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Kurajica L, Ujević Bošnjak M, Kinsela AS, Štiglić J, Waite TD, Capak K, Pavlić Z. Effects of changing supply water quality on drinking water distribution networks: Changes in NOM optical properties, disinfection byproduct formation, and Mn deposition and release. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 762:144159. [PMID: 33360458 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Field studies were conducted in a Croatian city supplied by two distinct groundwater sources (referred to as A and B) to investigate both the effects of changing water source on the water quality in the drinking water supply system, as well as to further understand discoloration events that occurred in city locations that switched water from source A to B. The water treatment processes at site A were found to alter organic matter (OM) characteristics, removing humic substances while enhancing protein-derived (tryptophan) content. Although the humic-like component predominated in raw waters, microbially/protein-derived components were found to increase throughout the distribution networks of both systems. Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) such as total trihalomethane (TTHM) and total haloacetic acid (THAA) were prevalent in water distribution system (WDS)-A, which correlated with elevated OM content as well as re-chlorination with hypochlorite (NaOCl). Our field study revealed that THMs were more readily formed than HAAs during ClO2 treatment. Unsurprisingly, chlorite concentrations were generally higher than chlorate concentrations during ClO2 treatment, whereas (secondary) NaOCl disinfection contributed to higher chlorate production. Principal component analysis indicated that variable pH values and humic-like OM could affect Mn, As and Al concentrations at the consumer's tap. Our results suggested that although Mn concentrations complied with regulations at WDS-B and were below 50 μg/L after disinfection, Mn was oxidized and formed particulate Mn oxides capable of causing discoloration events depending on prevailing network physico-chemical and hydraulic conditions. Aluminium also appears to be released during hydraulic disturbances from extensive deposits within the network. Thermodynamic calculations showed that Mn-oxidation was strongly dependent upon the ORP, and to lesser extent the pH value. Collectively, our results confirm that ensuring the provision of safe drinking waters to consumers requires an understanding of water quality across entire distribution networks in addition to any routine post-treatment monitoring.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Kurajica
- Croatian Institute of Public Health, Rockefeller street 7, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - M Ujević Bošnjak
- Croatian Institute of Public Health, Rockefeller street 7, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia.
| | - A S Kinsela
- Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - J Štiglić
- Croatian Institute of Public Health, Rockefeller street 7, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - T D Waite
- Water Research Centre, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - K Capak
- Croatian Institute of Public Health, Rockefeller street 7, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Z Pavlić
- Slavonski Brod Water Supply Company, Nikole Zrinskog 25, 35000 Slavonski Brod, Croatia
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Zhang A, Wang F, Chu W, Yang X, Pan Y, Zhu H. Integrated control of CX 3R-type DBP formation by coupling thermally activated persulfate pre-oxidation and chloramination. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 160:304-312. [PMID: 31154128 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.05.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 05/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The alternative disinfectant chloramine can lower the formation of carbonaceous DBPs (C-DBPs) but promote the formation of nitrogenous DBPs (N-DBPs), which are more cytotoxic and genotoxic. In this study, the combination of thermally activated persulfate pre-oxidation and post-chloramination (TA/PS-NH2Cl) was proposed to control the formation and reduce the toxicity of both C-DBPs and N-DBPs. The formation, speciation and toxicity of trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, haloaldehydes, haloacetonitriles, halonitromethanes and haloacetamides, collectively defined as CX3R-type DBPs, under TA/PS-NH2Cl process were compared with processes of chlorination alone (Cl2), chloramination alone (NH2Cl) and coupled thermally activated persulfate pre-oxidation with post-chlorination (TA/PS-Cl2). Results showed that chloramination could reduce formation of C-DBPs and total organic halogen (TOX) while increase N-DBP formation, and the introduction of TA/PS pretreatment process slightly increased the formation of C-DBPs and TOX but sharply reduced the formation of N-DBPs with higher toxicity as well as brominated CX3R-type DBPs that are more toxic than their chlorinated analogues. By comprehensive toxicity calculation, an outright decline of both cytotoxicity and genotoxicity risk of CX3R-type DBPs was observed during TA/PS-NH2Cl process compared with Cl2, NH2Cl, and TA/PS-Cl2 processes. In summary, TA/PS-NH2Cl process was a potential effective method for integrally controlling the formation of CX3R-type DBPs and their toxicity and is suggested to be used to treat raw waters containing no bromide or low levels of bromide considering bromate caused by TA/PS pre-oxidation. The study may provide a feasible and economical method for DBP control on the background of global warming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aihong Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Feifei Wang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai, 200444, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 200092, China.
