Can we skill and activate children through primary school physical education lessons? "Move it Groove it"--a collaborative health promotion intervention

Applying the multiphase optimization strategy to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of an online road safety education intervention for children and parents: a pilot study

BACKGROUND

Reports of children's engagement in active transportation outline low participation rates in many countries despite many associated mental, physical, and social health benefits. One of the main contributors to this phenomenon is a cited lack of education and knowledge among children regarding active travel (AT), specifically road safety. To address this issue, the aim of this study was to evaluate the feasibility and effectiveness of an online road safety education intervention to promote AT among children and their parents.

METHODS

Applying the Multiphase Optimization Strategy (MOST) for intervention development, implementation, and evaluation, we designed and assessed a four-module online road safety education intervention with a sample of 57 parent-child dyads using a 23 factorial design featuring both qualitative and quantitative analyses.

RESULTS

Main intervention feasibility findings include positive and critical feedback on the program's content and design, and moderate participant engagement as reflected by program retention and completion rates. With respect to the preliminary intervention effectiveness on children, a significant improvement in road safety knowledge scores was observed for groups that feature the "wheeling safety and skills" module. Slight improvements in AT knowledge scores across all the intervention groups were observed, but were not of significance. Preliminary intervention effectiveness on select parental AT practices and perceptions saw significant improvements in some groups. Groups that featured the 'wheeling safety and skills' module exhibited significantly higher guided choice scores upon completion of the program than those who did not receive this component.

CONCLUSION

The MOST framework allowed us to design and evaluate the feasibility and preliminary effectiveness of an online road safety education intervention. The developed intervention has demonstrated that it has the potential to improve children's road safety knowledge and some areas of parental AT practices and perceptions, to which improvements may be attributed to the inclusion of the "wheeling safety and skills" module, suggesting that the targeted focus on cycling skills is a prioritized area. AT programming and practice implications are discussed. Future research is encouraged to refine modules to better reflect the priorities of children and parents and to test these refined components among larger samples.

WORD COUNT

9,391 (excludes abstract, tables, figures, abbreviations, and references).

The Effect of Pedagogical Approach on Physical Activity of Girls During Physical Education

Purpose: Technical approaches (TAs) such as Direct Instruction are commonly utilized when teaching games in Physical Education (PE) classes, but game-based approaches (GBAs) such as Game Sense (GS) have gained greater interest over the past 30 years. However, little is known about which approach promotes more physical activity (PA). The aim of this study was to compare the PA of girls during single-gender PE classes in an invasion games unit utilizing either a GS approach or a TA. Methods: Two upper primary school PE classes were taught invasion games using a GS approach and two classes were taught using a TA. During each of the 7 lessons students wore a wearable GPS sensor (SPT2, Sport Performance Tracking, Australia) which measured total distance, distance in each speed zone, top speed and 3D load. Results: The GS group traveled a greater distance than the TA group (+203 m, p < .001). This result was explained mostly by a greater distance covered in zone 2 speeds (0.6-1.7 m/s). The 3D load was also significantly higher in the GS group, but there were no group differences in top speed. Conclusions: Findings suggested that a GS thematic invasion unit was more effective in promoting PA levels in all-girl primary PE classes than a traditional sport-based invasion unit.

The Impact of Swimming on Fundamental Movement Skill Development in Children (3-11 Years): A Systematic Literature Review

Swimming is the only sport providing lifesaving skills, reducing the risk of death by drowning, a top cause of deaths in children aged 1-14 years. Research shows swimming amongst other sports can aid fundamental movement skill (FMS) development. Therefore, this review investigated the following: (1) how swimming impacts FMS development in children aged 3-11 years, (2) successful tools assessing swimming and FMS, and (3) recommendations appropriate to the UK curriculum based on findings of this study. A systematic literature review using Google Scholar, PubMed, and SPORTDiscuss was conducted to investigate the effects of swimming on FMS development. Methods included database searching, finalising articles appropriate to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, and identifying relevant articles using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses. The Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool assessed data quality and bias risk, whilst thematic analysis synthesised data alongside descriptive results. Ten papers were synthesised, identifying significant positive impacts of swimming on FMS, including significant pre-post testing (p < 0.01), significant improvements compared to other sports (p < 0.001), and significant improvements in specific motor skills (Balance; p = 0.0004). Future research specifically addressing swimming and FMS is essential to improving the curriculum.

