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Zhang H, Song C, Shen Z, Wang X, Zhu Y, Lou M, Wu Z, Song R, Song B. Design, Synthesis and Proteomics-Based Analysis of Novel Triazinone Derivatives Containing Amide Structures as Safer Protoporphyrinogen IX Oxidase Inhibitors. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2024; 72:18378-18390. [PMID: 39109514 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.4c02889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/22/2024]
Abstract
Resistant weeds severely threaten crop yields as they compete with crops for resources required for survival. Trifludimoxazin, a protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO) inhibitor, can effectively control resistant weeds. However, its crop safety record is unsatisfactory. Consequently, a scaffold-hopping strategy is employed in this study to develop a series of new triazinone derivatives featuring an amide structure. Most compounds depicted excellent herbicidal activity across a broad spectrum at 37.5-150 g ai/ha, among which (R)-I-5 was equivalent to flumioxazin. (R)-I-5 demonstrated significant crop tolerance to rice and wheat, even at 150 g ai/ha. (R)-I-5 exhibited superior pharmacokinetic features compared to flumioxazin and trifludimoxazin. This was depicted by the absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity predictions. Notably, proteomics-based analysis was applied for the first time to investigate variations among plant proteins before and after herbicide application, shedding light on the conservative and divergent roles of PPO.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Changxiong Song
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Zhongjie Shen
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Xiaoguo Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Yunying Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Mingshu Lou
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Zengxue Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Runjiang Song
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
| | - Baoan Song
- State Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide, Key Laboratory of Green Pesticide and Agricultural Bioengineering, Ministry of Education, Center for R&D of Fine Chemicals of Guizhou University, Guiyang 550025, China
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Li CY, Hu SY, Yang WT, Yang HZ, Zhang WW, Ye JH, Zheng XQ, Liang YR, Dong ZB, Lu JL. Conversion obstacle from Mg-protoporphyrin IX to protochlorophyllide might be responsible for chlorophyll-deficient phenotype of the Huangjinya's albino offspring. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2024; 212:108778. [PMID: 38838570 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2024.108778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2024] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
The albino tea cultivar is one of the most important germplasms for key gene mining and high-quality tea producing. In order to elucidate the chlorophyll-deficient mechanism of albino cultivar 'Huangjinya' and its offspring, color difference, photosynthetic pigments and the relevant genes' expression of the tender shoots were comprehensively investigated in this study. Among the tested 16 offspring, 5 exhibited albino phenotype in spring and autumn, 3 showed albino phenotype in spring but normal green in autumn, while the rests were all normal green. The shoot of albino offspring had significantly higher lightness and/or yellowness than that of green ones, and possessed dramatically lower photosynthetic pigments and chlorophyll precursor protochlorophyllide (Pchlide), as well as higher chlorophyll a/chlorophyll b but lower chlorophylls/carotenoids in comparison with green ones. Among the tested genes involved in chlorophyll and carotenoid metabolism pathways, expression of the magnesium protoporphyrin IX monomethyl ester cyclase (CRD), 3,8-divinyl chlorophyllide 8-vinyl reductase (DVR), 5-aminolevulinate dehydratase 1 (HEMB1), 1-deoxy-D-xylulose 5-phosphate synthase 1 (DXS1) and 4-hydroxy-3-methylbut-2-enyl diphosphate reductase (ISPH) was remarkably down-regulated in shoots of the albino offspring. Color difference indices of the offspring were significantly correlated with the levels of photosynthetic pigments and Pchlide, and low level of chlorophylls in shoot of albino offspring was mainly due to conversion obstacle from magnesium protoporphyrin Ⅸ (Mg-Proto IX) to Pchlide which might be attributed to down-regulatory expression of CRD and DVR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cun-Yu Li
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China.
| | - Si-Yi Hu
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China.
| | - Wen-Ting Yang
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China; Shanghai East Pudong Foreign Language School, Shanghai, 201203, PR China.
| | - Hong-Zhiyuan Yang
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China.
| | - Wen-Wen Zhang
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China.
| | - Jian-Hui Ye
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China.
| | - Xin-Qiang Zheng
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China.
| | - Yue-Rong Liang
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China.
| | - Zhan-Bo Dong
- Agricultural and Rural Bureau of Pingyang County, Wenzhou, 325405, PR China.
| | - Jian-Liang Lu
- Tea Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310058, PR China.
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Huang H, Zou H, Lin H, Dai Y, Lin J. Molecular insights into the mechanisms of a leaf color mutant in Anoectochilus roxburghii by gene mapping and transcriptome profiling based on PacBio Sequel II. Sci Rep 2023; 13:22751. [PMID: 38123722 PMCID: PMC10733416 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-50352-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/19/2023] [Indexed: 12/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Plants with partial or complete loss of chlorophylls and other pigments are frequently occurring in nature but not commonly found. In the present study, we characterize a leaf color mutant 'arly01' with an albino stripe in the middle of the leaf, which is an uncommon ornamental trait in Anoectochilus roxburghii. The albino "mutant" middle portion and green "normal" leaf parts were observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and their pigment contents were determined. The mutant portion exhibited underdevelopment of plastids and had reduced chlorophyll and other pigment (carotenoid, anthocyanin, and flavonoid) content compared to the normal portion. Meanwhile, comparative transcript analysis and metabolic pathways mapping showed that a total of 599 differentially expressed genes were mapped to 78 KEGG pathways, most of which were down-regulated in the mutant portion. The five most affected metabolic pathways were determined to be oxidative phosphorylation, photosynthesis system, carbon fixation & starch and sucrose metabolism, porphyrin and chlorophyll metabolism, and flavonoid biosynthesis. Our findings suggested that the mutant 'arly01' was a partial albinism of A. roxburghii, characterized by the underdevelopment of chloroplasts, low contents of photosynthetic and other color pigments, and a number of down-regulated genes and metabolites. With the emergence of ornamental A. roxburghii in southern China, 'arly01' could become a popular cultivar due to its unique aesthetics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huiming Huang
- Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1499 Jiulong Avenue, Zhangzhou, 363005, Fujian, China
| | - Hui Zou
- Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1499 Jiulong Avenue, Zhangzhou, 363005, Fujian, China
| | - Hongting Lin
- Zhangzhou Fourth Municipal Hospital of Fujian Province, 41 Baiyun Village, Zhangzhou, 363100, Fujian, China
| | - Yimin Dai
- Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1499 Jiulong Avenue, Zhangzhou, 363005, Fujian, China
| | - Jiangbo Lin
- Institute of Subtropical Agriculture, Fujian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 1499 Jiulong Avenue, Zhangzhou, 363005, Fujian, China.
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Hedtke B, Strätker SM, Pulido ACC, Grimm B. Two isoforms of Arabidopsis protoporphyrinogen oxidase localize in different plastidal membranes. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2023; 192:871-885. [PMID: 36806676 PMCID: PMC10231370 DOI: 10.1093/plphys/kiad107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2022] [Revised: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
All land plants encode 2 isoforms of protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO). While PPO1 is predominantly expressed in green tissues and its loss is seedling-lethal in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), the effects of PPO2 deficiency have not been investigated in detail. We identified 2 ppo2 T-DNA insertion mutants from publicly available collections, one of which (ppo2-2) is a knock-out mutant. While the loss of PPO2 did not result in any obvious phenotype, substantial changes in PPO activity were measured in etiolated and root tissues. However, ppo1 ppo2 double mutants were embryo-lethal. To shed light on possible functional differences between the 2 isoforms, PPO2 was overexpressed in the ppo1 background. Although the ppo1 phenotype was partially complemented, even strong overexpression of PPO2 was unable to fully compensate for the loss of PPO1. Analysis of subcellular localization revealed that PPO2 is found exclusively in chloroplast envelopes, while PPO1 accumulates in thylakoid membranes. Mitochondrial localization of PPO2 in Arabidopsis was ruled out. Since Arabidopsis PPO2 does not encode a cleavable transit peptide, integration of the protein into the chloroplast envelope must make use of a noncanonical import route. However, when a chloroplast transit peptide was fused to the N-terminus of PPO2, the enzyme was detected predominantly in thylakoid membranes and was able to fully complement ppo1. Thus, the 2 PPO isoforms in Arabidopsis are functionally equivalent but spatially separated. Their distinctive localizations within plastids thus enable the synthesis of discrete subpools of the PPO product protoporphyrin IX, which may serve different cellular needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boris Hedtke
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Biology/Plant Physiology, Philippstraße 13 (Building 12), Berlin 10115, Germany
| | - Sarah Melissa Strätker
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Biology/Plant Physiology, Philippstraße 13 (Building 12), Berlin 10115, Germany
| | - Andrea C Chiappe Pulido
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Biology/Plant Physiology, Philippstraße 13 (Building 12), Berlin 10115, Germany
| | - Bernhard Grimm
- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Institute of Biology/Plant Physiology, Philippstraße 13 (Building 12), Berlin 10115, Germany
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Galvin LB, Becerra-Alvarez A, Al-Khatib K. Assessment of oxyfluorfen-tolerant rice systems and implications for rice-weed management in California. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2022; 78:4905-4912. [PMID: 36069293 DOI: 10.1002/ps.7111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 07/27/2022] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Weeds are a significant barrier to rice production in California, exacerbated by lack of chemical control options and herbicide-resistance in persistent aquaphilic species. Oxyfluorfen-tolerant rice, created at the Rice Experiment Station (RES) in Biggs, California, was developed to provide an agronomic program for managing problematic grass and sedge rice-weeds including Oryza sativa f. spontanea Roshev. (weedy 'red' rice). Hand-pulling is the most common removal method for O. sativa spontanea because there are no herbicides registered for this pest in California. Oxyfluorfen was used in combination with oxyfluorfen-tolerant rice in 2019 and 2021 field studies to evaluate rice injury and weed control efficacy on prevalent rice-weed species. Additional studies were conducted in 2021 on University of California Davis campus to determine pre-emergent oxyfluorfen efficacy on four California O. sativa spontanea accessions. RESULTS Fields studies indicated minimal crop injury in the first 28 days after seeding (DAS), but no observable injury at 60 DAS in both years. Weed control with oxyfluorfen alone was 87% or greater for all weeds rated with the exception of Schoenoplectus mucronatus (L.) Palla (ricefield bulrush), and Leptochloa fascicularis (Lam.) A. Gray (bearded sprangletop) in both years. All O. sativa spontanea exposed to soil-applied oxyfluorfen successfully emerged through the soil surface, but became completely necrotic 28 days after flooding. CONCLUSION Oxyfluorfen-tolerant rice system was demonstrated to be a viable management strategy for California rice growers who struggle with grass- and sedge-weed control as well as provide a novel herbicide option for California O. sativa spontanea management. © 2022 University of California, Davis. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Kassim Al-Khatib
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California, Davis, CA, USA
