significantly affected all the investigated parameters, often interacting with the climatic conditions. At 20‰ salinity, most genes were higher expressed in the future than in the ambient climatic conditions. Higher transcription of the genes suggests higher abundance of the protein they code for, and consequently increased photosynthate production, improved stress responses, and salt exclusion. Therefore, the higher expression of these genes most likely contributed to the significantly ameliorated salinity impact on the aboveground biomass production of both P. australis genotypes under elevated temperature and CO2. Although transcript abundances did not explain differences between the lineages, they correlated with the increased vigor of both lineages under anticipated future climatic conditions.

The glutathione peroxidase gene family in Thellungiella salsuginea: genome-wide identification, classification, and gene and protein expression analysis under stress conditions

Glutathione peroxidases (GPX) catalyze the reduction of H2O2 or organic hydroperoxides to water or corresponding alcohols using reduced glutathione, which plays an essential role in ROS (reactive oxygen species) homeostasis and stress signaling. Thellungiella salsuginea (Eutrema salsugineum), a relative of Arabidopsis thaliana, displays an extremely high level of tolerance to salt, drought, cold and oxidative stresses. The enzymatic antioxidant systems may contribute to the stress tolerance of T. salsuginea. In the present study, we aimed at understanding the roles of the antioxidant enzymes in T. salsuginea by focusing on the GPX family. We identified the eight GPX genes in T. salsuginea, and the structure of the N-terminal domains indicated their putative chloroplastic, mitochondrial and cytoplasmic location. The exon-intron organization of these genes exhibited a conserved pattern among plant GPX genes. Multiple environmental stresses and hormone response related cis-acting elements were predicted in the promoters of TsGPX genes. The gene and protein expression profiles of TsGPXs in response to high level of salinity and osmotic stresses, in leaves and roots of T. salsuginea were investigated using real-time RT-PCR and western blotting analysis. Our result showed that different members of the GPX gene family were coordinately regulated under specific environmental stress conditions, and supported the important roles of TsGPXs in salt and drought stress response in T. salsuginea.

Signaling role of phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPX) accompanying sensing of NaCl stress in etiolated sunflower seedling cotyledons

Sunflower seedlings subjected to 120 mM NaCl stress exhibit high total peroxidase activity, differential expression of its isoforms and accumulation of lipid hydroperoxides. This coincides with high specific activity of phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPX) in the 10,000g supernatant from the homogenates of 2-6 d old seedling cotyledons. An upregulation of PHGPX activity by NaCl is evident from Western blot analysis. Confocal laser scanning microscopic (CLSM) analysis of sections of cotyledons incubated with anti-GPX4 (PHGPX) antibody highlights an enhanced cytosolic accumulation of PHGPX, particularly around the secretory canals. Present work, thus, highlights sensing of NaCl stress in sunflower seedlings in relation with lipid hydroperoxide accumulation and its scavenging through an upregulation of PHGPX activity in the cotyledons.

Molecular characterization of two glutathione peroxidase genes of Panax ginseng and their expression analysis against environmental stresses

Glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) are a group of enzymes that protect cells against oxidative damage generated by reactive oxygen species (ROS). GPX catalyzes the reduction of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) or organic hydroperoxides to water or alcohols by reduced glutathione. The presence of GPXs in plants has been reported by several groups, but the roles of individual members of this family in a single plant species have not been studied. Two GPX cDNAs were isolated and characterized from the embryogenic callus of Panax ginseng. The two cDNAs had an open reading frame (ORF) of 723 and 681bp with a deduced amino acid sequence of 240 and 226 residues, respectively. The calculated molecular mass of the matured proteins are approximately 26.4kDa or 25.7kDa with a predicated isoelectric point of 9.16 or 6.11, respectively. The two PgGPXs were elevated strongly by salt stress and chilling stress in a ginseng seedling. In addition, the two PgGPXs showed different responses against biotic stress. The positive responses of PgGPX to the environmental stimuli suggested that ginseng GPX may help to protect against environmental stresses.

Two wheat glutathione peroxidase genes whose products are located in chloroplasts improve salt and H2O2 tolerances in Arabidopsis

Oxidative stress caused by accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is capable of damaging effects on numerous cellular components. Glutathione peroxidases (GPXs, EC 1.11.1.9) are key enzymes of the antioxidant network in plants. In this study, W69 and W106, two putative GPX genes, were obtained by de novo transcriptome sequencing of salt-treated wheat (Triticum aestivum) seedlings. The purified His-tag fusion proteins of W69 and W106 reduced H2O2 and t-butyl hydroperoxide (t-BHP) using glutathione (GSH) or thioredoxin (Trx) as an electron donor in vitro, showing their peroxidase activity toward H2O2 and toxic organic hydroperoxide. GFP fluorescence assays revealed that W69 and W106 are localized in chloroplasts. Quantitative real-time PCR (Q-RT-PCR) analysis showed that two GPXs were differentially responsive to salt, drought, H2O2, or ABA. Isolation of the W69 and W106 promoters revealed some cis-acting elements responding to abiotic stresses. Overexpression of W69 and W106 conferred strong tolerance to salt, H2O2, and ABA treatment in Arabidopsis. Moreover, the expression levels of key regulator genes (SOS1, RbohD and ABI1/ABI2) involved in salt, H2O2 and ABA signaling were altered in the transgenic plants. These findings suggest that W69 and W106 not only act as scavengers of H2O2 in controlling abiotic stress responses, but also play important roles in salt and ABA signaling.