Exploring Recommendations for Child and Adolescent Fundamental Movement Skills Development: A Narrative Review

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are frequently referred to as the "building blocks" of movement for children and adolescents in their lifelong physical activity journey. It is critical, however, that FMS are developed within Physical Education learning environments and other sport-related settings, specifically as these building blocks of movement require appropriate teaching and practice opportunities. While FMS are well-established as an "important focus" for children and adolescents, to the authors' knowledge, there appears to be no standardized FMS development guidelines existent within the literature. This paper will examine whether the frequency, intensity, time, and type (FITT) principle could be transferable to interventions focusing on FMS development, and if so, whether sufficient consistency of findings exists to guide practitioners in their session design. Applying the FITT principle in this way may help to facilitate the comparison of FMS-related intervention studies, which may contribute to the future development of practical FMS-related guidelines for children and adolescents.

Motor competence interventions in children and adolescents - theoretical and atheoretical approaches: A systematic review

This study aimed to compare for the first time the immediate and retention effects of theory-based and atheoretical motor competence (MC) interventions, by conducting a systematic review to determine which intervention approach resulted in the most improvements for motor outcomes. In accordance with PRISMA guidelines, studies were identified from searches across seven databases, for articles relating to theory-based (Achievement Goal Theory, Dynamic Systems Theory, and Social-Cognitive Theory) and atheoretically-derived MC interventions in typically developing children and adolescents. Publication bias was assessed using an adapted form of Consolidated Standards of Reporting Trials statement. Of the thirty two included studies, seventeen utilized theory-based intervention approaches. The majority of studies were grounded in Achievement Goal Theory. Also, the majority of MC interventions elicited immediate (short) and/or long-term effects for children and adolescents. Studies varied with regards to intervention components and MC assessment. Many studies scored poorly for risk of bias items. Overall, the levels of success for theoretical and atheoretical intervention programmes were not distinguishable. Findings open up new horizons for motor skills instruction to be taught using developmentally appropriate pedagogy, a research field which has gained significant traction among stakeholders in recent years.

Physical activity promoting teaching practices and children’s physical activity within physical education lessons underpinned by motor learning theory (SAMPLE-PE)

Purpose

Movement competence is a key outcome for primary physical education (PE) curricula. As movement development in children emerges through physical activity (PA), it is important to determine the extent of PA promotion within movement competence focused teaching pedagogies. Therefore, this study aimed to assess children’s moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) and related teaching practices in primary PE within Linear pedagogy and Nonlinear pedagogy and to compare this to current practice within PE delivery in primary schools.

Methods

Participants (n = 162, 53% females, 5-6y) were recruited from 9 primary schools within the SAMPLE-PE cluster randomised controlled trial. Schools were randomly-allocated to one of three conditions: Linear pedagogy, Nonlinear pedagogy, or control. Nonlinear and Linear pedagogy intervention schools received a PE curriculum delivered by trained deliverers over 15 weeks, while control schools followed usual practice. Children’s MVPA was measured during 3 PE lessons (44 PE lessons in total) using an ActiGraph GT9X accelerometer worn on their non-dominant wrist. Differences between conditions for children’s MVPA were analysed using multilevel model analysis. Negative binomial models were used to analyse teaching practices data.

Results

No differences were found between Linear pedagogy, Nonlinear pedagogy and the control group for children’s MVPA levels during PE. Linear and Nonlinear interventions generally included higher percentages of MVPA promoting teaching practices (e.g., Motor Content) and lower MVPA reducing teaching practices (e.g., Management), compared to the control group. Teaching practices observed in Linear and Nonlinear interventions were in line with the respective pedagogical principles.

Conclusions

Linear and Nonlinear pedagogical approaches in PE do not negatively impact MVPA compared to usual practice. Nevertheless, practitioners may need to refine these pedagogical approaches to improve MVPA alongside movement competence.

Physical Literacy in Elementary Physical Education: A Survey of Fundamental Movement Skill Practice Patterns

PURPOSE

To describe fundamental movement skill (FMS) practice patterns in the elementary physical education (PE) curriculum.

METHODS

A cross-sectional survey was sent to PE teachers of grades 1 through 6. Sixty-eight responses were included for analysis.

RESULTS

Only 38.2% of teachers taught all 12 FMS components. Compared with PE teachers for grades 4 to 6, a significantly higher proportion of PE teachers for grades 1 to 3 taught all 12 FMS and used direct instruction methods. For children falling behind, only 8.8% reported referring to an exercise program and no PE teacher sought a health care referral. A video abstract can be found in Supplemental Digital Content 1 (available at: http://links.lww.com/PPT/A342).

It's Not Just What You Do but the Way You Do It: A Systematic Review of Process Evaluation of Interventions to Improve Gross Motor Competence

BACKGROUND

Motor competence is an important predictor of health behaviours. However, levels of motor competence are low in children and adolescents. Many interventions have improved motor competence, yet intervention effects were highly variable. Potential causes of such variations are not fully understood. Process evaluation can assist with the understanding of why an intervention worked or not, but its application and reporting in motor competence interventions has received little attention.