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Jan M, Liu Z, Rochaix JD, Sun X. Retrograde and anterograde signaling in the crosstalk between chloroplast and nucleus. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:980237. [PMID: 36119624 PMCID: PMC9478734 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.980237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 08/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
The chloroplast is a complex cellular organelle that not only performs photosynthesis but also synthesizes amino acids, lipids, and phytohormones. Nuclear and chloroplast genetic activity are closely coordinated through signaling chains from the nucleus to chloroplast, referred to as anterograde signaling, and from chloroplast to the nucleus, named retrograde signaling. The chloroplast can act as an environmental sensor and communicates with other cell compartments during its biogenesis and in response to stress, notably with the nucleus through retrograde signaling to regulate nuclear gene expression in response to developmental cues and stresses that affect photosynthesis and growth. Although several components involved in the generation and transmission of plastid-derived retrograde signals and in the regulation of the responsive nuclear genes have been identified, the plastid retrograde signaling network is still poorly understood. Here, we review the current knowledge on multiple plastid retrograde signaling pathways, and on potential plastid signaling molecules. We also discuss the retrograde signaling-dependent regulation of nuclear gene expression within the frame of a multilayered network of transcription factors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masood Jan
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology and State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Zhixin Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology and State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
| | - Jean-David Rochaix
- Department of Molecular Biology and Plant Biology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Xuwu Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Cotton Biology and State Key Laboratory of Crop Stress Adaptation and Improvement, School of Life Sciences, Henan University, Kaifeng, China
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Gauthier JR, Mabury SA. The Environmental Degradation and Distribution of Saflufenacil, a Fluorinated Protoporphyrinogen IX Oxidase-Inhibiting Herbicide, on a Canadian Winter Wheat Field. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2020; 39:1918-1928. [PMID: 32678964 DOI: 10.1002/etc.4820] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Revised: 06/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/14/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Saflufenacil when applied to a field is susceptible to transport, degradation, and transformation. We used a laboratory-based approach to model the fate of saflufenacil in the environment, the results of which are compared directly with those observed in a field study where saflufenacil was applied to a crop of winter wheat at a standard rate of 63 g of active ingredient/hectare. The water solubility of 2.1 g/L for saflufenacil allows for vertical transport through soil at a rate of 4.3 cm/mL of rainwater, and a soil adsorption coefficient KOC of 28.8 suggests that some of the herbicide will absorb to the soil. Of the saflufenacil in the soil, 78 ± 2.1% (n = 18) partitioned into plants, including nontargeted crop species, where it was found primarily in leaves (78 ± 2.1%, n = 18) and roots (22 ± 1.7%, n = 18). The saflufenacil that does not partition into plants or undergo vertical transport followed a degradation pathway into 3 metabolites: a uracil-ring N-demethylated metabolite (Saf-µCH3 ), a doubly N-demethylated metabolite (Saf-2CH3 ), and a ring-cleavage metabolite (Saf-RC), identified using nontargeted mass spectrometry. In the field, saflufenacil was observed to degrade over 212 d to the persistent metabolite Saf-RC. This metabolite was found at a concentration that was 1/10th of that applied to the field, suggesting that the majority of saflufenacil had undergone transport through the soil, or uptake into the winter wheat crop. Field samples were further examined using F-19 nuclear magnetic resonance and nontargeted mass spectrometry to rule out the potential of other degradation products. Environ Toxicol Chem 2020;39:1918-1928. © 2020 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy R Gauthier
- Lash Miller Chemical Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Scott A Mabury
- Lash Miller Chemical Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Abstract
Color mutation is a common, easily identifiable phenomenon in higher plants. Color mutations usually affect the photosynthetic efficiency of plants, resulting in poor growth and economic losses. Therefore, leaf color mutants have been unwittingly eliminated in recent years. Recently, however, with the development of society, the application of leaf color mutants has become increasingly widespread. Leaf color mutants are ideal materials for studying pigment metabolism, chloroplast development and differentiation, photosynthesis and other pathways that could also provide important information for improving varietal selection. In this review, we summarize the research on leaf color mutants, such as the functions and mechanisms of leaf color mutant-related genes, which affect chlorophyll synthesis, chlorophyll degradation, chloroplast development and anthocyanin metabolism. We also summarize two common methods for mapping and cloning related leaf color mutation genes using Map-based cloning and RNA-seq, and we discuss the existing problems and propose future research directions for leaf color mutants, which provide a reference for the study and application of leaf color mutants in the future.
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Wang P, Grimm B. Organization of chlorophyll biosynthesis and insertion of chlorophyll into the chlorophyll-binding proteins in chloroplasts. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2015; 126:189-202. [PMID: 25957270 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-015-0154-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2015] [Accepted: 04/30/2015] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Oxygenic photosynthesis requires chlorophyll (Chl) for the absorption of light energy, and charge separation in the reaction center of photosystem I and II, to feed electrons into the photosynthetic electron transfer chain. Chl is bound to different Chl-binding proteins assembled in the core complexes of the two photosystems and their peripheral light-harvesting antenna complexes. The structure of the photosynthetic protein complexes has been elucidated, but mechanisms of their biogenesis are in most instances unknown. These processes involve not only the assembly of interacting proteins, but also the functional integration of pigments and other cofactors. As a precondition for the association of Chl with the Chl-binding proteins in both photosystems, the synthesis of the apoproteins is synchronized with Chl biosynthesis. This review aims to summarize the present knowledge on the posttranslational organization of Chl biosynthesis and current attempts to envision the proceedings of the successive synthesis and integration of Chl into Chl-binding proteins in the thylakoid membrane. Potential auxiliary factors, contributing to the control and organization of Chl biosynthesis and the association of Chl with the Chl-binding proteins during their integration into photosynthetic complexes, are discussed in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peng Wang
- Institute of Biology/Plant Physiology, Humboldt-University Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernhard Grimm
- Institute of Biology/Plant Physiology, Humboldt-University Berlin, Philippstraße 13, 10115, Berlin, Germany.
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Wang B, Wen X, Qin X, Wang Z, Tan Y, Shen Y, Xi Z. Quantitative structural insight into human variegate porphyria disease. J Biol Chem 2013; 288:11731-40. [PMID: 23467411 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m113.459768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Defects in the human protoporphyrinogen oxidase (hPPO) gene, resulting in ~50% decreased activity of hPPO, is responsible for the dominantly inherited disorder variegate porphyria (VP). To understand the molecular mechanism of VP, we employed the site-directed mutagenesis, biochemical assays, structural biology, and molecular dynamics simulation studies to investigate VP-causing hPPO mutants. We report here the crystal structures of R59Q and R59G mutants in complex with acifluorfen at a resolution of 2.6 and 2.8 Å. The r.m.s.d. of the Cα atoms of the active site structure of R59G and R59Q with respect to the wild-type was 0.20 and 0.15 Å, respectively. However, these highly similar static crystal structures of mutants with the wild-type could not quantitatively explain the observed large differences in their enzymatic activity. To understand how the hPPO mutations affect their catalytic activities, we combined molecular dynamics simulation and statistical analysis to quantitatively understand the molecular mechanism of VP-causing mutants. We have found that the probability of the privileged conformations of hPPO can be correlated very well with the k(cat)/K(m) of PPO (correlation coefficient, R(2) > 0.9), and the catalytic activity of 44 clinically reported VP-causing mutants can be accurately predicted. These results indicated that the VP-causing mutation affect the catalytic activity of hPPO by affecting the ability of hPPO to sample the privileged conformations. The current work, together with our previous crystal structure study on the wild-type hPPO, provided the quantitative structural insight into human variegate porphyria disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baifan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Elemento-Organic Chemistry, Department of Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry, Nankai University, Tianjin 300071, China
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Czarnecki O, Grimm B. Post-translational control of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis in plants, algae, and cyanobacteria. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2012; 63:1675-87. [PMID: 22231500 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/err437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
The tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway provides the vital cofactors and pigments for photoautotrophic growth (chlorophyll), several essential redox reactions in electron transport chains (haem), N- and S-assimilation (sirohaem), and photomorphogenic processes (phytochromobilin). While the biochemistry of the pathway is well understood and almost all genes encoding enzymes of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis have been identified in plants, the post-translational control and organization of the pathway remains to be clarified. Post-translational mechanisms controlling metabolic activities are of particular interest since tetrapyrrole biosynthesis needs adaptation to environmental challenges. This review surveys post-translational mechanisms that have been reported to modulate metabolic activities and organization of the tetrapyrrole biosynthesis pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olaf Czarnecki
- Institute of Biology/Plant Physiology, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Philippstr. 13, Building 12, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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13
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Pratap Singh V, Kumar Srivastava P, Mohan Prasad S. Differential physiological and biochemical responses of two cyanobacteria Nostoc muscorum and Phormidium foveolarum against oxyfluorfen and UV-B radiation. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2011; 74:1981-1993. [PMID: 21798597 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2010] [Revised: 07/06/2011] [Accepted: 07/11/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In the present study, degree of tolerance and tolerance strategies of two paddy field cyanobacteria viz. Nostoc muscorum and Phormidium foveolarum against oxyfluorfen (10 and 20 μg ml(-1)) and UV-B (7.2 kJ m(-2)d(-1)) stress were investigated. Oxyfluorfen and UV-B decreased growth, photosynthesis, nutrient uptake, nitrate reductase, acid and alkaline phosphatase activities, which accompanied with the increase in the level of oxidative stress. However, growth was more affected in N. muscorum than P. foveolarum. Antioxidants exhibited differential responses against oxyfluorfen and UV-B stress. Ascorbate and proline levels were higher in P. foveolarum. A protein of 66 kDa was expressed in N. muscorum, however, it was absent in P. foveolarum than those of N. muscorum. Besides this, a protein of 29 kDa appeared in P. foveolarum under all the treatments, but it was present only in control cells of N. muscorum cells. Overall results indicated resistant nature of P. foveolarum against oxyfluorfen and UV-B stress in comparison to N. muscorum.