Genotypic differences in physiological characteristics in the tolerance to drought and salinity combined stress between Tibetan wild and cultivated barley

Greenhouse pot experiments were conducted to investigate genotypic differences in response to individual and combined stresses of drought and salinity between Tibetan wild barley genotypes (XZ5, drought-tolerant; XZ16, salinity/aluminum tolerant) and cv. CM72 (salinity-tolerant). Either drought (D) or salinity (S) alone and in combination (D + S) stresses significantly decreased plant growth, chlorophyll content, net photosynthetic rate (Pn), maximal photochemical efficiency of PSII (Fv/Fm), water potential and osmotic potential, with the largest suppression under combined stress, and two wild genotypes showing more tolerance than CM72. Water use efficiency (WUE) increased significantly in XZ5 and XZ16 after D + S, but no significant change in CM72. XZ5 and XZ16 showed 30.9% and 12.1% higher K(+) level and 30.5% and 24.1% lower Na(+)/K(+) ratio in plants, compared with CM72, with increased metal nutrients as Ca, Fe and Mn under D + S. The peak accumulation in proline and glycine-beatine was recorded in combined stress with larger accumulation in two wild genotypes. Moreover, larger increases in the level of ASA and GSH, and the activities of Ca(2+)Mg(2+)-ATPase, and superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), guaiacol peroxidase (POD) and glutathione reductase (GR) under D + S vs control were observed in XZ5 and XZ16 than CM72, with less accumulation of H(2)O(2) and malondialdehyde. These results suggest that high tolerance to D + S stress of XZ5 and XZ16 is closely related to lower Na(+)/K(+) ratio and enhanced Ca(2+)Mg(2+)-ATPase, proline, glycine-beatine and WUE, and improved capacity of antioxidative performance to scavenge reactive oxygen species and thus suppressed level of lipid peroxidation.

Modulation of exogenous glutathione in antioxidant defense system against Cd stress in the two barley genotypes differing in Cd tolerance

Soil cadmium (Cd) contamination has posed a serious problem for safe food production and become a potential agricultural and environmental hazard worldwide. Greenhouse hydroponic experiments were conducted to investigate the modulation of exogenous GSH (reduced glutathione) in antioxidant defense system against the Cd-induced toxicity in plants exposed to 5 muM Cd using two barley genotypes differing in Cd tolerance. Addition of 20 mg L(-1) GSH in 5 muM Cd culture medium significantly alleviated Cd-induced growth inhibition, especially for the sensitive genotype Dong 17 and dramatically depressed O(2)(-), H(2)O(2) and malondialdehyde (MDA) accumulation. GSH mediated intracellular GSH content to keep the level over the control especially in the case of Cd-induced GSH reduction. External GSH counteracted Cd-induced alterations of certain antioxidant enzymes, e.g. brought root dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR) and glutathione peroxidase (GPX) activities of the both genotypes down towards the control level, but elevated the depressed ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase (CAT) activities in Dong 17 after 10-15 d treatment. The examination of APX and superoxide dismutase (SOD) isoenzymes revealed GSH significantly increased MnSOD, sAPX and tAPX activities in the both genotypes, and strongly stimulated Cd-induced decrease in cAPX in the sensitive genotype. Furthermore, External GSH up-regulated root cAPX and leaf cAPX, CAT1, and CAT2 expression at transcript level in Dong 17 to achieve stimulation. These data, especially from the results of depressed O(2)(-), H(2)O(2) and MDA accumulation and elevated Cd-induced decrease in GSH content and APX (strongly stimulated cAPX, sAPX and tAPX) and CAT activities by GSH addition in the sensitive genotype, suggest that elevated intracellular GSH and stimulated APX (especially cAPX, sAPX and tAPX iosenzymes) and CAT activities, when concerning ROS scavenging systems, play an important role in GSH-induced alleviation of oxidative stress.

Enzymatic properties of a recombinant phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase from Momordica charantia and its complementation function in yeast

The entire encoding region for Momordica charantia phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (McPHGPx) was cloned into pET-28a(+) vector and expressed in Escherichia coli BL21(DE3). The purified recombinant McPHGPx displayed GSH-dependent peroxidase activity towards phospholipid hydroperoxide, H2O2, and tert-butyl hydroperoxide and had the highest affinity with and catalytic efficiency for phospholipid hydroperoxide. The optimum temperature of the enzyme activity ranged from 40 to 50 degrees C, thus it is a thermostable enzyme compared to other PHGPx enzymes. Furthermore, McPHGPx expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae PHGPx-deletion mutant rescued the susceptibilities to the oxidation-sensitive polyunsaturated fatty acid (linolenic acid), indicating its PHGPx complementation function in yeast. These results have well documented that McPHGPx functions as a PHGPx in vitro and in vivo and will be beneficial for further functional studies on plant PHGPx enzymes.

The glutathione peroxidase gene family of Lotus japonicus: characterization of genomic clones, expression analyses and immunolocalization in legumes

Despite the multiple roles played by antioxidants in rhizobia-legume symbioses, little is known about glutathione peroxidases (GPXs) in legumes. Here the characterization of six GPX genes of Lotus japonicus is reported. Expression of GPX genes was analysed by quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction in L. japonicus and Lotus corniculatus plants exposed to various treatments known to generate reactive oxygen and/or nitrogen species. LjGPX1 and LjGPX3 were the most abundantly expressed genes in leaves, roots and nodules. Compared with roots, LjGPX1 and LjGPX6 were highly expressed in leaves and LjGPX3 and LjGPX6 in nodules. In roots, salinity decreased GPX4 expression, aluminium decreased expression of the six genes, and cadmium caused up-regulation of GPX3, GPX4 and GPX5 after 1 h and down-regulation of GPX1, GPX2, GPX4 and GPX6 after 3-24 h. Exposure of roots to sodium nitroprusside (a nitric oxide donor) for 1 h increased the mRNA levels of GPX4 and GPX6 by 3.3- and 30-fold, respectively. Thereafter, the GPX6 mRNA level remained consistently higher than that of the control. Immunogold labelling revealed the presence of GPX proteins in root and nodule amyloplasts and in leaf chloroplasts of L. japonicus and other legumes. Labelling was associated with starch grains. These results underscore the differential regulation of GPX expression in response to cadmium, aluminium and nitric oxide, and strongly support a role for GPX6 and possibly other GPX genes in stress and/or metabolic signalling.