OBJECTIVES

The primary aim of this review was to investigate whether process evaluations have been reported in interventions to improve motor competence and, if reported, which process evaluation measures have been used. A secondary aim was to explore the association of intervention characteristics and process evaluation findings (outcomes of process evaluation measures) with intervention outcomes, in a search for what process evaluation measures may impact on intervention functioning and outcomes.

METHODS

The process of conducting and reporting this review adhered to Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The review protocol was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42019124412). A systematic search of seven electronic databases (i.e. MEDLINE [via EBSCOhost], Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials [CENTRAL], CINAHL, Academic Search Complete, Education Database, SPORTDiscus and Scopus) was conducted with no date restrictions. Eligibility criteria included the following: (1) a study sample of typically developing children and adolescents aged 5-18 years, (2) an intervention aimed to improve motor competence, (3) an intervention included a control group, (4) a report of motor competence outcome at both pre- and post-intervention. Only original articles published in English in peer-reviewed journals were considered. Process evaluation measures and findings were extracted using the UK Medical Research Council's process evaluation framework in order to provide overarching descriptions on the implementation, mechanism of change and context of interventions. Univariable meta-regressions were performed to ascertain whether selected study-level covariates moderated the improvement in motor competence outcomes in interventions.

RESULTS

The search identified 60 intervention studies. Only 30 studies (50%) reported process evaluation measures. No studies reported (or employed) theoretical frameworks to guide process evaluation. Process evaluation measures relating to implementation were most commonly reported, with the most prevalent aspect being fidelity. This was followed by reporting on measures relating to mechanism of change and context of the intervention. Meta-analysis results suggested intervention duration, dose, inclusion of process evaluation aim, provision of lesson plans, sample size and sex as potential moderators.

CONCLUSIONS

Reporting of process evaluation measures may help build our understanding of the optimal characteristics of motor competence interventions. However, process evaluation is under-used and/or under-reported. This review serves as a call for more process evaluations and better reporting in motor competence interventions.

Association of Physical Education With Improvement of Health-Related Physical Fitness Outcomes and Fundamental Motor Skills Among Youths: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

IMPORTANCE

Whether quality- or quantity-based physical education (PE) interventions are associated with improvement of health-related physical fitness outcomes and fundamental motor skills (FMSs) in children and adolescents is unknown.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association of interventions aimed at optimizing PE in terms of quality (teaching strategies or fitness infusion) or quantity (lessons per week) with health-related physical fitness and FMSs in children and adolescents.

DATA SOURCES

For this systematic review and meta-analysis, studies were identified through a systematic search of Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, Cochrane Controlled Trials Registry, and SPORTDiscus databases (from inception to October 10, 2019) with the keywords physical education OR PE OR P.E. AND fitness AND motor ability OR skills. Manual examination of references in selected articles was also performed.

STUDY SELECTION

Studies that assessed the association of quality- or quantity-based PE interventions with improvement in physical fitness and/or FMSs in youths (aged 3-18 years) were included.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Data were processed according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guideline. Random-effects models were used to estimate the pooled effect size (Hedges g).

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

Health-related physical fitness outcomes and FMSs.

RESULTS

Fifty-six trials composed of 48 185 youths (48% girls) were included in the meta-analysis. Quality-based PE interventions were associated with small increases in health-related physical fitness (cardiorespiratory fitness [Hedges g = 0.24; 95% CI, 0.16-0.32] and muscular strength [Hedges g = 0.19; 95% CI, 0.09-0.29]) and FMSs (Hedges g = 0.38; 95% CI, 0.27-0.49). Subgroup analyses found stronger associations for quality-based PE interventions on body mass index (Hedges g = -0.18; 95% CI, -0.26 to -0.09), body fat (Hedges g = -0.28; 95% CI, -0.37 to -0.18), cardiorespiratory fitness (Hedges g = 0.31; 95% CI, 0.23-0.39), and muscular strength (Hedges g = 0.29; 95% CI, 0.18-0.39). Quantity-based PE interventions were associated with small increases in only cardiorespiratory fitness (Hedges g = 0.42; 95% CI, 0.30-0.55), muscular strength (Hedges g = 0.20; 95% CI, 0.08-0.31), and speed agility (Hedges g = 0.29; 95% CI, 0.07-0.51).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The findings suggest that quality-based PE interventions are associated with small increases in both student health-related physical fitness components and FMSs regardless of frequency or duration of PE lessons. Because PE aims to improve more than health, high levels of active learning time may need to be balanced with opportunities for instruction, feedback, and reflection.

Children Who Are Overweight Display Altered Vertical Jump Kinematics and Kinetics From Children Who Are Not Overweight

PURPOSE

Children who are overweight typically do not perform motor skills as well as normal-weight peers. This study examined whether vertical jump kinetics and kinematics of children who are overweight differ from nonoverweight peers.