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Adhikari ND, Froehlich JE, Strand DD, Buck SM, Kramer DM, Larkin RM. GUN4-porphyrin complexes bind the ChlH/GUN5 subunit of Mg-Chelatase and promote chlorophyll biosynthesis in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT CELL 2011; 23:1449-67. [PMID: 21467578 PMCID: PMC3101535 DOI: 10.1105/tpc.110.082503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 105] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Revised: 02/24/2011] [Accepted: 03/17/2011] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
The GENOMES UNCOUPLED4 (GUN4) protein stimulates chlorophyll biosynthesis by activating Mg-chelatase, the enzyme that commits protoporphyrin IX to chlorophyll biosynthesis. This stimulation depends on GUN4 binding the ChlH subunit of Mg-chelatase and the porphyrin substrate and product of Mg-chelatase. After binding porphyrins, GUN4 associates more stably with chloroplast membranes and was proposed to promote interactions between ChlH and chloroplast membranes-the site of Mg-chelatase activity. GUN4 was also proposed to attenuate the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by binding and shielding light-exposed porphyrins from collisions with O₂. To test these proposals, we first engineered Arabidopsis thaliana plants that express only porphyrin binding-deficient forms of GUN4. Using these transgenic plants and particular mutants, we found that the porphyrin binding activity of GUN4 and Mg-chelatase contribute to the accumulation of chlorophyll, GUN4, and Mg-chelatase subunits. Also, we found that the porphyrin binding activity of GUN4 and Mg-chelatase affect the associations of GUN4 and ChlH with chloroplast membranes and have various effects on the expression of ROS-inducible genes. Based on our findings, we conclude that ChlH and GUN4 use distinct mechanisms to associate with chloroplast membranes and that mutant alleles of GUN4 and Mg-chelatase genes cause sensitivity to intense light by a mechanism that is potentially complex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neil D. Adhikari
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Genetics Program, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - John E. Froehlich
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Deserah D. Strand
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Department of Plant Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Stephanie M. Buck
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - David M. Kramer
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
| | - Robert M. Larkin
- Department of Energy Plant Research Laboratory, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824
- Address correspondence to
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15
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Bah AM, Sun H, Chen F, Zhou J, Dai H, Zhang G, Wu F. Comparative proteomic analysis of Typha angustifolia leaf under chromium, cadmium and lead stress. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2010; 184:191-203. [PMID: 20817397 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.08.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2010] [Revised: 08/05/2010] [Accepted: 08/08/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
The present study investigated Typha angustifolia leaf proteome in response to Cr, Cd and Pb stress. T. angustifolia of 90 (D90) and 130d (D130) old plants were subjected to 1mM Cr, Cd and Pb and samples were collected 30d after treatment. 2-DE coupled with MS (mass spectrometry) was used to analyze and identify Cr, Cd and Pb-responsive proteins. More than 1600 protein spots were reproducibly detected on each gel, wherein 44, 46, 66 and 33, 26, 62 spots in D90 and D130 samples were differentially expressed by Cr, Cd, Pb over the control, respectively. Of these differentially expressed proteins, 3, 1, 8 overlapped in D90 and D130; while 5, 8, 5 with regulation factors above 3 in one of D90 or D130 samples. Total of 22 and 4 up- and down-regulated proteins were identified using MS and data bank analysis. Cr-induced expression of ATP synthase, RuBisCO small subunit and coproporphyrinogen III oxidase; Cd-induced RuBisCO large subunit; Pb up-regulated carbohydrate metabolic pathway enzymes of fructokinase, and improved RuBisCO activase and large subunit, Mg-protoporphyrin IX chelatase. Contrarily, elF4F was inhibited by Cr/Pb, chloroplast FtsZ-like protein and GF14 omega impeded by Cd and Pb, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alieu Mohamed Bah
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - Hongyan Sun
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - Fei Chen
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - Jing Zhou
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - Huaxin Dai
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - Guoping Zhang
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China
| | - Feibo Wu
- Department of Agronomy, College of Agriculture and Biotechnology, Huajiachi Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310029, China.
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Solymosi K, Schoefs B. Etioplast and etio-chloroplast formation under natural conditions: the dark side of chlorophyll biosynthesis in angiosperms. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2010; 105:143-66. [PMID: 20582474 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-010-9568-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2009] [Accepted: 05/30/2010] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Chloroplast development is usually regarded as proceeding from proplastids. However, direct or indirect conversion pathways have been described in the literature, the latter involving the etioplast or the etio-chloroplast stages. Etioplasts are characterized by the absence of chlorophylls (Chl-s) and the presence of a unique inner membrane network, the prolamellar body (PLB), whereas etio-chloroplasts contain Chl-s and small PLBs interconnected with chloroplast thylakoids. As etioplast development requires growth in darkness for several days, this stage is generally regarded as a nonnatural pathway of chloroplast development occurring only under laboratory conditions. In this article, we have reviewed the data in favor of the involvement of etioplasts and etio-chloroplasts as intermediary stage(s) in chloroplast formation under natural conditions, the molecular aspects of PLB formation and we propose a dynamic model for its regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katalin Solymosi
- Department of Plant Anatomy, Institute of Biology, Eötvös University, Pázmány P. s. 1/C, 1117 Budapest, Hungary.
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17
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Joyard J, Ferro M, Masselon C, Seigneurin-Berny D, Salvi D, Garin J, Rolland N. Chloroplast proteomics and the compartmentation of plastidial isoprenoid biosynthetic pathways. MOLECULAR PLANT 2009; 2:1154-80. [PMID: 19969518 DOI: 10.1093/mp/ssp088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Recent advances in the proteomic field have allowed high-throughput experiments to be conducted on chloroplast samples. Many proteomic investigations have focused on either whole chloroplast or sub-plastidial fractions. To date, the Plant Protein Database (PPDB, Sun et al., 2009) presents the most exhaustive chloroplast proteome available online. However, the accurate localization of many proteins that were identified in different sub-plastidial compartments remains hypothetical. Ferro et al. (2009) went a step further into the knowledge of Arabidopsis thaliana chloroplast proteins with regards to their accurate localization within the chloroplast by using a semi-quantitative proteomic approach known as spectral counting. Their proteomic strategy was based on the accurate mass and time tags (AMT) database approach and they built up AT_CHLORO, a comprehensive chloroplast proteome database with sub-plastidial localization and curated information on envelope proteins. Comparing these two extensive databases, we focus here on about 100 enzymes involved in the synthesis of chloroplast-specific isoprenoids. Well known pathways (i.e. compartmentation of the methyl erythritol phosphate biosynthetic pathway, of tetrapyrroles and chlorophyll biosynthesis and breakdown within chloroplasts) validate the spectral counting-based strategy. The same strategy was then used to identify the precise localization of the biosynthesis of carotenoids and prenylquinones within chloroplasts (i.e. in envelope membranes, stroma, and/or thylakoids) that remains unclear until now.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Joyard
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire Végétale, UMR 5168, CEA, CNRS, INRA, Université Joseph Fourier, iRTSV, CEA-Grenoble, 38054 Grenoble-cedex 9, France
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18
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Iriti M, Castorina G, Picchi V, Faoro F, Gomarasca S. Acute exposure of the aquatic macrophyte Callitriche obtusangula to the herbicide oxadiazon: the protective role of N-acetylcysteine. CHEMOSPHERE 2009; 74:1231-1237. [PMID: 19101011 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2008] [Revised: 10/26/2008] [Accepted: 11/08/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
In this study we investigated the acute exposure of the aquatic macrophyte Callitriche obtusangula to the herbicide oxadiazon (Ronstar). The toxic effects on C. obtusangula were evaluated, 24h after exposure, by assessing visible necrotic leaf lesions and, 12 h after exposure, via analyses of dead cells and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) deposits localized by histocytochemical analysis with Trypan blue and 3,3'-diaminobenzidine (DAB), respectively. As a result, we found that 0.1275 microg L(-1) a.i. (active ingredient) oxadiazon was the maximum concentration that produced no observable adverse effects (NOAEC) both at leaf and tissue levels, at any considered exposure time. Additionally, we assayed the protective effect of pre-treatment with 0.25 mM N-acetylcysteine (NAC), a cysteine donor, on the damage caused by the toxic herbicidal dose of 6.37 microg L(-1) a.i to C. obtusangula, correlating the NAC observed protection to the direct H2O2-scavenging and to the enhancement of glutathione parameters. NAC-treated plants showed a fourfold increase in the GSH (reduced glutathione)+GSSG (oxidised glutathione) content (149.2 nmol g(-1) FW) compared to controls (36.1 nmol g(-1) FW); in the NAC+oxadiazon treatments, the GSH+GSSG content was more than fivefold higher (202.1 nmol g(-1) FW). GSH showed a similar trend in NAC and NAC+oxadiazon treatments, being six- (130.0 nmol g(-1) FW) and eightfold (185.0 nmol g(-1) FW) higher, respectively, compared to controls (20.7 nmol g(-1) FW). Accordingly, the GSH/GSSG ratio in NAC- and NAC+oxadiazon-treated plants was significantly increased compared to controls, indicating alleviation of oxidative stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcello Iriti