Guard-cell signalling for hydrogen peroxide and abscisic acid

Guard cells can integrate and process multiple complex signals from the environment and respond by opening and closing stomata in order to adapt to the environmental signal. Over the past several years, considerable research progress has been made in our understanding of the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) as essential signal molecules that mediate abscisic acid (ABA)-induced stomatal closure. In this review, we discuss hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) generation and signalling, H2O2-induced gene expression, crosstalk and the specificity between ABA and H2O2 signalling, and the cellular mechanism for ROS sensing in guard cells. This review focuses especially on the points of connection between ABA and H2O2 signalling in guard cells. The fundamental progress in understanding the role of ABA and ROS in guard cells will continue to provide a rational basis for biotechnological improvements in the development of drought-tolerant crop plants with improved water-use efficiency.

Purification and Physicochemical Characterization of a Recombinant Phospholipid Hydroperoxide Glutathione Peroxidase from Oryza sativa

Phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPx) is an unique antioxidant enzyme that directly reduces lipid hydroperoxides in biomembranes. In the present work, the entire encoding region for Oryza sativa PHGPx was expressed in Escherichia coli M15, and the purified fusion protein showed a single band with 21.0 kD and pI = 8.5 on SDS- and IFE-PAGE, respectively. Judging from CD and fluorescence spectroscopy, this protein is considered to have a well-ordered structure with 12.2% alpha-helix, 30.7% beta-sheet, 18.5% gamma-turn, and 38.5% random coil. The optimum pH and temperature of the enzyme activity were pH 9.3 and 27 degrees C. The enzyme exhibited the highest affinity and catalytical efficiency to phospholipid hydroperoxide employing GSH or Trx as electron donor. Moreover, the protein displayed higher GSH-dependent activity towards t-Butyl-OOH and H(2)O(2). These results show that OsPHGPx is an enzyme with broad specificity for hydroperoxide substrates and yielded significant insight into the physicochemical properties and the dynamics of OsPHGPx.

Proteome analysis of leaves from the resurrection plant Boea hygrometrica in response to dehydration and rehydration

Resurrection plants differ from other species in their unique ability to survive desiccation. In order to understand the mechanisms of desiccation tolerance, proteome studies were carried out using leaves of the resurrection plant Boea hygrometrica to reveal proteins that were differentially expressed in response to changes in relative water content. This opportunity was afforded by the rare ability of excised B. hygrometrica leaves to survive and resume metabolism following desiccation in a manner similar to intact plants. From a total of 223 proteins that were reproducibly detected and analyzed, 35% showed increased abundance in dehydrated leaves, 5% were induced in rehydrated leaves and 60% showed decreased or unchanged abundance in dehydrated and rehydrated leaves. Since the induction kinetics fall into clearly defined patterns, we suggest that programmed regulation of protein expression triggered by changes of water status. Fourteen dehydration responsive proteins were analyzed by mass spectrometry. Eight proteins were classified as playing a role in reactive oxygen species scavenging, photosynthesis and energy metabolism. In agreement with these findings, glutathione content and polyphenol oxidase activity were found to increase upon dehydration and rapid recovery of photosynthesis was observed.

Seleno-independent glutathione peroxidases

Glutathione peroxidases (GPXs, EC 1.11.1.9) were first discovered in mammals as key enzymes involved in scavenging of activated oxygen species (AOS). Their efficient antioxidant activity depends on the presence of the rare amino-acid residue selenocysteine (SeCys) at the catalytic site. Nonselenium GPX-like proteins (NS-GPXs) with a Cys residue instead of SeCys have also been found in most organisms. As SeCys is important for GPX activity, the function of the NS-GPX can be questioned. Here, we highlight the evolutionary link between NS-GPX and seleno-GPX, particularly the evolution of the SeCys incorporation system. We then discuss what is known about the enzymatic activity and physiological functions of NS-GPX. Biochemical studies have shown that NS-GPXs are not true GPXs; notably they reduce AOS using reducing substrates other than glutathione, such as thioredoxin. We provide evidence that, in addition to their inefficient scavenging action, NS-GPXs act as AOS sensors in various signal-transduction pathways.

Artificial elevation of glutathione affects symptom development in ZYMV-infected Cucurbita pepo L. plants