METHODS

Thirty-nine children completed maximum-effort countermovement vertical jumps. Motion capture was used to complete lower extremity kinematic and kinetic analyses.

RESULTS

The overweight group (body mass index ≥ 85th percentile; N = 11; age = 6.5 [1.6] y) jumped lower relative to their mass (0.381 cm/kg lower; P < .001) than normal-weight peers (N = 28; age = 6.4 [1.7] y). Compared with children who are normal weight, children who were overweight exhibited a shallower countermovement (knee: 12° less flexion, P = .02; hip: 10° less flexion, P = .045), lower hip torque (0.06 N·m/kg lower, P = .01) and hip work (40% less work, P = .01), and earlier peak joint angular velocities (knee: 9 ms earlier, P = .001; hip: 14 ms earlier, P = .004).

CONCLUSION

Children who are overweight do not achieve optimal jumping mechanics and exhibit jumping characteristics of an earlier developmental stage compared with their peers. Interventions should help children who are overweight learn to execute a proper countermovement.

Physical Activity and Fundamental Movement Skills of 3- to 5-Year-Old Children in Irish Preschool Services

The aim of this study was to quantify levels of physical activity (PA) and fundamental movement skills (FMS) of children aged 3 to 5 years in Irish preschool services during care hours, and investigate the relationship between these two variables. Data were collected from 141 children (50.3% boys, ageM = 3.9 ± 0.5 years) across 9 preschool services. Measurements included PA via accelerometry, and proficiency in four FMS (run, vertical jump, throw and catch). The recommended guideline of 15 minutes of PA per hour (min PA/hour) was met by 35% of children (M = 13.6 min PA/hour). Significant differences in mean PA per hour were found by gender, with boys (14.2 min PA/hour) more active than girls (13.0 min PA/ hour), and age, with younger children (14.2 min PA/hour) more active than older (12.6 minutes PA/hour). Percentage of children proficient in the run was high (88.4%), but low across the other skills (4.9%–18.5%). Significant differences were identified by gender for vertical jump with girls scoring higher than boys. No significant relationship was found between FMS and total PA. Low levels of PA and FMS proficiency highlight need for intervention in early years settings to ensure children develop skills to participate in PA.

FUNCTIONAL MOVEMENT SCREEN™ in YOUTH SPORT PARTICIPANTS: EVALUATING the PROFICIENCY BARRIER for INJURY

Background & Purpose

The number of youth participating in sport increases yearly; however, the evaluation of youths' movement ability and preparedness for sport remains inadequate or neglected. The Functional Movement Screen (FMS™) is an assessment of an individual's movement quality that has been utilized to evaluate risk of injury in collegiate and professional sport; however, there is minimal support regarding the predictive value of the screen in youth sport. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the mean and distribution of FMS™ performance in sport participants age 11-18, and to evaluate the existence of a composite FMS™ score proficiency barrier to predict injury risk.

Study Design

Prospective cohort study.

Methods

One hundred, thirty-six participants (63 male, 73 female) age 11 to 18 years (16.01 + 1.35) were recruited from local schools and sport organizations. The FMS™ was administered prior to each participant's competitive season and scored by researchers who demonstrated reliability in assessments derived from the screen (κ_w = 0.70 to 1). Injury data were collected by the participants' Athletic Trainer over one season. An injury was defined as any physical insult or harm resulting from sports participation that required an evaluation from a health professional with time modified or time lost from sport participation.

Results

Females scored significantly higher than males for mean FMS™ composite score (t = 14.40; m = 12.62; p < 0.001), and on individual measures including: the hurdle step (t = 1.91; m = 1.65; p < 0.001), shoulder mobility (t = 2.68; m = 2.02; p < 0.001), active straight leg raise (t = 2.32; m = 1.87; p < 0.001), and the rotary stability components (t = 1.91; m = 1.65; p < 0.05). Two FMS™ composite scores (score < 14 and <15) significantly increased the odds of injury (OR = 2.955). When adjusting for sport, there was no score relating to increased odds of injury.

Conclusion

Dysfunctional movement as identified by the FMS™ may be related to increased odds of injury during the competitive season in youth athletes. Consideration of an individual's movement within the context of their sport is necessary, as each sport and individual have unique characteristics. Addressing movement dysfunction may aid in injury reduction and potentially improve sport performance.

Level of Evidence

1b.