- Istituto di Patologia Vegetale, Università di Milano, Via Celoria 2, 20133 Milano, Italy
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19
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Masoumi A, Heinemann IU, Rohde M, Koch M, Jahn M, Jahn D. Complex formation between protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase and ferrochelatase during haem biosynthesis in Thermosynechococcus elongatus. MICROBIOLOGY-SGM 2009; 154:3707-3714. [PMID: 19047738 DOI: 10.1099/mic.0.2008/018705-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
During haem and chlorophyll biosynthesis, flavin-dependent protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase catalyses the six-electron oxidation of protoporphyrinogen IX to form protoporphyrin IX. In the following step, iron is inserted into protoporphyrin IX by ferrochelatase. Based on the solved crystal structures of these enzymes, an in silico model for a complex between these two enzymes was proposed to protect the highly photoreactive intermediate protoporphyrin IX. The existence of this complex was verified by two independent techniques. First, co-immunoprecipitation experiments using antibodies directed against recombinantly produced and purified Thermosynechococcus elongatus protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase and ferrochelatase demonstrated their physical interaction. Secondly, protein complex formation was visualized by in vivo immunogold labelling and electron microscopy with T. elongatus cells. Finally, oxygen-dependent coproporphyrinogen III oxidase, which catalyses the formation of protoporphyrinogen IX, was not found to be part of this complex when analysed with the same methodology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ava Masoumi
- Institute of Microbiology, Technical University of Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Ilka Ursula Heinemann
- Institute of Microbiology, Technical University of Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Manfred Rohde
- Division of Microbiology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research (HZI), Inhoffenstr. 7, D-38124 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Michael Koch
- Laboratoire de Biologie et de Génomique Structurales, IGBMC, Parc d'Innovation, 1 rue Laurent Fries, BP 10142, F-67404 Illkirch Cedex, France
| | - Martina Jahn
- Institute of Microbiology, Technical University of Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Dieter Jahn
- Institute of Microbiology, Technical University of Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, D-38106 Braunschweig, Germany
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20
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Tan Y, Sun L, Xi Z, Yang GF, Jiang DQ, Yan XP, Yang X, Li HY. A capillary electrophoresis assay for recombinant Bacillus subtilis protoporphyrinogen oxidase. Anal Biochem 2008; 383:200-4. [PMID: 18834852 DOI: 10.1016/j.ab.2008.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2008] [Revised: 09/05/2008] [Accepted: 09/08/2008] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO) is a flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)-containing enzyme in the tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway that leads to the formation of both heme and chlorophylls, which has been identified as one of the most important action targets of commercial herbicides. The literature reports gave different PPO-catalytic kinetic parameters for the substrate protoporphyrinogen IX (K(m) of 0.1 to 10.4 miocroM) with different sources of PPO using fluorescent or HPLC methods. Herein we assayed the enzymatic activity of recombinant Bacillus subtilis PPO by using capillary electrophoresis (CE), a method with high separation efficiency, easy automation, and low sample consumption. The Michaelis constant and maximum reaction velocity were determined as 7.0+/-0.6 miocroM and 0.38+/-0.02 miocromol min(-1)miocrog(-1), respectively. The interaction between PPO and acifluorfen, a commercial PPO-inhibiting herbicide, was measured as the inhibition constant 186.9+/-9.3 miocroM EM, Cyrillic. The relationship between cofactor FAD and PPO activity can also be quantitatively studied by this CE method. The CE method used here should also be a convenient, reliable method for PPO study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ying Tan
- State Key Laboratory of Element-Organic Chemistry and Department of Chemical Biology, Nankai University,Tianjin 300071, China
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21
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Masuda T, Fujita Y. Regulation and evolution of chlorophyll metabolism. Photochem Photobiol Sci 2008; 7:1131-49. [PMID: 18846277 DOI: 10.1039/b807210h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 146] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Chlorophylls are the most abundant tetrapyrrole molecules essential for photosynthesis in photosynthetic organisms. After many years of intensive research, most of the genes encoding the enzymes for the pathway have been identified, and recently the underlying molecular mechanisms have been elucidated. These studies revealed that the regulation of chlorophyll metabolism includes all levels of control to allow a balanced metabolic flow in response to external and endogenous factors and to ensure adaptation to varying needs of chlorophyll during plant development. Furthermore, identification of biosynthetic genes from various organisms and genetic analysis of functions of identified genes enables us to predict the evolutionary scenario of chlorophyll metabolism. In this review, based on recent findings, we discuss the regulation and evolution of chlorophyll metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuru Masuda
- Department of General Systems Studies, Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, The University of Tokyo, Komaba 3-8-1, Tokyo, 153-8902, Japan.
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22
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Mohapatra A, Tripathy BC. Differential distribution of chlorophyll biosynthetic intermediates in stroma, envelope and thylakoid membranes in Beta vulgaris. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2007; 94:401-10. [PMID: 17638115 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-007-9209-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2007] [Accepted: 05/28/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Stroma, envelope and thylakoid membranes were prepared from chloroplasts isolated from leaves of Beta vulgaris. Out of total plastidic protochlorophyllide, envelope membranes contained 1.5%, thylakoids had the maximum 98.48% and stroma had a trace fraction of 0.02%. Distribution of the Mg-protoporphyrin IX and its monoester was 89.0% in thylakoids, 10.0% in stroma and 1.0% in envelope. A substantial fraction (33.77%) of plastidic protoporphyrin IX was partitioned into stroma. Envelope contained 0.66% and thylakoids had 65.57% of the total plastidic protoporphyrin IX pool. The proportion of monovinyl and divinyl forms of protochlorophyllide was almost similar in intact plastid, thylakoids, and outer and inner envelope membranes suggesting a tight regulation of vinyl reductase enzyme. The significance of differential distribution of chlorophyll biosynthetic intermediates among thylakoids, envelope and stroma is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anasuya Mohapatra
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, 110067, India
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23
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Castelfranco PA, Walker CJ, Weinstein JD. Biosynthetic studies on chlorophylls: from protoporphyrin IX to protochlorophyllide. CIBA FOUNDATION SYMPOSIUM 2007; 180:194-204; discussion 205-9. [PMID: 7842853 DOI: 10.1002/9780470514535.ch11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The series of reactions leading from protoporphyrin IX to protochlorophyllide have been studied over the last 15 years in the authors' laboratories at Davis and Clemson. Here, two crucial steps are emphasized, the discovery of the ATP requirement for Mg2+ chelation, and the oxidative cyclization of Mg-protoporphyrin IX monomethyl ester to protochlorophyllide. The in vitro systems for the chelation of Mg2+ and for the oxidative cyclization of Mg-protoporphyrin IX monomethyl ester both require membrane-associated and soluble heat-labile components. We speculate about the enzymological mechanisms of these important reactions, their sub-plastidic localization and the relationship of these individual steps to the broader questions of chloroplast and cell development.
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Affiliation(s)
- P A Castelfranco
- Division of Biological Sciences, University of California, Davis 95616
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24
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Block MA, Douce R, Joyard J, Rolland N. Chloroplast envelope membranes: a dynamic interface between plastids and the cytosol. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 2007; 92:225-44. [PMID: 17558548 PMCID: PMC2394710 DOI: 10.1007/s11120-007-9195-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2007] [Accepted: 05/03/2007] [Indexed: 05/15/2023]
Abstract
Chloroplasts are bounded by a pair of outer membranes, the envelope, that is the only permanent membrane structure of the different types of plastids. Chloroplasts have had a long and complex evolutionary past and integration of the envelope membranes in cellular functions is the result of this evolution. Plastid envelope membranes contain a wide diversity of lipids and terpenoid compounds serving numerous biochemical functions and the flexibility of their biosynthetic pathways allow plants to adapt to fluctuating environmental conditions (for instance phosphate deprivation). A large body of knowledge has been generated by proteomic studies targeted to envelope membranes, thus revealing an unexpected complexity of this membrane system. For instance, new transport systems for metabolites and ions have been identified in envelope membranes and new routes for the import of chloroplast-specific proteins have been identified. The picture emerging from our present understanding of plastid envelope membranes is that of a key player in plastid biogenesis and the co-ordinated gene expression of plastid-specific protein (owing to chlorophyll precursors), of a major hub for integration of metabolic and ionic networks in cell metabolism, of a flexible system that can divide, produce dynamic extensions and interact with other cell constituents. Envelope membranes are indeed one of the most complex and dynamic system within a plant cell. In this review, we present an overview of envelope constituents together with recent insights into the major functions fulfilled by envelope membranes and their dynamics within plant cells.