| | - Xu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Yang Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Huifeng Zhu
- Shanghai Municipal Water Supply Dispatching and Monitoring Center, Shanghai, 200002, China
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Padhi RK, Subramanian S, Satpathy KK. Formation, distribution, and speciation of DBPs (THMs, HAAs, ClO 2-,andClO 3-) during treatment of different source water with chlorine and chlorine dioxide. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 218:540-550. [PMID: 30500715 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2018] [Revised: 11/11/2018] [Accepted: 11/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Formation potential and speciation characteristics of two important groups of disinfection byproducts (DBPs), namely, trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAS), during Cl2 and ClO2 treatment of water samples collected from three different sources, namely, sea, river, and reservoir, were investigated with reference to key controlling parameters. Formation of inorganic DBPs such as chlorate and chlorite was evaluated. Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and UV absorbance (UV254) of the sea, river, and reservoir samples were 3.35 ± 0.05, 3.12 ± 0.05, and 3.23 ± 0.05 mg/L and 0.062 ± 0.01, 0.074 ± 0.01, and 0.055 ± 0.01 cm-1, respectively. For Cl2 and ClO2 treatments, the respective formation potential of THMs and HAAs from the three water sources studied exhibited unidentical trend suggesting that higher THM formation was not necessarily associated with higher HAA formation. On chlorination, the concentrations of total HAAs formed were 9.8 μg/L (sea), 12.8 μg/L (river), and 20.6 μg/L (reservoir) and total THM yields were 38.3 μg/L (sea), 18.8 μg/L (river), and 21.5 μg/L (reservoir) for a Cl2 dose of 1 mg/L and 30 min reaction time. The trend of formation of THMs and HAAs for Cl2 treatment was similar to that for ClO2 treatment. However, the amount of HAAs (3.5 μg/L (sea), 1.8 μg/L (river), and 1.9 μg/L (reservoir)) and THMs (not detected) formed was much lower than that formed during chlorination. Regardless of source water type, di-HAAs were the most favored HAAs, followed by tri-HAAs with a small amount of mono-HAAs formed for both Cl2 and ClO2 treatment. Chlorination yielded more THMs than HAAs, whereas it was reverse for chlorine dioxide treatment. Irrespective of treatment with ClO2 or Cl2, seawater samples showed the highest bromine incorporation percentage (BIP) in both THMs and HAAs followed by that for river and reservoir water samples. HAAs were found to be always associated with lower amount of BIP than THMs.
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Affiliation(s)
- R K Padhi
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, 603102, India; Health Safety and Environment Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, 603 102, India.
| | - S Subramanian
- Health Safety and Environment Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, 603 102, India
| | - K K Satpathy
- Homi Bhabha National Institute, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, 603102, India; Health Safety and Environment Group, Indira Gandhi Centre for Atomic Research, Kalpakkam, Tamil Nadu, 603 102, India.