Moving Well-Being Well: Investigating the maturation of fundamental movement skill proficiency across sex in Irish children aged five to twelve

Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are the basic building blocks of more advanced, complex movements required to participate in physical activity. This study examined FMS proficiency across the full range of Irish primary school children (n = 2098, 47% girls, age range 5-12 years). Participants were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development, 3rd edition (TGMD-3), Victorian Fundamental Movement skills manual, and the balance subtest from the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2 (BOT-2). Independent sample t-tests and a one way between groups ANOVA with planned comparisons were used analyse sex and age differences. Mastery or near mastery of skills ranged from 16% for overhand throw, to 75.3% for run. Girls scored significantly higher than boys in the locomotor and balance subtests with the boys outperforming the girls in object control skills. Improvements in ability can be seen over time (F(8,1968) = 70.18, p < 0.001), with significant increases in FMS proficiency seen up to the age of 10, after which proficiency begins to decline. The findings demonstrate the low levels of FMS proficiency amongst Irish primary school children, the differences between sex that exist, and highlights the need for more programmes that focus on developing these FMS at an early age.

Small fish, big pond: The role of health-related fitness and perceived athletic competence in mediating the physical activity-motor competence relationship during the transition from primary to secondary school

This study investigates the role of Perceived Athletic Competence (PAC) and Health-Related Fitness (HRF) in mediating the reciprocal relationship between Motor Competence (MC) and Physical Activity (PA) during the transition from primary to secondary school. MC, PA, PAC and HRF were measured in 224 participants (baseline age 12.26 ± .037 years; 51% female) in final year of primary school and one year later in first year of secondary school. Path analysis in AMOS 23 was used to test the mediating influence of PAC and HRF on the MC-PA relationship. Fit indices showed that, in both directions, HRF and PAC mediated the relationship between MC and PA (PA predicting MC; χ2 = 3.91, p = .272, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .04. MC predicting PA: χ2 = 6.46, p = .167, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .04). Pathways were stronger through HRF than through PAC, indicating that HRF is the more substantial mediator of the MC-PA relationship during the school transition. Pathways were stronger in the direction of PA predicting MC than in the reverse direction. Interventions seeking to influence PA and MC across the school transition should focus on HRF as it is a primary mediator of the MC-PA relationship.

Development and Validation of a Physical Activity Educational Module for Overweight and Obese Adolescents: CERGAS Programme

Educational modules can be effective in educating and motivating adolescents to participate in physical activity (PA). This paper describes the development and validation of a PA educational module for use in an obesity intervention programme, CEria Respek Gigih Aktif Sihat (CERGAS). The present study was conducted in three phases: Phase I was composed of needs assessments with four focus group discussions to elicit adolescents’ opinions regarding module content and design, Phase II was the development of the PA module, while Phase III was content and face validation. A content validity index (CVI) was used to assess content validity quantitatively, with a CVI of more than 0.79 being considered appropriate. The needs assessments indicated that content of interest to adolescents included: the benefits of exercise; exercise techniques; ways to increase PA and how to stay motivated. Attractive graphic design was determined as a way to draw the adolescents’ attention. The module covered five topics: “Let’s Be Active”; “Exercise and Fitness”; “Staying Safe during Exercise and Physical Activity”; “Planning for Success” and “How to Overcome Sedentariness and Get Moving”. The module was found to have good content validity (mean CVI = 0.85). Expert members made suggestions to improve the module. These suggestions were then accepted, and the module was modified accordingly. We concluded that the module has good content validity and can be used to improve PA knowledge amongst CERGAS participants.

Using physical education to promote out-of school physical activity in lower secondary school students - a randomized controlled trial protocol

Background

Given the documented decline in levels of physical activity in early adolescence, promoting physical activity in young people is a priority for health promotion. School physical education (PE) is an important existing network in which participation in physical activity beyond school can be promoted to the captive young people. The objective of current article is to present the protocol for a PE teacher-delivered theory-based trial to promote secondary school students’ participation in physical activity out-of-school contexts. The intervention will be guided by the trans-contextual model explaining the processes by which PE teachers’ support for autonomous motivation in the classroom promotes students’ motivation to engage in out-of-school physical activity. We hypothesize that school students receiving the teacher-delivered intervention to promote autonomous motivation toward physical activity will exhibit greater participation in physical activities outside of school, relative to students receiving a control intervention.

Methods

The trial will adopt a waitlist-control design with cluster-randomization by school. PE teachers assigned to the intervention condition will receive a two-week, 12-h training program comprising basic information on how to promote out-of-school physical activity and theory-based training on strategies to promote students’ autonomous motivation toward physical activity. Teachers assigned to the waitlist control condition will receive an alternative training on how to monitor physical functional capacity in children with special needs. PE teachers (n = 29) from eleven schools will apply the intervention program to students (n = 502) in PE classes for one month. Physical activity participation, the primary outcome variable, and psychological mediators from the trans-contextual model will be measured at pre-trial, post-trial, and at one-, three- and six-months post-trial. We will also assess teachers’ autonomy-supportive techniques and behaviours by observation.

Discussion

The study will make a unique contribution to the literature by testing a theory-based intervention delivered by PE teachers to promote school students’ participation in out-of-school physical activity. Information will be useful for educators, community stakeholders and policy makers interested in developing programs to promote students’ out-of-school physical activity.