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Pontier D, Albrieux C, Joyard J, Lagrange T, Block M. Knock-out of the magnesium protoporphyrin IX methyltransferase gene in Arabidopsis. Effects on chloroplast development and on chloroplast-to-nucleus signaling. J Biol Chem 2006; 282:2297-304. [PMID: 17135235 PMCID: PMC2408936 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m610286200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrin IX is the last common intermediate between the heme and chlorophyll biosynthesis pathways. The addition of magnesium directs this molecule toward chlorophyll biosynthesis. The first step downstream from the branchpoint is catalyzed by the magnesium chelatase and is a highly regulated process. The corresponding product, magnesium protoporphyrin IX, has been proposed to play an important role as a signaling molecule implicated in plastid-to-nucleus communication. To get more information on the chlorophyll biosynthesis pathway and on magnesium protoporphyrin IX derivative functions, we have identified an magnesium protoporphyrin IX methyltransferase (CHLM) knock-out mutant in Arabidopsis in which the mutation induces a blockage downstream from magnesium protoporphyrin IX and an accumulation of this chlorophyll biosynthesis intermediate. Our results demonstrate that the CHLM gene is essential for the formation of chlorophyll and subsequently for the formation of photosystems I and II and cytochrome b6f complexes. Analysis of gene expression in the chlm mutant provides an independent indication that magnesium protoporphyrin IX is a negative effector of nuclear photosynthetic gene expression, as previously reported. Moreover, it suggests the possible implication of magnesium protoporphyrin IX methyl ester, the product of CHLM, in chloroplast-to-nucleus signaling. Finally, post-transcriptional up-regulation of the level of the CHLH subunit of the magnesium chelatase has been detected in the chlm mutant and most likely corresponds to specific accumulation of this protein inside plastids. This result suggests that the CHLH subunit might play an important regulatory role when the chlorophyll biosynthetic pathway is disrupted at this particular step.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dominique Pontier
- LGDP, Laboratoire Génome et développement des plantes
CNRS : UMR5096IRD : UR121Université de PerpignanBat. C
52 Av de Villeneuve
66860 PERPIGNAN CEDEX,FR
| | - Catherine Albrieux
- LPCV, Laboratoire de physiologie cellulaire végétale
CNRS : UMR5168INRA : UR1200CEA : DSV/IRTSVUniversité Joseph Fourier - Grenoble Ibat. C2
17 Rue des martyrs
38054 GRENOBLE CEDEX 9,FR
| | - Jacques Joyard
- LPCV, Laboratoire de physiologie cellulaire végétale
CNRS : UMR5168INRA : UR1200CEA : DSV/IRTSVUniversité Joseph Fourier - Grenoble Ibat. C2
17 Rue des martyrs
38054 GRENOBLE CEDEX 9,FR
| | - Thierry Lagrange
- LGDP, Laboratoire Génome et développement des plantes
CNRS : UMR5096IRD : UR121Université de PerpignanBat. C
52 Av de Villeneuve
66860 PERPIGNAN CEDEX,FR
| | - Maryse Block
- LPCV, Laboratoire de physiologie cellulaire végétale
CNRS : UMR5168INRA : UR1200CEA : DSV/IRTSVUniversité Joseph Fourier - Grenoble Ibat. C2
17 Rue des martyrs
38054 GRENOBLE CEDEX 9,FR
- * Correspondence should be adressed to: Maryse Block
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Lermontova I, Grimm B. Reduced activity of plastid protoporphyrinogen oxidase causes attenuated photodynamic damage during high-light compared to low-light exposure. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2006; 48:499-510. [PMID: 17059408 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-313x.2006.02894.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (EC 1.3.3.4, PPOX) is the last enzyme in the branched tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway, before its substrate protoporphyrin is directed to the Mg and Fe branches for chlorophyll and haem biosynthesis, respectively. The enzyme exists in many plants in two similar isoforms, which are either exclusively located in plastids (PPOX I) or in mitochondria and plastids (PPOX II). Antisense RNA expression inhibited the formation of PPOX I in transgenic tobacco plants, which showed reduced growth rate and necrotic leaf damage. The cytotoxic effect is attributed to accumulation of photodynamically acting protoporphyrin. The expression levels of PPOX I mRNA and protein and the cellular enzyme activities were reduced to similar extents in transgenic plants grown under low- or high-light conditions (70 and 530 mumol photons m(-2) sec(-1)). More necrotic leaf lesions were surprisingly generated under low- than under high-light exposure. Several reasons were explored to explain this paradox and the intriguing necrotic phenotype of PPOX-deficient plants under both light intensity growth conditions. The same reduction of PPOX expression and activity under both light conditions led to similar initial protoporphyrin, but to faster decrease in protoporphyrin content during high light. It is likely that a light intensity-dependent degradation of reduced and oxidized porphyrins prevents severe photodynamic leaf damage. Moreover, under high-light conditions, elevated contents of reduced and total low-molecular-weight antioxidants contribute to the protection against photosensitizing porphyrins. These reducing conditions stabilize protoporphyrinogen in plastids and allow their redirection into the metabolic pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inna Lermontova
- Institute of Biology/Plant Physiology, Humboldt University, Philippstr. 13, Building 12, 10115 Berlin, Germany
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27
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Jung S, Back K. Herbicidal and antioxidant responses of transgenic rice overexpressing Myxococcus xanthus protoporphyrinogen oxidase. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2005; 43:423-30. [PMID: 15890521 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2005.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2004] [Accepted: 03/04/2005] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed the herbicidal and antioxidant defense responses of transgenic rice plants that overexpressed the Myxococcus xanthus protoporphyrinogen oxidase gene. Leaf squares of the wild-type incubated with oxyfluorfen were characterized by necrotic leaf lesions and increases in conductivity and malonyldialdehyde levels, whereas transgenic lines M4 and M7 did not show any change with up to 100 microM oxyfluorfen. The wild-type had decreased F(v)/F(m) and produced a high level of H(2)O(2) at 18 h after foliar application of oxyfluorfen, whereas transgenic lines M4 and M7 were unaffected. In response to oxyfluorfen, violaxanthin, beta-carotene, and chlorophylls (Chls) decreased in wild-type plants, whereas antheraxanthin and zeaxanthin increased. Only a slight decline in Chls was observed in transgenic lines at 48 h after oxyfluorfen treatment. Noticeable increases of cytosolic Cu/Zn-superoxide dismutase, peroxidase isozymes 1 and 2, and catalase were observed after at 48 h of oxyfluorfen treatment in the wild-type. Non-enzymatic antioxidants appeared to respond faster to oxyfluorfen-induced photodynamic stress than did enzymatic antioxidants. Protective responses for the detoxification of active oxygen species were induced to counteract photodynamic stress in oxyfluorfen-treated, wild-type plants. However, oxyfluorfen-treated, transgenic plants suffered less oxidative stress, confirming increased herbicidal resistance resulted from dual expression of M. xanthus Protox in chloroplasts and mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sunyo Jung
- Center for Agricultural Biomaterials, Seoul National University, San 56-1, Sillim-dong, Gwanak-gu, Seoul 151-742, South Korea
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28
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Li X, Nicholl D. Development of PPO inhibitor-resistant cultures and crops. PEST MANAGEMENT SCIENCE 2005; 61:277-285. [PMID: 15660355 DOI: 10.1002/ps.1011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Recent progress in the development of protoporphyrinogen oxidase (PPO, Protox) inhibitor-resistant plant cell cultures and crops is reviewed, with emphasis on the molecular and cellular aspects of this topic. PPO herbicide-resistant maize plants have been reported, along with the isolation of plant PPO genes and the isolation of herbicide-resistant mutants. At the same time, PPO inhibitor-resistant rice plants have been developed by expression of the Bacillus subtilis PPO gene via targeting the gene into either chloroplast or cytoplasm. Other attempts to develop PPO herbicide-resistant plants include conventional tissue culture methods, expression of modified co-factors of the protoporphyrin IX binding subunit proteins, over-expression of wild-type plant PPO gene, and engineering of P-450 monooxygenases to degrade the PPO inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianggan Li
- Syngenta Biotechnology, Inc, PO Box 12257, 3054 Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-2257, USA.