Styrian oil pumpkin seedlings (Cucurbita pepo L. subsp. pepo var. styriaca GREB: .) were treated for 48 h with 1 mM OTC (L-2-oxothiazolidine-4-carboxylic acid) in order to artificially increase cellular glutathione content. They were inoculated with zucchini yellow mosaic virus (ZYMV) 10 days later. The effects of OTC treatment and ZYMV infection on glutathione levels were examined at the subcellular level by immunogold labeling of glutathione using a transmission electron microscope (TEM). These effects were further tested at the whole-tissue level by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Such tests were carried out a) on roots, cotyledons and the first true leaves immediately after OTC treatment in order to analyze to which extent OTC increases glutathione levels in different cell compartments as well as in the whole organ; and b) in older and younger leaves and in roots three weeks after ZYMV inoculation in order to study how possible effects of OTC on symptom development would correlate with glutathione levels at the subcellular level and in the whole organ. Immunocytological and biochemical investigations revealed that, 48 h after OTC treatment, glutathione content had increased in all investigated organs, up to 144% in peroxisomes of cotyledons. Three weeks after ZYMV inoculation, glutathione labeling density had significantly increased within intact cells of infected leaves, up to 124% in the cytosol of younger leaves. Roots showed decreased amounts of glutathione in the TEM. Biochemical studies revealed that OTC treatment resulted in 41 and 51% higher glutathione content in older and younger ZYMV-infected leaves, respectively, in comparison to untreated and ZYMV-infected plants. Evaluation of symptom development at this point revealed that all untreated ZYMV-infected plants had symptoms, whereas only 42% of OTC-treated ZYMV-infected plants showed signs of symptoms. Quantification of ZYMV particles revealed that all organs of OTC-treated and ZYMV-infected plants contained significantly decreased amounts of ZYMV particles over a period of five weeks when compared to the same organs of untreated ZYMV-infected plants. We can conclude that OTC treatment and subsequently elevated glutathione contents within Styrian oil pumpkin plants led to a strong decrease in virus content, which was accompanied by a suppression of ZYMV-induced symptoms as well as reduced and delayed symptom development within plants exhibiting symptoms.

Plant glutathione peroxidases are functional peroxiredoxins distributed in several subcellular compartments and regulated during biotic and abiotic stresses

We provide here an exhaustive overview of the glutathione (GSH) peroxidase (Gpx) family of poplar (Populus trichocarpa). Although these proteins were initially defined as GSH dependent, in fact they use only reduced thioredoxin (Trx) for their regeneration and do not react with GSH or glutaredoxin, constituting a fifth class of peroxiredoxins. The two chloroplastic Gpxs display a marked selectivity toward their electron donors, being exclusively specific for Trxs of the y type for their reduction. In contrast, poplar Gpxs are much less specific with regard to their electron-accepting substrates, reducing hydrogen peroxide and more complex hydroperoxides equally well. Site-directed mutagenesis indicates that the catalytic mechanism and the Trx-mediated recycling process involve only two (cysteine [Cys]-107 and Cys-155) of the three conserved Cys, which form a disulfide bridge with an oxidation-redox midpoint potential of -295 mV. The reduction/formation of this disulfide is detected both by a shift on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis or by measuring the intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence of the protein. The six genes identified coding for Gpxs are expressed in various poplar organs, and two of them are localized in the chloroplast, with one colocalizing in mitochondria, suggesting a broad distribution of Gpxs in plant cells. The abundance of some Gpxs is modified in plants subjected to environmental constraints, generally increasing during fungal infection, water deficit, and metal stress, and decreasing during photooxidative stress, showing that Gpx proteins are involved in the response to both biotic and abiotic stress conditions.

A plant mitochondrial phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase: its precise localization and higher enzymatic activity

A novel cDNA of phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPx), which encodes a functional protein capable of complementing the yeast PHGHX-deletion mutant, was recently discovered in radish (Raphanus sativus) and designated as RsPHGPx [Yang X-D, Li W-J, Liu J-Y (2005) Biochim Biophys Acta 1728:199-205]. Sequence alignment suggested that RsPHGPx contains a targeting peptide required for transport to mitochondria, but the experimental evidence for the exact intracellular distribution of RsPHGPx remains to be elucidated. To uncover the cellular localization of plant PHGPx, we first investigated RsPHGPx's intracellular distribution. Western blot analysis of subcellular fractions using the RsPHGPx antiserum clearly indicated the distribution of RsPHGPx in the radish mitochondrial fraction. Furthermore, a construct expressing the RsPHGPx precursor tagged with green fluorescent protein was introduced into tobacco and yeast cells, and the fusion protein was transported into both mitochondria, indicating that RsPHGPx was indeed localized in mitochondria. To explore the biochemical functions of this enzyme, we tested the enzymatic activity of the recombinant RsPHGPx protein. It displayed GSH-dependent peroxidase activity and exhibited the largest affinity to and the highest catalytic efficiency on phosphatidylcholine hydroperoxide, suggesting that phospholipid hydroperoxide is probably the optimum substrate for RsPHGPx. Furthermore, RsPHGPx showed a much higher V (max) value, by two orders of magnitude, than those of all other known plant PHGPxs. Taken together, these results showed evidence for the first time of mitochondrial localization and higher activity of PHGPx in plants and provided a framework for continued studies on the physiological functions of RsPHGPx.

Hydroperoxide reduction by thioredoxin-specific glutathione peroxidase isoenzymes of Arabidopsis thaliana

Arabidopsis thaliana contains eight glutathione peroxidase (GPX) homologs (AtGPX1-8). Four mature GPX isoenzymes with different subcellular distributions, AtGPX1, -2, -5 and -6, were overexpressed in Escherichia coli and characterized. Interestingly, these recombinant proteins were able to reduce H2O2, cumene hydroperoxide, phosphatidylcholine and linoleic acid hydroperoxides using thioredoxin but not glutathione or NADPH as an electron donor. The reduction activities of the recombinant proteins with H2O2 were 2-7 times higher than those with cumene hydroperoxide. Km values for thioredoxin and H2O2 were 2.2-4.0 and 14.0-25.4 microM, respectively. These finding suggest that GPX isoenzymes may function to detoxify H2O2 and organic hydroperoxides using thioredoxin in vivo and may also be involved in regulation of the cellular redox homeostasis by maintaining the thiol/disulfide or NADPH/NADP balance.