Trial registration

ISRCTN39374060. Registered 19.7.2018.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-019-6478-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Adolescent Girls’ Perceptions of Physical Activity: A Systematic Review of Qualitative Studies

Objective:

To synthesize evidence from qualitative studies relating to adolescent girls’ perceptions of physical activity participation. The protocol for this review is registered with PROSPERO (ID no. CRD42017054944).

Data Source:

PubMed, Sports Discus, Academic Search Complete, and Education Resources Information Centre.

Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria:

Studies reporting qualitative data that explored the views/opinions/perceptions of adolescent girls (>12 and <18 years old) published between 2001 and 2016 were included. Studies not in English, those focusing on school physical education or specific sports, and those including special populations were excluded.

Extraction:

Study characteristics and results were extracted to a form developed by the authors and managed using NVivo 10 (QSR International’s NVivo 10 software). Data were extracted by 1 reviewer, and a sample (25%) was checked by a second reviewer.

Synthesis:

Data were synthesized using a thematic network and managed using NVivo 10. The validity of the included studies was assessed using the “Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (2018)” checklist. The ENTREQ and PRISMA statement was followed when reporting this qualitative synthesis.

Results:

Of the 1818 studies identified in the search strategy, 24 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the analysis. Global themes were identified using a thematic network. These themes were “Gender Bias in Sport,” “Motivation and Perceived Competence,” “Competing Priorities during Adolescence,” and “Meeting Societal Expectations.”

Conclusions:

The results of this review provide insights into adolescent girls’ views on physical activity. Future research is needed to investigate the potential impact of alternative activity programs on adolescent girls with appropriate follow-up. Researchers and individuals working with young girls must consider the role of perceived motor competence in participation and how this can impact their perceptions.

Does fundamental movement skill proficiency vary by sex, class group or weight status? Evidence from an Irish primary school setting

This study examined fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency among male (N = 216) and female (N = 198) Irish primary school pupils from Year 2 to Year 7 (9.0 ± 1.7 years). Following anthropometric measurements, participants were video-recorded performing 15 FMS and scored using the TGMD-3, Victorian Fundamental Movement skills Manual and the Get skilled: Get active guidelines. Percentage mastery ranged between 1.4% (gallop) and 35.7% (slide). A two-way ANOVA evaluated the effect of sex (male/female) and class group (Year 2/3/4/5/6/7) on individual skills, locomotor subtest, object-control subtest and total TGMD-3 (GMQ) scores. No significant sex ×class interaction effects were found. Large effect sizes were reported for male superiority in object-control subtest (η_p² = 0.26) and GMQ (η_p² = 0.16) scores (both p < 0.001). Older classes had higher object-control subtest scores than younger classes, but scores plateaued after Year 5. Furthermore, overweight participants had significantly lower locomotor subtest (p < 0.001, d = 0.7), object-control subtest (p = 0.03, d = 0.3) and GMQ scores (p < 0.001, d = 0.5) than non-overweight participants. This study highlights very poor levels of FMS mastery among Irish schoolchildren and stresses the need for developmentally appropriate, FMS intervention programmes that are inclusive regardless of age, sex or weight status.

Associations between teacher training and measures of physical literacy among Canadian 8- to 12-year-old students

BACKGROUND

Quality physical education (PE) contributes to the development of physical literacy among children, yet little is known about how teacher training relates to this development. We assessed the association between teacher training, and the likelihood that children met recommended achievement levels for components of physical literacy as defined by the Canadian Assessment of Physical Literacy (CAPL).

METHODS

Canadian children (n = 4189; M = 10.72 years, SD = 1.19) from six provinces completed the CAPL. Logistic regression was used to examine the relationship between teacher training (generalist/PE specialist), adjusting for children's age and gender, and physical competence protocols (sit and reach, handgrip, plank, Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run [PACER], body mass index [BMI], waist circumference, Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment [CAMSA]), the four CAPL domain scores, and the total CAPL score.

RESULTS

Teacher training, in addition to children's age and gender, explained only a very small proportion of variance in each model (all R2 < 0.03). Children taught by a generalist were less likely to reach recommended levels of motivation and confidence (OR = 0.83, 95% CI, 0.72-0.95) or CAMSA scores (OR = 0.77, 95% CI, 0.67-0.90), even when accounting for a significant increase in CAMSA score with age (OR = 1.18, 95% CI, 1.12-1.26). All other associations between measures of components of physical literacy and teacher training were not significant.

CONCLUSIONS

While teacher training is hypothesized to contribute to the development of physical literacy among elementary school students, the observed effects in this study were either small or null. Children taught by PE specialists were more likely than those taught by generalists to demonstrate recommended levels of motivation and confidence, and to have better movement skills, which are hypothesized to be critical prerequisites for the development of a healthy lifestyle. Further research with more robust designs is merited to understand the impact of teachers' training on the various components of physical literacy development.