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Møller MG, Petersen BL, Kannangara CG, Stummann BM, Henningsen KW. Chlorophyll Biosynthetic Enzymes and Plastid Membrane Structures in Mutants of Barley (Hordeum vulgare L.). Hereditas 2004. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1601-5223.1997.00181.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
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30
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Mohapatra A, Tripathy BC. Developmental changes in sub-plastidic distribution of chlorophyll biosynthetic intermediates in cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.). JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2003; 160:9-15. [PMID: 12685040 DOI: 10.1078/0176-1617-00848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Four-day-old etiolated cucumber seedlings (Cucumis sativus L.) were transferred to cool-white-fluorescent light (15 mumol m-2 s-1) for 1 h and 24 hours and etiochloroplasts and chloroplasts were isolated from developing cotyledons. Plastids were fractionated to stroma, envelope and thylakoid or inner membranes and the pigment contents of all these different fractions were analysed. In intact cucumber chloroplast protochlorophylide was present in significant amounts whereas protoporphyrin IX and Mg-protoporphyrin plus its monoester were present only in very small quantities. Out of the total chloroplastic protochlorophylide pool 1.0% was partitioned to envelope membranes and 99.0% was partitioned to thylakoids. Stroma had only trace amounts of protochlorophylide. In contrast to chloroplasts, etiochloroplasts had, besides protochlorophylide, significant amounts of other chlorophyll biosynthetic intermediates. In etiochloroplasts, protoporphyrin IX primarily partitioned to inner membranes (59.1%) followed by stroma (37.7%) and envelope (3.21%). The content of Mg-protoporphyrin IX plus its monoester in different subplastidic fractions was 74.4% for inner membranes, 22.58% for stroma and 3.02% for envelope. Protochlorophyllide primarily partitioned to inner membranes (95.79%), followed by envelope (4.15%) and, to a negligible extent (0.06%), into stroma. The sub-plastidic distribution of chlorophyll biosynthetic intermediates in etiochloroplasts was, therefore, different than that of chloroplasts. The significance of differential distribution of chlorophyll biosynthetic intermediates among thylakoids, envelope and stroma in developing and mature plastids is discussed in relation to chloroplast biogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anasuya Mohapatra
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
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31
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Mohapatra A, Tripathy BC. Detection of protoporphyrin IX in envelope membranes of pea chloroplasts. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2002; 299:751-4. [PMID: 12470642 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-291x(02)02703-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Envelope membranes were prepared from mature pea chloroplasts. The tetrapyrrole contents of envelope membranes were analysed. The envelope membranes of pea chloroplasts contained substantial amounts of protoporphyrin IX and trace amounts of Mg-protoporphyrin IX and its monoester in addition to protochlorophyllide. The protoporphyrin IX content of envelope membranes was 89.25 pmol (mg protein)(-1). Its content in pea envelope membrane was higher than that of protochlorophyllide. The proportion of monovinyl and divinyl forms of protochlorophyllide present in pea chloroplast envelope membrane was 3:7. The significance of the presence of protoporphyrin IX in the envelope membrane is discussed in relation to plastidic Chl biosynthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anasuya Mohapatra
- School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi 110067, India
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32
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Suzuki T, Masuda T, Singh DP, Tan FC, Tsuchiya T, Shimada H, Ohta H, Smith AG, Takamiya KI. Two types of ferrochelatase in photosynthetic and nonphotosynthetic tissues of cucumber: their difference in phylogeny, gene expression, and localization. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:4731-7. [PMID: 11675381 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m105613200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Ferrochelatase catalyzes the insertion of Fe(2+) into protoporphyrin IX to generate protoheme. In higher plants, there is evidence for two isoforms of this enzyme that fulfill different roles. Here, we describe the isolation of a second ferrochelatase cDNA from cucumber (CsFeC2) that was less similar to a previously isolated isoform (CsFeC1) than it was to some ferrochelatases from other higher plants. In in vitro import experiments, the two cucumber isoforms showed characteristics similar to their respective ferrochelatase counterparts of Arabidopsis thaliana. The C-terminal region of CsFeC2 but not CsFeC1 contained a conserved motif found in light-harvesting chlorophyll proteins, and CsFeC2 belonged to a phylogenetic group of plant ferrochelatases containing this conserved motif. We demonstrate that CsFeC2 was localized predominantly in thylakoid membranes as an intrinsic protein, and forming complexes probably with the C-terminal conserved motif, but a minor portion was also detected in envelope membranes. CsFeC2 mRNA was detected in all tissues and was light-responsive in cotyledons, whereas CsFeC1 mRNA was detected in nonphotosynthetic tissues and was not light-responsive. Interestingly, tissue-, light-, and cycloheximide-dependent expressions of the two isoforms of ferrochelatase were similar to those of two glutamyl-tRNA reductase isoforms involved in the early step of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis, suggesting the existence of distinctly controlled tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathways in photosynthetic and nonphotosynthetic tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takuo Suzuki
- Graduate School of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Tokyo Institute of Technology, 4259 Nagatsuta, Midori-ku, Yokohama, 226-8501 Japan
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33
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Block MA, Tewari AK, Albrieux C, Maréchal E, Joyard J. The plant S-adenosyl-L-methionine:Mg-protoporphyrin IX methyltransferase is located in both envelope and thylakoid chloroplast membranes. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 2002; 269:240-8. [PMID: 11784318 DOI: 10.1046/j.0014-2956.2001.02643.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Chlorophyll biosynthesis requires a metabolic dialog between the chloroplast envelope and thylakoids where biosynthetic activities are localized. Here, we report the first plant S-adenosyl-l-methionine:Mg-protoporphyrin IX methyltransferase (MgP(IX)MT) sequence identified in the Arabidopsis genome owing to its similarity with the Synechocystis sp. MgP(IX)MT gene. After expression in Escherichia coli, the recombinant Arabidopsis thaliana cDNA was shown to encode a protein having MgP(IX)MT activity. The full-length polypeptide exhibits a chloroplast transit peptide that is processed during import into the chloroplast. The mature protein contains two functional regions. The C-terminal part aligns with the Synechocystis full-length protein. The corresponding truncated region binds to Ado-met, as assayed by UV crosslinking, and is shown to harbor the MgP(IX)MT activity. Downstream of the cleaved transit peptide, the 40 N-terminal amino acids of the mature protein are very hydrophobic and enhance the association of the protein with the membrane. In A. thaliana and spinach, the MgP(IX)MT protein has a dual localization in chloroplast envelope membranes as well as in thylakoids. The protein is active in each membrane and has the same apparent size corresponding to the processed mature protein. The protein is very likely a monotopic membrane protein embedded within one leaflet of the membrane as indicated by ionic and alkaline extraction of each membrane. The rationale for a dual localization of the protein in the chloroplast is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maryse A Block
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire Végétale, CNRS/CEA/Université Joseph Fourier, DBMS/PCV, Grenoble, France.
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34
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Papenbrock J, Mishra S, Mock HP, Kruse E, Schmidt EK, Petersmann A, Braun HP, Grimm B. Impaired expression of the plastidic ferrochelatase by antisense RNA synthesis leads to a necrotic phenotype of transformed tobacco plants. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2001; 28:41-50. [PMID: 11696185 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.2001.01126.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Protoporphyrin IX is the last common intermediate of tetrapyrrole biosynthesis. The chelation of a Mg2+ ion by magnesium chelatase and of a ferrous ion by ferrochelatase directs protoporphyrin IX towards the formation of chlorophyll and heme, respectively. A full length cDNA clone encoding a ferrochelatase was identified from a Nicotiana tabacum cDNA library. The encoded protein consists of 497 amino acid residues with a molecular weight of 55.4 kDa. In vitro import of the protein into chloroplasts and its location in stroma and thylakoids confirm its close relationship to the previously described Arabidopsis thaliana plastid-located ferrochelatase (FeChII). A 1700-bp tobacco FeCh cDNA sequence was expressed in Nicotiana tabacum cv. Samsun NN under the control of the CaMV 35S promoter in antisense orientation allowing investigation into the consequences of selective reduction of the plastidic ferrochelatase activity for protoporphyrin IX channeling in chloroplasts and for interactions between plastidic and mitochondrial heme synthesis. Leaves of several transformants showed a reduced chlorophyll content and, during development, a light intensity-dependent formation of necrotic leaf lesions. In comparison with wild-type plants the total ferrochelatase activity was decreased in transgenic lines leading to an accumulation of photosensitizing protoporphyrin IX. Ferrochelatase activity was reduced only in plastids but not in mitochondria of transgenic plants. By means of the specifically diminished ferrochelatase activity consequences of the selective inhibition of protoheme formation for the intracellular supply of heme can be investigated in the future.
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MESH Headings
- Cloning, Molecular
- Ferrochelatase/biosynthesis
- Ferrochelatase/genetics
- Ferrochelatase/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic
- Gene Expression Regulation, Plant
- Heme/metabolism
- Isoenzymes/biosynthesis
- Isoenzymes/genetics
- Isoenzymes/metabolism
- Light
- Mitochondria/enzymology
- Necrosis
- Phenotype
- Phylogeny
- Plants, Genetically Modified
- Plastids/enzymology
- Plastids/genetics
- Plastids/metabolism
- Plastids/radiation effects
- Protoporphyrins/metabolism
- RNA, Antisense/biosynthesis
- RNA, Antisense/genetics
- RNA, Antisense/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA, Plant/genetics
- RNA, Plant/metabolism
- Nicotiana/cytology
- Nicotiana/enzymology
- Nicotiana/genetics
- Nicotiana/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- J Papenbrock
- Institut fur Pflanzengenetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung, Corrensstrasse 3, 06466 Gatersleben, Germany
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35
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Ishikawa A, Okamoto H, Iwasaki Y, Asahi T. A deficiency of coproporphyrinogen III oxidase causes lesion formation in Arabidopsis. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2001; 27:89-99. [PMID: 11489187 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.2001.01058.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We isolated an Arabidopsis lesion initiation 2 (lin2) mutant, which develops lesion formation on leaves and siliques in a developmentally regulated and light-dependent manner. The phenotype of the lin2 plants resulted from a single nuclear recessive mutation, and LIN2 was isolated by a T-DNA tagging approach. LIN2 encodes coproporphyrinogen III oxidase, a key enzyme in the biosynthetic pathway of chlorophyll and heme, a tetrapyrrole pathway, in Arabidopsis. The lin2 plants express cytological and molecular markers associated with the defense responses, usually activated by pathogen infection. These results demonstrate that a porphyrin pathway impairment is responsible for the lesion initiation phenotype, which leads to the activation of defense responses, in Arabidopsis. Lesion formation was not suppressed, and was even enhanced when accumulation of salicylic acid (SA) was prevented in lin2 plants by the expression of an SA-degrading salicylate hydroxylase (nahG) gene. This suggests that the lesion formation triggered in lin2 plants is determined prior to or independently of the accumulation of SA but that the accumulation is required to limit the spread of lesions in lin2 plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ishikawa
- Department of Bioscience, Fukui Prefectural University, Fukui 910-1195, Japan.