An Arabidopsis glutathione peroxidase functions as both a redox transducer and a scavenger in abscisic acid and drought stress responses

We isolated two T-DNA insertion mutants of Arabidopsis thaliana GLUTATHIONE PEROXIDASE3 (ATGPX3) that exhibited a higher rate of water loss under drought stress, higher sensitivity to H(2)O(2) treatment during seed germination and seedling development, and enhanced production of H(2)O(2) in guard cells. By contrast, lines engineered to overexpress ATGPX3 were less sensitive to drought stress than the wild type and displayed less transpirational water loss, which resulted in higher leaf surface temperature. The atgpx3 mutation also disrupted abscisic acid (ABA) activation of calcium channels and the expression of ABA- and stress-responsive genes. ATGPX3 physically interacted with the 2C-type protein phosphatase ABA INSENSITIVE2 (ABI2) and, to a lesser extent, with ABI1. In addition, the redox states of both ATGPX3 and ABI2 were found to be regulated by H(2)O(2). The phosphatase activity of ABI2, measured in vitro, was reduced approximately fivefold by the addition of oxidized ATGPX3. The reduced form of ABI2 was converted to the oxidized form by the addition of oxidized ATGPX3 in vitro, which might mediate ABA and oxidative signaling. These results suggest that ATGPX3 might play dual and distinctive roles in H(2)O(2) homeostasis, acting as a general scavenger and specifically relaying the H(2)O(2) signal as an oxidative signal transducer in ABA and drought stress signaling.

A peroxisomal glutathione transferase of Saccharomyces cerevisiae is functionally related to sulfur amino acid metabolism

Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells contain three omega-class glutathione transferases with glutaredoxin activity (Gto1, Gto2, and Gto3), in addition to two glutathione transferases (Gtt1 and Gtt2) not classifiable into standard classes. Gto1 is located at the peroxisomes, where it is targeted through a PTS1-type sequence, whereas Gto2 and Gto3 are in the cytosol. Among the GTO genes, GTO2 shows the strongest induction of expression by agents such as diamide, 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene, tert-butyl hydroperoxide or cadmium, in a manner that is dependent on transcriptional factors Yap1 and/or Msn2/4. Diamide and 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene (causing depletion of reduced glutathione) also induce expression of GTO1 over basal levels. Phenotypic analyses with single and multiple mutants in the S. cerevisiae glutathione transferase genes show that, in the absence of Gto1 and the two Gtt proteins, cells display increased sensitivity to cadmium. A gto1-null mutant also shows growth defects on oleic acid-based medium, which is indicative of abnormal peroxisomal functions, and altered expression of genes related to sulfur amino acid metabolism. As a consequence, growth of the gto1 mutant is delayed in growth medium without lysine, serine, or threonine, and the mutant cells have low levels of reduced glutathione. The role of Gto1 at the S. cerevisiae peroxisomes could be related to the redox regulation of the Str3 cystathionine beta-lyase protein. This protein is also located at the peroxisomes in S. cerevisiae, where it is involved in transulfuration of cysteine into homocysteine, and requires a conserved cysteine residue for its biological activity.

Intracellular adaptations of glutathione content in Cucurbita pepo L. induced by treatment with reduced glutathione and buthionine sulfoximine

The intracellular effects of GSH (reduced glutathione) and BSO (buthionine sulfoximine) treatment on glutathione content were investigated with immunogold labeling in individual cellular compartments of Cucurbita pepo L. seedlings. Generally, GSH treatment led to increased levels of glutathione in roots and leaves (up to 3.5-fold in nuclei), whereas BSO treatment significantly decreased glutathione content in all organs. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that glutathione levels in mitochondria, which showed the highest glutathione labeling density of all compartments, remained generally unaffected by both treatments. Since glutathione within mitochondria is involved in the regulation of cell death, these results indicate that high and stable levels of glutathione in mitochondria play an important role in cell survival strategies. BSO treatment significantly decreased glutathione levels (1) in roots by about 78% in plastids and 60.8% in the cytosol and (2) in cotyledons by about 55% in the cytosol and 38.6% in plastids. After a short recovery period, glutathione levels were significantly increased in plastids and the cytosol of root tip cells (up to 3.7-fold) and back to control values in cotyledons. These results indicate that plastids, either alone or together with the cytosol, are the main center of glutathione synthesis in leaves as well as in roots. After GSH treatment for 24 h, severe ultrastructural damage related to increased levels of glutathione was found in roots, in all organelles except mitochondria. Possible negative effects of GSH treatment leading to the observed ultrastructural damage are discussed.

Fungal pathogen-induced changes in the antioxidant systems of leaf peroxisomes from infected tomato plants

Peroxisomes, being one of the main organelles where reactive oxygen species (ROS) are both generated and detoxified, have been suggested to be instrumental in redox-mediated plant cell defence against oxidative stress. We studied the involvement of tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) leaf peroxisomes in defence response to oxidative stress generated upon Botrytis cinerea Pers. infection. The peroxisomal antioxidant potential expressed as superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1), catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px, EC 1.11.1.19) as well as the ascorbate-glutathione (AA-GSH) cycle activities was monitored. The initial infection-induced increase in SOD, CAT and GSH-Px indicating antioxidant defence activation was followed by a progressive inhibition concomitant with disease symptom development. Likewise, the activities of AA-GSH cycle enzymes: ascorbate peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.11), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR, EC 1.6.5.4), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR, EC 1.8.5.1) and glutathione reductase (GR, EC 1.6.4.2) as well as ascorbate and glutathione concentrations and redox ratios were significantly decreased. However, the rate and timing of these events differed. Our results indicate that B. cinerea triggers significant changes in the peroxisomal antioxidant system leading to a collapse of the protective mechanism at advanced stage of infection. These changes appear to be partly the effect of pathogen-promoted leaf senescence.