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Han J, Zhang X, Liu J, Zhu X, Gong T. Characterization of halogenated DBPs and identification of new DBPs trihalomethanols in chlorine dioxide treated drinking water with multiple extractions. J Environ Sci (China) 2017; 58:83-92. [PMID: 28774629 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2017.04.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2017] [Revised: 04/25/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is a widely used alternative disinfectant due to its high biocidal efficiency and low-level formation of trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids. A major portion of total organic halogen (TOX), a collective parameter for all halogenated DBPs, formed in ClO2-treated drinking water is still unknown. A commonly used pretreatment method for analyzing halogenated DBPs in drinking water is one-time liquid-liquid extraction (LLE), which may lead to a substantial loss of DBPs prior to analysis. In this study, characterization and identification of polar halogenated DBPs in a ClO2-treated drinking water sample were conducted by pretreating the sample with multiple extractions. Compared to one-time LLE, the combined four-time LLEs improved the recovery of TOX by 2.3 times. The developmental toxicity of the drinking water sample pretreated with the combined four-time LLEs was 1.67 times higher than that pretreated with one-time LLE. With the aid of ultra-performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry, a new group of polar halogenated DBPs, trihalomethanols, were detected in the drinking water sample pretreated with multiple extractions; two of them, trichloromethanol and bromodichloromethanol, were identified with synthesized standard compounds. Moreover, these trihalomethanols were found to be the transformation products of trihalomethanes formed during ClO2 disinfection. The results indicate that multiple LLEs can significantly improve extraction efficiencies of polar halogenated DBPs and is a better pretreatment method for characterizing and identifying new polar halogenated DBPs in drinking water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarui Han
- Environmental Engineering Program, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xiangru Zhang
- Environmental Engineering Program, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Jiaqi Liu
- Environmental Engineering Program, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xiaohu Zhu
- Environmental Engineering Program, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Tingting Gong
- Environmental Engineering Program, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China; School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
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5
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Yu HW, Oh SG, Kim IS, Pepper I, Snyder S, Jang A. Formation and speciation of haloacetic acids in seawater desalination using chlorine dioxide as disinfectant. J IND ENG CHEM 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jiec.2014.10.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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6
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Sorlini S, Biasibetti M, Collivignarelli MC, Crotti BM. Reducing the chlorine dioxide demand in final disinfection of drinking water treatment plants using activated carbon. ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGY 2015; 36:1499-1509. [PMID: 25465650 DOI: 10.1080/09593330.2014.994043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine dioxide is one of the most widely employed chemicals in the disinfection process of a drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). The aim of this work was to evaluate the influence of the adsorption process with granular activated carbon (GAC) on the chlorine dioxide consumption in final oxidation/disinfection. A first series of tests was performed at the laboratory scale employing water samples collected at the outlet of the DWTP sand filter of Cremona (Italy). The adsorption process in batch conditions with seven different types of GAC was studied. A second series of tests was performed on water samples collected at the outlet of four GAC columns installed at the outlet of the DWTP sand filter. The results showed that the best chlorine dioxide demand (ClO2-D) reduction yields are equal to 60-80% and are achieved in the first 30 min after ClO2 addition, during the first 16 days of the column operation using a mineral, coal-based, mesoporous GAC. Therefore, this carbon removes organic compounds that are more rapidly reactive with ClO2. Moreover, a good correlation was found between the ClO2-D and UV absorbance at wavelength 254 nm using mineral carbons; therefore, the use of a mineral mesoporous GAC is an effective solution to control the high ClO2-D in the disinfection stage of a DWTP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina Sorlini
- a Department of Civil Engineering, Architecture, Land, Environment and of Mathematics , University of Brescia , via Branze 43, 25123 Brescia , Italy
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7
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Ahmad RT, Nguyen TV, Shim W, Vigneswaran S, Moon H, Kandasamy J. Effluent organic matter removal by Purolite®A500PS: Experimental performance and mathematical model. Sep Purif Technol 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2012.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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8