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36
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Møller SG, Kunkel T, Chua NH. A plastidic ABC protein involved in intercompartmental communication of light signaling. Genes Dev 2001; 15:90-103. [PMID: 11156608 PMCID: PMC312601 DOI: 10.1101/gad.850101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Plants perceive light via specialized photoreceptors of which the phytochromes (phyA-E), absorbing far-red (FR) and red light (R) are best understood. Several nuclear and cytoplasmic proteins have been characterized whose deficiencies lead to changes in light-dependent morphological responses and gene expression. However, no plastid protein has yet been identified to play a role in phytochrome signal transduction. We have isolated a new Arabidopsis mutant, laf (long after FR) 6, with reduced responsiveness preferentially toward continuous FR light. The disrupted gene in laf6 encodes a novel plant ATP-binding-cassette (atABC1) protein of 557 amino acids with high homology to ABC-like proteins from lower eukaryotes. In contrast to lower eukaryotic ABCs, however, atABC1 contains an N-terminal transit peptide, which targets it to chloroplasts. atABC1 deficiency in laf6 results in an accumulation of the chlorophyll precursor protoporphyrin IX and in attenuation of FR-regulated gene expression. The long hypocotyl phenotype of laf6 and the accumulation of protoporphyrin IX in the mutant can be recapitulated by treating wild-type (WT) seedlings with flumioxazin, a protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO) inhibitor. Moreover, protoporphyrin IX accumulation in flumioxazin-treated WT seedlings can be reduced by overexpression of atABC1. Consistent with the notion that ABC proteins are involved in transport, these observations suggest that functional atABC1 is required for the transport and correct distribution of protoporphyrin IX, which may act as a light-specific signaling factor involved in coordinating intercompartmental communication between plastids and the nucleus.
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Affiliation(s)
- S G Møller
- Laboratory of Plant Molecular Biology, Rockefeller University, 1230 York Avenue, New York, New York 10021-6399, USA
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37
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de Marco A, Volrath S, Bruyere T, Law M, Fonné-Pfister R. Recombinant maize protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase expressed in Escherichia coli forms complexes with GroEL and DnaK chaperones. Protein Expr Purif 2000; 20:81-6. [PMID: 11035954 DOI: 10.1006/prep.2000.1274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
The clone corresponding to maize plastidic protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO) has been isolated by functional complementation and inserted into a pET16b vector for expression in Escherichia coli. Recombinant PPO was purified by standard affinity chromatography using a metal chelating resin. Two contaminants copurified with recombinant PPO and were identified as GroEL and DnaK. Since chaperone binding to hydrophobic regions of the protein is regulated by ATP availability, an ATP washing step was introduced prior to elution of the recombinant protein from an affinity column. This washing step selectively removed both chaperones and allowed the recovery of pure PPO. Coexpression of PPO and GroELS resulted in a sixfold increase of soluble PPO yield, suggesting that bacterial chaperones could be limiting during the folding of the heterologous protein. However, a portion of PPO was still found in the insoluble fraction. Buffer containing the GroEL and DnaK enabled resuspension of PPO from the insoluble fraction but failed to enhance refolding of the denaturated protein. Attempts to increase the amount of soluble PPO using a thioredoxin-PPO fusion protein were not successful. Initial characterization of the recombinant PPO found that it possessed a high V(max), an elevated affinity for substrate, and an elevated sensitivity to PPO inhibitor herbicides compared to previous reports.
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Affiliation(s)
- A de Marco
- LD Biochemistry Unit, Novartis Crop Protection AG, Basel, CH-4002, Switzerland
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38
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Che FS, Watanabe N, Iwano M, Inokuchi H, Takayama S, Yoshida S, Isogai A. Molecular characterization and subcellular localization of protoporphyrinogen oxidase in spinach chloroplasts. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2000; 124:59-70. [PMID: 10982422 PMCID: PMC59122 DOI: 10.1104/pp.124.1.59] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2000] [Accepted: 04/27/2000] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (Protox) is the last common enzyme in the biosynthesis of chlorophylls and heme. In plants, there are two isoenzymes of Protox, one located in plastids and other in the mitochondria. We cloned the cDNA of spinach (Spinacia oleracea) plastidal Protox and purified plastidal Protox protein from spinach chloroplasts. Sequence analysis of the cDNA indicated that the plastid Protox of spinach is composed of 562 amino acids containing the glycine-rich motif GxGxxG previously proposed to be a dinucleotide binding site of many flavin-containing proteins. The cDNA of plastidal Protox complemented a Protox mutation in Escherichia coli. N-terminal sequence analysis of the purified enzyme revealed that the plastidal Protox precursor is processed at the N-terminal site of serine-49. The predicted transit peptide (methionine-1 to cysteine-48) was sufficient for the transport of precursors into the plastid because green fluorescent protein fused with the predicted transit peptide was transported to the chloroplast. Immunocytochemical analysis using electron microscopy showed that plastidal Protox is preferentially associated with the stromal side of the thylakoid membrane, and a small portion of the enzyme is located on the stromal side of the chloroplast inner envelope membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- F S Che
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 8916-5, Takayama Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan.
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39
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Watanabe N, Che FS, Terashima K, Takayama S, Yoshida S, Isogai A. Purification and properties of protoporphyrinogen oxidase from spinach chloroplasts. PLANT & CELL PHYSIOLOGY 2000; 41:889-92. [PMID: 10965946 DOI: 10.1093/pcp/pcd007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen oxidase (Protox), an enzyme that catalyzes the common step of chlorophyll and heme biosynthetic pathways, was purified from spinach chloroplasts. The molecular weight of purified protein was estimated to be approximately 60,000 by SDS-PAGE. Protox activity was stimulated by addition of FAD, suggesting that chloroplast Protox requires FAD as a cofactor. Furthermore, the Protox-inhibiting herbicide, S23142, specifically inhibited the purified Protox activity at an IC50 value of 1 nM.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Watanabe
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Ikoma, Japan
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40
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Lermontova I, Grimm B. Overexpression of plastidic protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase leads to resistance to the diphenyl-ether herbicide acifluorfen. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2000; 122:75-84. [PMID: 10631251 PMCID: PMC58846 DOI: 10.1104/pp.122.1.75] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/1999] [Accepted: 10/01/1999] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
The use of herbicides to control undesirable vegetation has become a universal practice. For the broad application of herbicides the risk of damage to crop plants has to be limited. We introduced a gene into the genome of tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) plants encoding the plastid-located protoporphyrinogen oxidase of Arabidopsis, the last enzyme of the common tetrapyrrole biosynthetic pathway, under the control of the cauliflower mosaic virus 35S promoter. The transformants were screened for low protoporphyrin IX accumulation upon treatment with the diphenyl ether-type herbicide acifluorfen. Leaf disc incubation and foliar spraying with acifluorfen indicated the lower susceptibility of the transformants against the herbicide. The resistance to acifluorfen is conferred by overexpression of the plastidic isoform of protoporphyrinogen oxidase. The in vitro activity of this enzyme extracted from plastids of selected transgenic lines was at least five times higher than the control activity. Herbicide treatment that is normally inhibitory to protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase did not significantly impair the catalytic reaction in transgenic plants and, therefore, did not cause photodynamic damage in leaves. Therefore, overproduction of protoporphyrinogen oxidase neutralizes the herbicidal action, prevents the accumulation of the substrate protoporphyrinogen IX, and consequently abolishes the light-dependent phytotoxicity of acifluorfen.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Lermontova
- Institut f]ur Pflanzengenetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung (IPK), Corrensstrasse 3, 06466 Gatersleben, Germany
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41
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Molina A, Volrath S, Guyer D, Maleck K, Ryals J, Ward E. Inhibition of protoporphyrinogen oxidase expression in Arabidopsis causes a lesion-mimic phenotype that induces systemic acquired resistance. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1999; 17:667-678. [PMID: 10230064 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.1999.00420.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
We have used an antisense expression technology in Arabidopsis based on the yeast GAL4/UAS transactivation system (Guyer et al., Genetics, 1998; 149:633-639) to reduce levels of protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase (PPO), the last common enzyme of the biosynthesis of the haem group and chlorophyll. Plants expressing the antisense PPO gene presented growth alterations and their leaves showed necrotic lesions that appeared similar to lesions characteristic of the pathogen-induced hypersensitive reaction, and seen in the so-called lesion-mimic mutants. Plants expressing the antisense gene also had high endogenous salicylic acid levels, constitutive expression of the PR-1 gene, and were resistant to Peronospora parasitica, consistent with the activation of systemic acquired resistance (SAR). Treatment of wild-type plants with sublethal concentrations of herbicides that inhibit PPO also induced defence responses that conferred enhanced tolerance to P. parasitica. This effect was not observed in NahG and nim1 plants, which are compromised in their ability to activate SAR. These results demonstrate that genetic or chemical disruption of a metabolic pathway can lead to the induction of a set of defence responses including activation of SAR.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Molina
- Biotechnology and Genomics Center, Novartis Crop Protection Inc., Research Triangle Park, NC 27709-2257, USA
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42
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Watanabe, Che, Iwano, Takayama, Nakano, Yoshida, Isogai. Molecular characterization of photomixotrophic tobacco cells resistant to protoporphyrinogen oxidase-inhibiting herbicides. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 1998; 118:751-8. [PMID: 9808719 PMCID: PMC34785 DOI: 10.1104/pp.118.3.751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/1998] [Accepted: 08/06/1998] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Peroxidizing herbicides inhibit protoporphyrinogen oxidase (Protox), the last enzyme of the common branch of the chlorophyll- and heme-synthesis pathways. There are two isoenzymes of Protox, one of which is located in the plastid and the other in the mitochondria. Sequence analysis of the cloned Protox cDNAs showed that the deduced amino acid sequences of plastidial and mitochondrial Protox in wild-type cells and in herbicide-resistant YZI-1S cells are the same. The level of plastidial Protox mRNA was the same in both wild-type and YZI-1S cells, whereas the level of mitochondrial Protox mRNA YZI-1S cells was up to 10 times the level of wild-type cells. Wild-type cells were observed by fluorescence microscopy to emit strong autofluorescence from chlorophyll. Only a weak fluorescence signal was observed from chlorophyll in YZI-1S cells grown in the Protox inhibitor N-(4-chloro-2-fluoro-5-propagyloxy)-phenyl-3,4,5, 6-tetrahydrophthalimide. Staining with DiOC6 showed no visible difference in the number or strength of fluorescence between wild-type and YZI-1S mitochondria. Electron micrography of YZI-1S cells showed that, in contrast to wild-type cells, the chloroplasts of YZI-1S cells grown in the presence of N-(4-chloro-2-fluoro-5-propagyloxy)-phenyl-3,4,5, 6-tetrahydrophthalimide exhibited no grana stacking. These results suggest that the herbicide resistance of YZI-1S cells is due to the overproduction of mitochondrial Protox.