Isolation and characterization of a novel PHGPx gene in Raphanus sativus

A full-length cDNA encoding putative phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPx) was cloned from Raphanus sativus. The cDNA, designated RsPHGPx, includes an open reading frame which encodes 197 amino acid residues. The alignment of amino acid sequences showed that RsPHGPx had the highest sequence homology to plant PHGPx and contained an N-terminal extension characteristic of a mitochondrial targeting peptide. Northern blot analysis indicated that RsPHGPx was constitutively and ubiquitously expressed during radish development, and its expression was differently regulated by various stress conditions. The expression of RsPHGPx in a yeast PHGPx-deletion mutant significantly rescued the mutant sensitivity to oxidation-sensitive linolenic acid, just as the yeast PHGPx3 gene did. This suggested that RsPHGPx encodes a functional PHGPx protein.

Induction and functional analysis of two reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate-dependent glutathione peroxidase-like proteins in Synechocystis PCC 6803 during the progression of oxidative stress

Synechocystis PCC 6803 contains two types of glutathione peroxidase-like proteins (GPX-1 and GPX-2) that utilize NADPH but not reduced glutathione and unsaturated fatty acid hydroperoxides or alkyl hydroperoxides. The steady-state transcript level of gpx-1 gradually increased under oxidative stress conditions imposed by high light intensity, high salinity, or application of methylviologen or t-butyl hydroperoxide in the wild-type and GPX-2 knock-out mutant (gpx-2Delta) cells. To examine the ability of GPX-1, GPX-2, and thioredoxin peroxidase to scavenge lipid hydroperoxide in vivo, we measured the photosynthetic evolution of O(2) and the level of lipid peroxidation in the wild-type and each type of mutant cell after the application of t-butyl hydroperoxide or H(2)O(2). The data reported here indicate that GPX-1 and GPX-2 are essential for the removal of lipid hydroperoxides under normal and stress conditions, leading to the protection of membrane integrity.

The salt-stress signal transduction pathway that activates the gpx1 promoter is mediated by intracellular H2O2, different from the pathway induced by extracellular H2O2

Several genes encoding putative glutathione peroxidase have been isolated from a variety of plants, all of which show the highest homology to the phospholipid hydroperoxide isoform. Several observations suggest that the proteins are involved in biotic and abiotic stress responses. Previous studies on the regulation of gpx1, the Citrus sinensis gene encoding phospholipid hydroperoxide isoform, led to the conclusion that salt-induced expression of gpx1 transcript and its encoded protein is mediated by oxidative stress. In this paper, we describe the induction of gpx1 promoter:uidA fusions in stable transformants of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) cultured cells and plants. We show that the induction of gpx1 by salt and oxidative stress occurs at the transcriptional level. gpx1 promoter analysis confirmed our previous assumption that the salt signal is transduced via oxidative stress. We used induction of the fusion construct to achieve better insight into, and to monitor salt-induced oxidative stress. The gpx1 promoter responded preferentially to oxidative stress in the form of hydrogen peroxide, rather than to superoxide-generating agents. Antioxidants abolished the salt-induced expression of gpx1 promoter, but were unable to eliminate the induction by H2O2. The commonly employed NADPH-oxidase inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium chloride and catalase inhibited the H2O2-induced expression of gpx1 promoter, but did not affect its induction by salt. Our results led us to conclude that salt induces oxidative stress in the form of H2O2, its production occurs in the intracellular space, and its signal transduction pathway activating the gpx1 promoter is different from the pathway induced by extracellular H2O2.

Hyperhydricity of Prunus avium shoots cultured on gelrite: a controlled stress response

Hyperhydricity is a physiological disorder frequently affecting shoots vegetatively propagated in vitro. Hyperhydric shoots are characterised by a translucent aspect due to a chlorophyll deficiency, a not very developed cell wall and a high water content. Hyperhydricity of Prunus avium shoots was expressed in vitro in one multiplication cycle by replacing the gelling agent agar (normal shoots: NS) by gelrite (hyperhydric shoots: HS). P. avium shoots evolving towards the hyperhydric state produced higher amounts of ethylene, polyamines (PAs) and proline, which are substances considered as stress markers. A higher activity of glutathione peroxidase (GPX; EC 1.11.1.9), involved in organic hydroperoxide elimination, suggested an increased production of these compounds in HS. The unchanged free fatty acid composition indicated no HS membrane damages compared to NS. The ploidy level of HS nuclei was not affected, but the bigger size and the lower percentage of nuclei during the S phase suggested a slowing down of the cell cycle. The results argued for a stress response of the HS, but no signs of oxidative damages of lipid membrane and nucleus were observed. The discussion points out paradoxical results in a classical analysis of stress and suggests an alternative way of defense mechanisms in HS, involving homeostatic regulation and controlled degradation processes to maintain integrity and vital functions of the cell.

Transcriptome changes in foxtail millet genotypes at high salinity: identification and characterization of a PHGPX gene specifically upregulated by NaCl in a salt-tolerant line

Using a macro array filter with 711 cDNA inserts representing 620 unigenes selected from a barley EST collection, we identified transcripts differentially expressed in salt (NaCl)-treated tolerant (cv. Prasad) and sensitive (cv. Lepakshi) seedlings of foxtail millet (Setaria italica L.). Transcripts of hydrogen peroxide scavenging enzymes such as phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase 1 (CAT1) in addition to some genes of cellular metabolism were found to be especially up-regulated at high salinity in the tolerant line. To analyse this process at the protein level we examined protein expression patterns under various stress conditions. A 25 kD protein with a pI of 4.8 was found to be induced prominently under high salt concentrations (250 mmol/L). This salt-induced 25 kD protein has been purified and identified by peptide sequencing as PHGPX protein. The increase of the PHGPX protein level under salt stress in the tolerant line parallels the PHGPX mRNA results of array analysis but was more pronounced. We cloned and characterized the foxtail millet PHGPX cDNA, which shows 85% and 95% homology at the DNA and protein level, respectively, to one stress-induced member of the small barley PHGPX gene family encoding non-selenium glutathione peroxidases. As shown by Southern blot analysis, a small family of PHGPX genes exists in foxtail millet, too. The specific expression pattern of the PHGPX gene in salt-induced tolerant millet seedlings suggests that its product plays an important role in the defense reaction against salt-induced oxidative damage and that the characterized glutathione peroxidase is one of the components conferring resistance against salt to the tolerant foxtail millet cultivar.