Perceived and Actual Movement Skill Competence: The Association Among Primary School Children in Hong Kong

The purpose of this study was to examine the association between perceived and actual movement skill competence among primary school children in Hong Kong. Participants were 568 primary (P) school children (229 boys, 339 girls; Mage = 9.3 years, SD = 1.7). Children’s perceived skill competence was assessed using an identical format to that of Harter’s Self-Perception Profile for Children in the same 12 fundamental movement skills (FMS) objectively measured. The actual locomotor and object control skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development (2nd edition). Pearson’s correlation coefficients were calculated to examine the association between children’s perceived and actual movement skill competence separately for lower (P1–P3) and upper (P4–P6) grades. There was no association between students’ perceptions and actual FMS scores. MANCOVA results indicated that children in upper grades had significantly lower skill perceptions than their younger counterparts. Overall, boys had higher perceptions of object control skill than girls did. The findings indicate that many primary school children have inaccurate perceptions of their FMS competence. These misperceptions may lead to low self-confidence and to gradually opting out of sport and physical activity.

Do Irish Adolescents Have Adequate Functional Movement Skill and Confidence?

Recent research has shown that post-primary Irish youth are insufficiently active and fail to reach a level of proficiency across basic fundamental movement skills. The purpose of the current research was to gather cross-sectional data on adolescent youth, differentiated by gender, specifically to inform the development of a targeted movement-oriented intervention. Data were collected on adolescents (N = 219; mean age : 14.45 ± 0.96 years), within two, mixed-gender schools. Data collection included actual and perceived movement measurements comprised of fundamental movement skills, the functional movement screen, perceived movement confidence, and perceived functional confidence. Overall, levels of actual mastery within fundamental and functional movement were low, with significant gender differences observed. Adolescent males scored higher in the overall fundamental movement skill domain (male mean score = 70.87 ± 7.05; female mean score = 65.53 ± 7.13), yet lower within the functional movement screen (male mean score = 13.58 ± 2.59), in comparison to their female counterparts (female mean score = 14.70 ± 2.16). There were high levels of perceived confidence reported within fundamental and functional movement scales. Future intervention strategies should combat the low levels of actual movement skill proficiency, while identifying the reasons for higher perceived movement confidence within adolescents.

A cluster randomized controlled trial comparing the effectiveness of an individual planning intervention with collaborative planning in adolescent friendship dyads to enhance physical activity (TWOgether)

BACKGROUND

Most adolescents do not meet the recommendations for physical activity (PA) of at least 1 h per day. Individual planning (IP) interventions, including forming plans for when, where and how (action planning) to engage in a behavior, as well as the planning for how to deal with arising barriers (coping planning), are effective to enhance PA in adults. Collaborative planning (CP) is conjoint planning of two individuals regarding a behavior which is performed together. It is assumed that CP stimulates social exchange processes between the planning partners. However, it remains unclear whether planning interventions of PA in adolescents are successful and which planning intervention is more effective. Thus, this cluster randomized controlled trial (RCT) examines changes in daily moderate-to-vigorous PA in adolescents' friendship dyads resulting from planning. Individual self-regulating mechanism and social exchange processes are proposed as mediating mechanisms of the effects of planning for health behavior change.

METHODS

A single-blind four-arm parallel-group cluster-RCT is used. The sample consists of 400 friendship dyads between 14 and 18 years of age. As the recruitment takes place in schools, a cluster randomization of the schools is used to enroll dyads to (a) an IP intervention, (b) a CP intervention or (c) one of the two no-planning control conditions. Devise-measured and self-reported PA as the primary outcomes, self-regulatory strategies, and social exchange processes as secondary outcomes are assessed at three or four time points. After baseline measurement, the baseline ecological momentary assessment of the main variables takes place for 8 days followed by the intervention and a 7-days diary phase. Follow-ups are 1 month and 6 months later. Subsequent to the six-month follow-up, another 7-days diary phase takes place.

DISCUSSION

This is the first study examining IP in comparison to CP in adolescents applying a single-blind cluster RCT. Consequently, the study allows for understanding the efficacy of individual and collaborative planning and the underlying mechanisms in adolescent dyads.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This RCT was funded by the Swiss National Science Foundation (100019_169781/1) and was registered on 18/06/2018 at ClinicalTrials.gov : NCT03575559 .