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Affiliation(s)
- Watanabe
- Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Nara Institute of Science and Technology, 8916-5, Takayama Ikoma, Nara 630-0101, Japan (N.W., F.-S.C., M.I., S.T., A.I.)
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43
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Joyard J, Teyssier E, Miege C, Berny-Seigneurin D, Marechal E, Block MA, Dorne AJ, Rolland N, Ajlani G, Douce R. The biochemical machinery of plastid envelope membranes. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 1998; 118:715-23. [PMID: 9808715 PMCID: PMC1539194 DOI: 10.1104/pp.118.3.715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- J Joyard
- Laboratoire de Physiologie Cellulaire Vegetale, Unite de Recherche Associee 576 (Commissariat a l'Energie Atomique/Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique/Universite Joseph Fourier), Departement de Biologie Moleculaire et Struc
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44
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Chow KS, Singh DP, Walker AR, Smith AG. Two different genes encode ferrochelatase in Arabidopsis: mapping, expression and subcellular targeting of the precursor proteins. THE PLANT JOURNAL : FOR CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 1998; 15:531-41. [PMID: 9753778 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-313x.1998.00235.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Ferrochelatase is the last enzyme of haem biosynthesis. We have isolated 27 independent ferrochelatase cDNAs from Arabidopsis thaliana by functional complementation of a yeast mutant. Twenty-two of these cDNAs were similar to a previously isolated clone, AF3, and although they varied in length at the 5' and 3' ends, their nucleotide sequences were identical, indicating that they were derived from the same gene (ferrochelatase-I). The remaining five cDNAs all encoded a separate ferrochelatase isoform (ferrochelatase-II), which was 69% identical at the amino acid level to ferrochelatase-I. Using RFLP analysis in recombinant inbred lines, the ferrochelatase-I gene was mapped to chromosome V and that for ferrochelatase-II to chromosome II. Northern analysis showed that both ferrochelatase genes are expressed in leaves, stems and flowers, and expression in the leaves is higher in the light than in the dark. However, in roots only ferrochelatase-I transcripts were detected. High levels of sucrose stimulated expression of ferrochelatase-I, but had no effect, or repressed slightly, the expression of the ferrochelatase-II isoform. Import experiments into isolated chloroplasts and mitochondria showed that the ferrochelatase-II gene encodes a precursor which is imported solely into the chloroplast, in contrast to ferrochelatase-I which is targeted to both organelles. The significance of these results for haem biosynthesis and the production of haemoproteins, both within the plant cell and in different plant tissues, is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- K S Chow
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, UK
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Lermontova I, Kruse E, Mock HP, Grimm B. Cloning and characterization of a plastidal and a mitochondrial isoform of tobacco protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1997; 94:8895-900. [PMID: 9238074 PMCID: PMC23187 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.94.16.8895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/1997] [Accepted: 05/23/1997] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase is the last enzyme in the common pathway of heme and chlorophyll synthesis and provides precursor for the mitochondrial and plastidic heme synthesis and the predominant chlorophyll synthesis in plastids. We cloned two different, full-length tobacco cDNA sequences by complementation of the protoporphyrin-IX-accumulating Escherichia coli hemG mutant from heme auxotrophy. The two sequences show similarity to the recently published Arabidopsis PPOX, Bacillus subtilis hemY, and to mammalian sequences encoding protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase. One cDNA sequence encodes a 548-amino acid residues protein with a putative transit sequence of 50 amino acid residues, and the second cDNA encodes a protein of 504 amino acid residues. Both deduced protein sequences share 27.2% identical amino acid residues. The first in vitro translated protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase could be translocated to plastids, and the approximately 53-kDa mature protein was detected in stroma and membrane fraction. The second enzyme was targeted to mitochondria without any detectable reduction in size. Localization of both enzymes in subcellular fractions was immunologically confirmed. Steady-state RNA analysis indicates an almost synchronous expression of both genes during tobacco plant development, greening of young seedlings, and diurnal and circadian growth. The mature plastidal and the mitochondrial isoenzyme were overexpressed in E. coli. Bacterial extracts containing the recombinant mitochondrial enzyme exhibit high protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase activity relative to control strains, whereas the plastidal enzyme could only be expressed as an inactive peptide. The data presented confirm a compartmentalized pathway of tetrapyrrole synthesis with protoporphyrinogen IX oxidase in plastids and mitochondria.
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Affiliation(s)
- I Lermontova
- Institut für Pflanzengenetik und Kulturpflanzenforschung Gatersleben, IPK Corrensstrasse 3, 06466 Gatersleben, Germany
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Roper JM, Smith AG. Molecular localisation of ferrochelatase in higher plant chloroplasts. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1997; 246:32-7. [PMID: 9210462 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1997.t01-1-00032.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Within the chloroplast of higher plants, a crucial branchpoint of the tetrapyrrole synthesis pathway is the chelation of either Fe2+ to make haem, or Mg2+ for chlorophyll, catalysed by ferrochelatase or magnesium chelatase, respectively. One model that has been proposed for the control of this branchpoint, based on biochemical studies, is that the two enzymes are spatially separated within the chloroplast, ferrochelatase being exclusively in the thylakoids, while magnesium chelatase is associated with the envelope [Matringe, M., Camadro, J.-M., Joyard, J. & Douce, R. (1994) J. Biol. Chem. 269, 15010-15015]. We have used a sensitive molecular method to investigate this possibility. Radiolabelled precursor proteins for ferrochelatase from Arabidopsis have been imported into isolated chloroplasts. Their distribution in the different subchloroplastic fractions have then been determined, and compared with that for light-harvesting chlorophyll protein, which is exclusively thylakoidal, and the envelope-located phosphate translocator. Clear evidence for the specific association of ferrochelatase protein with both thylakoid and envelope membranes has been obtained, thus suggesting strongly that the control of the branchpoint cannot be by spatial separation of the two chelatases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J M Roper
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Cambridge, England, UK
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Reinbothe S, Reinbothe C. The regulation of enzymes involved in chlorophyll biosynthesis. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF BIOCHEMISTRY 1996; 237:323-43. [PMID: 8647070 DOI: 10.1111/j.1432-1033.1996.00323.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
All living organisms contain tetrapyrroles. In plants, chlorophyll (chlorophyll a plus chlorophyll b) is the most abundant and probably most important tetrapyrrole. It is involved in light absorption and energy transduction during photosynthesis. Chlorophyll is synthesized from the intact carbon skeleton of glutamate via the C5 pathway. This pathway takes place in the chloroplast. It is the aim of this review to summarize the current knowledge on the biochemistry and molecular biology of the C5-pathway enzymes, their regulated expression in response to light, and the impact of chlorophyll biosynthesis on chloroplast development. Particular emphasis will be placed on the key regulatory steps of chlorophyll biosynthesis in higher plants, such as 5-aminolevulinic acid formation, the production of Mg(2+)-protoporphyrin IX, and light-dependent protochlorophyllide reduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Reinbothe
- Department of Genetics, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich (ETH), Switzerland
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Frear DS. Wheat microsomal cytochrome P450 monooxygenases: characterization and importance in the metabolic detoxification and selectivity of wheat herbicides. DRUG METABOLISM AND DRUG INTERACTIONS 1995; 12:329-57. [PMID: 8820860 DOI: 10.1515/dmdi.1995.12.3-4.329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This review describes the important role and significance of cytochrome P450 monooxygenases in the metabolism, detoxification and selectivity of a broad spectrum of herbicides used for weed control in wheat and other cereals. Recent research on the isolation, characterization and reconstitution of induced microsomal cytochrome P450 monooxygenases directly responsible for herbicide oxidation, selectivity and resistance in wheat is emphasized. Reported evidence for the selection of similar wheat-like cytochrome P450 monooxygenases in the evolution of metabolism-based herbicide resistance in grassy weed populations is also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- D S Frear
- Biosciences Research Laboratory, State University Station, United States Department of Agriculture, Fargo, North Dakota 58105, USA
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Matringe M, Camadro J, Joyard J, Douce R. Localization of ferrochelatase activity within mature pea chloroplasts. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(17)36567-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Hoober JK, White RA, Marks DB, Gabriel JL. Biogenesis of thylakoid membranes with emphasis on the process in Chlamydomonas. PHOTOSYNTHESIS RESEARCH 1994; 39:15-31. [PMID: 24310997 DOI: 10.1007/bf00027139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/1993] [Accepted: 11/10/1993] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Recent results obtained by electron microscopic and biochemical analyses of greening Chlamydomonas reinhardtii y1 suggest that localized expansion of the plastid envelope is involved in thylakoid biogenesis. Kinetic analyses of the assembly of light-harvesting complexes and development of photosynthetic function when degreened cells of the alga are exposed to light suggest that proteins integrate into membrane at the level of the envelope. Current information, therefore, supports the earlier conclussion that the chloroplast envelope is a major biogenic structure, from which thylakoid membranes emerge. Chloroplast development in Chlamydomonas provides unique opportunities to examine in detail the biogenesis of thylakoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- J K Hoober
- Department of Botany, Arizona State University, 85287-1601, Tempe, AZ, USA
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