Alterations in Cd-induced gene expression under nitrogen deficiency in Hordeum vulgare

The inter-relation between nitrogen availability and cadmium toxicity was studied in roots of barley seedlings with emphasis on the analysis of expression of 10 selected genes relevant for growth in the presence of toxic Cd concentrations. The response to Cd exposure differed quantitatively or qualitatively for the 10 genes in dependence of the N supply. Transcripts of glutathione synthase, glutathione reductase, glutathione peroxidase and dehydroascorbate reductase were measured as parameters involved in antioxidant defence, metallothionein, phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase and phytochelatin synthase (PCS) were analysed as genes related to heavy metal binding, and vacuolar ATPase subunits VHA-E and VHA-c and a NRAMP-transporter as genes being implicated in Cd transport. Reprogramming of the Cd response was most obvious for PCS and NRAMP whose transcript levels were unaltered and down-regulated, respectively, in the presence of Cd at adequate N, but strongly up-regulated upon Cd exposure under conditions of nitrogen deficiency. Different responses to Cd at varying N supply were also seen for the antioxidant genes. The results on gene expression are discussed in context with the changes in biochemical parameters, and underline the importance of evaluating the general growth conditions of a plant when discussing its specific response to a stressor such as Cd. The sequence of the nramp cDNA was filed at the EMBL/GenBank/DDBJ Databases under the accession number AJ514946.

Up-regulation of the leaf mitochondrial and peroxisomal antioxidative systems in response to salt-induced oxidative stress in the wild salt-tolerant tomato species Lycopersicon pennellii

The response of the antioxidative systems of leaf cell mitochondria and peroxisomes of the cultivated tomato Lycopersicon esculentum (Lem) and its wild salt-tolerant related species Lycopersicon pennellii (Lpa) to NaCl 100 mM stress was investigated. Salt-dependent oxidative stress was evident in Lem mitochondria as indicated by their raised levels of lipid peroxidation and H2O2 content whereas their reduced ascorbate and reduced glutathione contents decreased. Concomitantly, SOD activity decreased whereas APX and GPX activities remained at control level. In contrast, the mitochondria of salt-treated Lpa did not exhibit salt-induced oxidative stress. In their case salinity induced an increase in the activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR) and glutathione-dependent peroxidase (GPX). Lpa peroxisomes exhibited increased SOD, APX, MDHAR and catalase activity and their lipid peroxidation and H2O2 levels were not affected by the salt treatment. The activities of all these enzymes remained at control level in peroxisomes of salt-treated Lem plants. The salt-induced increase in the antioxidant enzyme activities in the Lpa plants conferred cross-tolerance towards enhanced mitochondrial and peroxisomal reactive oxygen species production imposed by salicylhydroxamic acid (SHAM) and 3-amino-1,2,4-triazole (3-AT), respectively.

Mining the enzymes involved in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in sugarcane

Summary Adopting the sequencing of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) of a sugarcane database derived from libraries induced and not induced by pathogens, we identified EST clusters homologous to genes corresponding to enzymes involved in the detoxification of reactive oxygen species. The predicted amino acids of these enzymes are superoxide dismutases (SODs), glutathione-S-transferase (GST), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), and catalases. Three MnSOD mitochondrial precursors and 10 CuZnSOD were identified in sugarcane: the MnSOD mitochondrial precursor is 96% similar to the maize MnSOD mitochondrial precursor and, of the 10 CuZnSOD identified, seven were 98% identical to maize cytosolic CuZnSOD4 and one was 67% identical to putative peroxisomal CuZnSOD from Arabidopsis. Three homologues to class Phi GST were 87-88% identical to GST III from maize. Five GPX homologues were identified: three were homologous to cytosolic GPX from barley, one was 88% identical to phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPX) from rice, and the last was 71% identical to GPX from A. thaliana. Three enzymes similar to maize catalase were identified in sugarcane: two were similar to catalase isozyme 3 and catalase chain 3 from maize, which are mitochondrial, and one was similar to catalase isozyme 1 from maize, whose location is peroxisomal subcellular. All enzymes were induced in all sugarcane libraries (flower, seed, root, callus, leaves) and also in the pathogen-induced libraries, except for CuZnSOD whose cDNA was detected in none of the libraries induced by pathogens (Acetobacter diazotroficans and Herbaspirillum rubrisubalbicans). The expression of the enzymes SOD, GST, GPX, and catalases involved in the detoxification was examined using reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction in cDNA from leaves of sugarcane under biotic stress conditions, inoculated with Puccinia melanocephala, the causal agent of sugarcane rust disease.

Antibacterial effect of a magnetic field on Serratia marcescens and related virulence to Hordeum vulgare and Rubus fruticosus callus cells

The exposure to a static magnetic field of 80+/-20 Gauss (8+/-2 mT) resulted in the inhibition of Serratia marcescens growth. Callus cell suspensions from Hordeum vulgare and Rubus fruticosus were also examined and only the former was found to be affected by the magnetic field, which induced a decreased viability. S. marcescens was shown to be virulent only toward H. vulgare and this virulence was reduced by the presence of the magnetic field. The modification of glutathione peroxidase activity under the different experimental conditions allowed us to speculate on the possibility of an oxidative-stress response of H. vulgare both to S. marcescens infection and magnetic field exposure. Since the control of microbial growth by physical agents is of interest for agriculture, medicine and food sciences, the investigation presented herein could serve as a starting point for future studies on the efficacy of static magnetic field as low-cost/easy-handling preservative agent.