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Adegoke O, Hosten E, McCleland C, Nyokong T. CdTe quantum dots functionalized with 4-amino-2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-N-oxide as luminescent nanoprobe for the sensitive recognition of bromide ion. Anal Chim Acta 2012; 721:154-61. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2012.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2011] [Revised: 12/23/2011] [Accepted: 01/19/2012] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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9
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Labanowski J, Feuillade G. Dissolved organic matter: precautions for the study of hydrophilic substances using XAD resins. WATER RESEARCH 2011; 45:315-327. [PMID: 20728916 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.07.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2010] [Revised: 07/05/2010] [Accepted: 07/22/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
This study concerns the possible changes in the repartition and the molecular characteristics of hydrophilic substances (HyS) isolated by XAD resins from the same source of organic matter as a function of the distribution coefficient k' and the DOM concentration. We tested that on two different sources of organic matter (a surface water and a landfill leachate). Breakthrough curves column experiments highlighted a modification of the repartition between hydrophilic and humic substances according to the k' value applied. But, we find that the composition of HyS is significantly modified between k' = 50 and 100. Our observations tend to suggest a higher contribution of humic-like matter (high-molecular weight aromatic compounds) with an increase of the k' value. This results in a shift of fluorescence bands to longer wavelengths and changing patterns of the SEC profiles and molecular fingerprints performed by flash pyrolysis. Our results show that DOM concentration also influences the composition of HyS while little effect is observed on their quantification at k' = 50 or 100.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome Labanowski
- Laboratoire de Chimie et Microbiologie de l'Eau UMR CNRS 6008, Université de Poitiers - ESIP, 40 avenue du recteur Pineau, 86022 Poitiers Cedex, France.
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10
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Zularisam A, Ismail A, Salim M, Sakinah M, Matsuura T. Application of coagulation–ultrafiltration hybrid process for drinking water treatment: Optimization of operating conditions using experimental design. Sep Purif Technol 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2008.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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11
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Jung CW, Son HJ. The relationship between disinfection by-products formation and characteristics of natural organic matter in raw water. KOREAN J CHEM ENG 2008. [DOI: 10.1007/s11814-008-0117-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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12
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Kim S, Hong S, Kim G, Sohn J, Choi E. Source identification and characterization of the accumulating non-biodegradable organics in Korean reservoirs. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2008; 88:1056-65. [PMID: 17643735 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2007.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2006] [Revised: 04/30/2007] [Accepted: 05/23/2007] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
An increase in the chemical oxygen demand (COD) has been noticed in most Korean reservoirs. Therefore, this research systematically investigated the causes of organic accumulation. Samples of soil affecting the quality of water of reservoirs were collected at various sources and analyzed for their organic characteristics. The COD to biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) ratio was used as the key parameter in the evaluation of non-biodegradable (NBD) organic accumulation in the reservoirs. Soil samples containing plant roots were agitated, with the supernatant showing COD/BOD ratios of less than 2.8, while those of the composted tree leaves were greater than 5.0, suggesting that humic substances produced in forest areas are a major cause of NBD organic accumulation in reservoirs. In addition, the organic fractionation of the leachate from leaching tests showed that of the various types of hydrophobic natural organic matter (NOM), the larger molecular weight humic acid makes a greater contribution than fulvic acid to the increase in the NBD COD in Korean reservoirs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sungwon Kim
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Korea University, 5-1 Anam-dong, Sungbuk-gu, Seoul 136-713, Republic of Korea
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13
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Xue S, Zhao QL, Wei LL, Jia T. Effect of bromide ion on isolated fractions of dissolved organic matter in secondary effluent during chlorination. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2008; 157:25-33. [PMID: 18243537 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2007.12.071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2007] [Revised: 12/19/2007] [Accepted: 12/19/2007] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The role of bromide ion in the trihalomethane (THM) formation and structure of dissolved organic matter (DOM) during chlorination of the secondary effluent taken from the Wenchang Wastewater Treatment Plant (Harbin, China) was investigated. DOM was fractionated using XAD resins into five fractions: hydrophobic acid (HPO-A), hydrophobic neutral (HPO-N), transphilic acid (TPI-A), transphilic neutral (TPI-N) and hydrophilic fraction (HPI). The patterns of individual THM species with increased bromide concentrations were similar for all DOM fractions. The THM speciation as well as halogen fraction for these five fractions followed similar trends with the Br(-)/Cl(2) ratio. Chlorination resulted in decreased ultraviolet (UV) absorbance across wavelengths from 250 to 280 nm for DOM fractions whether bromide ions existed or not, and bromide addition led to lower differential UV absorbance values. Fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) results indicated that chlorination, whether bromide ions existed or not, resulted in the near elimination of aromatic CH and amide peaks, increased CO absorption intensity and occurrence of CO and CCl peaks for HPO-A, HPO-N, TPI-A and TPI-N. Furthermore, bromide addition in chlorination led to the occurrence of CBr peak for all four fractions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuang Xue
- School of Municipal & Environmental Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
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14
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Pump diffusion flash mixing (PDFM) for improving coagulation process in drinking water treatment. Sep Purif Technol 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2006.03.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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15
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Kim HC, Hong JH, Lee S. Fouling of microfiltration membranes by natural organic matter after coagulation treatment: A comparison of different initial mixing conditions. J Memb Sci 2006. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2006.06.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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16
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Kanokkantapong V, Marhaba TF, Pavasant P, Panyapinyophol B. Characterization of haloacetic acid precursors in source water. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2006; 80:214-21. [PMID: 16377072 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2005.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2004] [Revised: 09/08/2005] [Accepted: 09/28/2005] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Raw water from the Bangkok (Thailand) main municipal water supply canal was examined for its natural organic composition by fractionation with adsorption resins. DAX-8 resin was the first resin employed to fractionate the hydrophobic fractions. Fractionation at neutral pH resulted in the separation of the hydrophobic neutral components; at a high pH level (approx. 10) separation of the hydrophobic base components occurred; and at a low pH level (approx. 2) the hydrophobic acid components were separated. AG-MP-50 cationic resin was then used to separate the hydrophilic base components, and WA-10, a weak anionic resin, was applied finally to fractionate the hydrophilic acid and neutral components. Subsequently, each fraction was tested for its chlorine disinfection by-product (DBP) formation potential. The HAA formation tests demonstrated that the various organic fractions had different reactivity levels for the formation of haloacetic acids (HAAs). For this source water, the hydrophilic neutral fraction dominated over the other five fractions in being the main organic component and the most significant precursor of HAAs formation. On the other hand, in terms of specific HAA formation potential (FP), the hydrophobic and hydrophilic base fractions were the most reactive precursors to the formation of HAAs. In all cases, the quantity of HAAs formed depended linearly upon the amount of organic constituents in the water sample.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vorapot Kanokkantapong
- National Research Center for Environmental and Hazardous Waste Management, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, Thailand
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17
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Shin HS, Jung DG. Determination of chlorine dioxide in water by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2006; 1123:92-7. [PMID: 16716337 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2006.04.089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2006] [Revised: 04/22/2006] [Accepted: 04/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A sensitive gas chromatographic method has been established for the determination of chlorine dioxide in water. With weak basic conditions (pH 9.0), chlorine dioxide reacts with iodide to form iodine, which reacts with 2,6-dialkylphenol to form 4-iodo-2,6-dialkylphenol. The volatile organic derivative was extracted with ethyl acetate, and then measured by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The reaction of the active proton of 2,6-dialkylphenols (2,6-dimethylphenol, 2,6-di-isopropylphenol and 2,6-di-tert-butylphenol) with iodine was tested, and compared to each other in terms of reactivity and stability of the derivatives. 2,6-dimethylphenol showed rapid reaction with iodine, and its derivative was stable for 2 weeks. The detection limit of chlorine dioxide in water was about 1.0 ng/mL, and the calibration curve showed good linearity with r2 = 0.998. The existent concentration of chlorine dioxide in water was calculated from multiplying the concentration calculated from the calibration curve of 4-iodo-2,6-dimethylphenol by 0.544. The method was sensitive, reproducible and simple enough to permit the reliable analysis of chlorine dioxide at the low ng/mL level in water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ho-Sang Shin
- Department of Environmental Education, Kongju National University, Kongju, Republic of Korea.