Two GPX-like proteins from Lycopersicon esculentum and Helianthus annuus are antioxidant enzymes with phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase and thioredoxin peroxidase activities

This study investigated the enzymatic function of two putative plant GPXs, GPXle1 from Lycopersicon esculentum and GPXha2 from Helianthus annuus, which show sequence identities with the mammalian phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidase (PHGPX). Both purified recombinant proteins expressed in Escherichia coli show PHGPX activity by reducing alkyl, fatty acid and phospholipid hydroperoxides but not hydrogen peroxide in the presence of glutathione. Interestingly, both recombinant GPXle1 and GPXha2 proteins also reduce alkyl, fatty acid and phospholipid hydroperoxides as well as hydrogen peroxide using thioredoxin as reducing substrate. Moreover, thioredoxin peroxidase (TPX) activities were found to be higher than PHGPX activities in terms of efficiency and substrate affinities, as revealed by their respective Vmax and Km values. We therefore conclude that these two plant GPX-like proteins are antioxidant enzymes showing PHGPX and TPX activities.

A Chinese cabbage cDNA with high sequence identity to phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidases encodes a novel isoform of thioredoxin-dependent peroxidase

A cDNA, PHCC-TPx, specifying a protein highly homologous to known phospholipid hydroperoxide glutathione peroxidases was isolated from a Chinese cabbage cDNA library. PHCC-TPx encodes a preprotein of 232 amino acids containing a putative N-terminal chloroplast targeting sequence and three conserved Cys residues (Cys(107), Cys(136), and Cys(155)). The mature form of enzyme without the signal peptide was expressed in Escherichia coli, and the recombinant protein was found to utilize thioredoxin (Trx) but not GSH as an electron donor. In the presence of a Trx system, the protein efficiently reduces H(2)O(2) and organic hydroperoxides. Complementation analysis shows that overexpression of the PHCC-TPx restores resistance to oxidative stress in yeast mutants lacking GSH but fails to complement mutant lacking Trx, suggesting that the reducing agent of PHCC-TPx in vivo is not GSH but is Trx. Mutational analysis of the three Cys residues individually replaced with Ser shows that Cys(107) is the primary attacking site by peroxide, and oxidized Cys(107) reacts with Cys(155)-SH to make an intramolecular disulfide bond, which is reduced eventually by Trx. Tryptic peptide analysis by matrix-assisted laser desorption and ionization time of flight mass spectrometry shows that Cys(155) can form a disulfide bond with either Cys(107) or Cys(136).

NADPH-dependent glutathione peroxidase-like proteins (Gpx-1, Gpx-2) reduce unsaturated fatty acid hydroperoxides in Synechocystis PCC 6803

Here we isolated and characterized two genes (slr1171, slr1992) designated gpx-1 and gpx-2, respectively, encoding glutathione peroxidase (GPX)-like proteins (Gpx-1, Gpx-2) from Synechocystis PCC 6803. The deduced amino acid sequences for gpx-1 and gpx-2 showed high similarity to those of GPX-like proteins from higher plants and mammalian GPXs, respectively. Surprisingly, both recombinant proteins in Escherichia coli were able to utilize NADPH, but not reduced glutathione, as an electron donor and unsaturated fatty acid hydroperoxides or alkyl hydroperoxides as an acceptor. It seems accurate to refer to Gpx-1 and Gpx-2 as NADPH-dependent GPX-like proteins that serve as a new defense system for the reduction of unsaturated fatty acid hydroperoxides.

PLANT MITOCHONDRIA AND OXIDATIVE STRESS: Electron Transport, NADPH Turnover, and Metabolism of Reactive Oxygen Species

The production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as O2- and H2O2, is an unavoidable consequence of aerobic metabolism. In plant cells the mitochondrial electron transport chain (ETC) is a major site of ROS production. In addition to complexes I-IV, the plant mitochondrial ETC contains a non-proton-pumping alternative oxidase as well as two rotenone-insensitive, non-proton-pumping NAD(P)H dehydrogenases on each side of the inner membrane: NDex on the outer surface and NDin on the inner surface. Because of their dependence on Ca2+, the two NDex may be active only when the plant cell is stressed. Complex I is the main enzyme oxidizing NADH under normal conditions and is also a major site of ROS production, together with complex III. The alternative oxidase and possibly NDin(NADH) function to limit mitochondrial ROS production by keeping the ETC relatively oxidized. Several enzymes are found in the matrix that, together with small antioxidants such as glutathione, help remove ROS. The antioxidants are kept in a reduced state by matrix NADPH produced by NADP-isocitrate dehydrogenase and non-proton-pumping transhydrogenase activities. When these defenses are overwhelmed, as occurs during both biotic and abiotic stress, the mitochondria are damaged by oxidative stress.

A large family of class III plant peroxidases

Class III plant peroxidase (POX), a plant-specific oxidoreductase, is one of the many types of peroxidases that are widely distributed in animals, plants and microorganisms. POXs exist as isoenzymes in individual plant species, and each isoenzyme has variable amino acid sequences and shows diverse expression profiles, suggesting their involvement in various physiological processes. Indeed, studies have provided evidence that POXs participate in lignification, suberization, auxin catabolism, wound healing and defense against pathogen infection. Little, however, is known about the signal transduction for inducing expression of the pox genes. Recent studies have provided information on the regulatory mechanisms of wound- and pathogen-induced expression of some pox genes. These studies suggest that pox genes are induced via different signal transduction pathways from those of other known defense-related genes.