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18
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Jang A, Szabo J, Hosni AA, Coughlin M, Bishop PL. Measurement of chlorine dioxide penetration in dairy process pipe biofilms during disinfection. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2006; 72:368-76. [PMID: 16397769 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-005-0274-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2005] [Revised: 11/22/2005] [Accepted: 11/27/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Biofilms are considered a significant health risk in the food and dairy industries because they can harbor pathogens, and direct contact with them can lead to food contamination. Biofilm control is often performed using strong oxidizing agents like chlorine and peracetic acid. Although chlorine dioxide (ClO2) is being used increasingly to control microbiological growth in a number of different industries, not much is known about disinfection in biofilms using chlorine dioxide. In this study, a microelectrode originally made for chlorine detection was modified to measure the profiles of chlorine dioxide in biofilm as a function of depth into the biofilm. In addition, discarded microelectrodes proved useful for in situ direct measurement of biofilm thicknesses. The chlorine dioxide microelectrode had a linear response when calibrated up to a ClO2 concentration of 0.4 mM. ClO2 profiles showed depletion of disinfectant at 100 microm in the biofilm depth, indicating that ClO2 may not reach bacteria in a biofilm thicker than this using a 25 mg/l solution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Am Jang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45221-0071, USA
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19
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Schuck CA, de Luca SJ, Peralba MDCR, de Luca MA. Sodium ferrate (IV) and sodium hypochlorite in disinfection of biologically treated effluents. Ammonium nitrogen protection against THMs and HAAs. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2006; 41:2329-43. [PMID: 17018416 DOI: 10.1080/10934520600873431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
The work described in this paper presents an evaluation of disinfection by-products generation in four different biological treatment plant effluents, making use of sodium hypochlorite and sodium ferrate (IV) at varying concentration and reaction time. Correlations between pH, chemical oxygen demand, total organic carbon, ammonium nitrogen, combined chlorine and trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) were carried out. Disinfection by-products generation presented a direct relation with concentration and sodium hypochlorite reaction time. For the highest hypochlorite concentration employed (20 mg L(-1)) and highest reaction time (168 h), the THMs total did not exceed 312.96 microg L(-1), a value that lies below the Brazilian emission standard for treated effluents (1 mg L(-1) of chloroform). The THMs presented an inverse correlation with ammonium nitrogen, when inverse (R(2) = 0.646; P < 0.001) and exponential (R(2) = 0.707; P < 0.001) function were used. As per HAAs this same relation was observed for logarithmic (R(2) = 0.0397 P < 0.001) and exponential (R(2) = 0.508; P < 0.001) functions. The more nitrified the effluent, the bigger the chlorinated disinfection by-product generation. The disinfectant sodium ferrate (IV) does not lead to halogenated by-product formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla Andréa Schuck
- Instituto de Pesquisas Hidráulicas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul (UFRGS), Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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Kanokkantapong V, Marhaba TF, Wattanachira S, Panyapinyophol B, Pavasant P. Interaction between organic species in the formation of haloacetic acids following disinfection. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND HEALTH. PART A, TOXIC/HAZARDOUS SUBSTANCES & ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING 2006; 41:1233-48. [PMID: 16760098 DOI: 10.1080/10934520600623117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
The formation of haloacetic acids (HAAs) from the chlorination of individual and binary mixtures of organic fractions obtained from the intake of Bangkhen Water Treatment Plant in Bangkok, Thailand was investigated. Experimental results revealed that, as an individual fraction, hydrophobic base (HPOB) was the most active in forming HAAs (approx. 200 microg/mg) whereas hydrophilic acid (HPIA) was the least (approx. 40 microg/mg). In binary mixtures, acid fractions exhibited stronger inhibitory effect in forming HAAs than base fractions. With the set of experimental data obtained from this work, no relationships between specific HAA formation potential and various organic fractions concentrations in binary mixtures could be formulated. Among the various individual HAA species obtained from the chlorination of each individual organic fraction, dichloroacetic acid (DCAA) was found to be predominant. On the other hand, the chlorination of binary organic fraction mixtures often led to the formation of monochloroacetic acid (MCAA) as the predominant HAA species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vorapot Kanokkantapong
- Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Public and Environmental Health, Huachiew Chalermprakiet University, Samutprakarn, Thailand
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The formation of chlorine dioxide in the electrochemical treatment of drinking water for disinfection. Electrochim Acta 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2005.01.061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Kim MH, Yu MJ. Characterization of NOM in the Han River and evaluation of treatability using UF-NF membrane. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2005; 97:116-123. [PMID: 15476741 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2004.07.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2003] [Revised: 07/26/2004] [Accepted: 07/30/2004] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine reacts with the natural organic matter (NOM) that remains in waters and forms halogenated by-products. Some of these products such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) have been known to cause cancer and other toxic effects to human beings. Disinfection is a process for the inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms and prevention of waterborne diseases. Despite these advantages, disinfection needs to be evaluated and is of concern because of the serious risks to human health. Therefore, this study characterized NOM, which is a disinfection by-product (DBP) precursor, in the water treatment processes from the Han River and evaluated the removal efficiencies of NOM fractions by conventional and advanced processes. The raw water from the Han River contained higher hydrophilic fraction than the hydrophobic fraction. The hydrophilic NOM constituted still 55-70% of NOM in waters after each process. Since the hydrophilic NOM exhibited higher HAAFP than hydrophobic NOM, chlorination of the Han River water produced higher haloacetic acid formation potential (HAAFP) than trihalomethane formation potential (THMFP). When the fractions of DBPFP are expressed as percentage of total organic halide formation potential (TOXFP), THMFP, HAAFP, and others are 26%, 43%, and 31% of the TOXFP, respectively. UF membrane could replace conventional processes showing a little higher removal efficiency of NOM and DBPFP, but advanced processes will be required to meet future requirements. The ultrafiltration (UF)-nanofiltration (NF) combined membrane process had better removal efficiency of NOM compared to other processes. Therefore, the results of this study suggest that the UF-NF membrane process is one of the best available ways for removing NOM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mi Hyung Kim
- Department of Environmental Engineering, University of Seoul, 90 Cheonnong-3dong, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul 130-743, Republic of Korea
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Swietlik J, Raczyk-Stanisłwiak U, Biłzor S, Ilecki W, Nawrocki J. Reduction of ClO2 demand by ClO2 oxidation and subsequent GAC filtration. WATER RESEARCH 2003; 37:4693-4702. [PMID: 14568056 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2003.07.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The effective removal of soluble natural organic matter (NOM) during water treatment can significantly decrease the ClO(2) demand of processed water. This can be achieved through the oxidation and/or the removal of NOM. The purpose of the study was to examine the influence of ClO(2) oxidation and subsequent GAC filtration on the final ClO(2) demand of treated water. The study showed the ClO(2) demand to be strongly correlated with the abundance of high molecular fractions of NOM in treated water. As it was shown, this part of NOM was effectively removed during the GAC filtration. Moreover, the pre-treatment of water with ClO(2) considerably increased the total capacity of GAC filters for organic and inorganic (i.e. chlorites) oxidation by-products. Therefore, the oxidation of NOM molecules in conjunction with a very efficient GAC filtration can be successfully employed to control the abundance of high molecular NOM components, and thus the ClO(2) demand of finished water.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Swietlik
- Faculty of Chemistry, Department of Water Treatment Technology, Adam Mickiewicz University, ul. Michala Drzymaly 24, Poznań 0-613, Poland
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