Characteristics of Teacher Training in School-Based Physical Education Interventions to Improve Fundamental Movement Skills and/or Physical Activity: A Systematic Review

BACKGROUND

Fundamental movement skill (FMS) competence is positively associated with physical activity (PA). However, levels of both FMS and PA are lower than expected. Current reviews of interventions to improve FMS and PA have shown that many school-based programs have achieved positive outcomes, yet the maintenance of these interventions is variable. Teachers play a central role in the success and longevity of school-based interventions. Despite the importance of teacher engagement, research into the nature and quality of teacher training in school-based PA and FMS interventions has received little attention.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this systematic review was to investigate the type and quantity of teacher training in school-based physical education PA and/or FMS interventions, and to identify what role teacher training had on the intervention outcome.

METHODS

A systematic search of eight electronic databases was conducted. Publication date restrictions were not implemented in any database, and the last search was performed on 1 March 2015. School physical education-based interventions facilitated by a school teacher, and that included a quantitative assessment of FMS competence and/or PA levels were included in the review.

RESULTS

The search identified 39 articles. Eleven of the studies measured FMS, 25 studies measured PA and three measured both FMS and PA. Nine of the studies did not report on any aspect of the teacher training conducted. Of the 30 studies that reported on teacher training, 25 reported statistically significant intervention results for FMS and/or PA. It appears that teacher training programs: are ≥ 1 day; provide comprehensive subject and pedagogy content; are framed by a theory or model; provide follow-up or ongoing support; and measure teacher satisfaction of the training, are more effective at improving student outcomes in FMS and/or PA. However, the provision of information regarding the characteristics of the teacher training was largely inadequate. Therefore, it was difficult to ascertain which teacher training characteristics were most important in relation to intervention effectiveness.

CONCLUSION

It is clear that whilst teachers are capable of making substantial improvements in student outcomes in PA and FMS, the findings of this review suggest the teacher training component of school-based PA and/or FMS interventions is not only under-reported but is under-studied, and, perhaps as a result, the value of teacher training is not widely understood. What remains unclear, due to poor reporting, is what role teacher training is having on these outcomes.

From Surveillance to Intervention: Overview and Baseline Findings for the Active City of Liverpool Active Schools and SportsLinx (A-CLASS) Project

This paper outlines the implementation of a programme of work that started with the development of a population-level children’s health, fitness and lifestyle study in 1996 (SportsLinx) leading to selected interventions one of which is described in detail: the Active City of Liverpool, Active Schools and SportsLinx (A-CLASS) Project. The A-CLASS Project aimed to quantify the effectiveness of structured and unstructured physical activity (PA) programmes on children’s PA, fitness, body composition, bone health, cardiac and vascular structures, fundamental movement skills, physical self-perception and self-esteem. The study was a four-arm parallel-group school-based cluster randomised controlled trial (clinical trials no. NCT02963805), and compared different exposure groups: a high intensity PA (HIPA) group, a fundamental movement skill (FMS) group, a PA signposting (PASS) group and a control group, in a two-schools-per-condition design. Baseline findings indicate that children’s fundamental movement skill competence levels are low-to-moderate, yet these skills are inversely associated with percentage body fat. Outcomes of this project will make an important contribution to the design and implementation of children’s PA promotion initiatives.

Specific Strategies for Promotion of Physical Activity in Kids-Which Ones Work? A Systematic Review of the Literature

The purpose of this systematic review was to summarize and evaluate the impact of physical activity (PA) interventions that were implemented in specific school settings on children's PA in those settings. Four research databases were searched to identify PA interventions. Of the 13 706 articles identified, 1352 abstracts were screened and 32 intervention studies were reviewed. Five intervention settings were identified (active travel, after school, classroom, physical education, and recess). Among these settings, a greater proportion of positive findings (ie, significant increase in PA) were found in the classroom (75%) and active travel (67%) settings. Additionally, a higher proportion of interventions implemented in these settings were of high methodological quality (active travel [33%] and classroom [33%]). These findings indicate that interventions in active travel and classrooms settings positively influence youth PA. Importantly, as evidenced in this review, evaluating intervention effects in the targeted setting may provide unique information for future researchers to consider when developing school-based multicomponent PA interventions.

The Age-Related Association of Movement in Irish Adolescent Youth

(1) Background: Research has shown that post-primary Irish youth are insufficiently active and fail to reach a level of proficiency across basic movement skills. The purpose of the current research was to gather cross-sectional baseline data on Irish adolescent youth, specifically the prevalence of movement skills and patterns, in order to generate an overall perspective of movement within the first three years (Junior Certificate level) of post-primary education; (2) Methods: Data were collected on adolescents (N = 181; mean age: 14.42 ± 0.98 years), attending two, mixed-gender schools. Data collection included 10 fundamental movement skills (FMS) and the seven tests within the Functional Movement Screen (FMS™). The data set was analysed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 20.0 for Windows; (3) Results: Overall, levels of actual mastery within fundamental and functional movement were low. There were statistically significant age-related differences observed, with a progressive decline as age increased in both the object control (p = 0.002) FMS sub-domain, and the in-line lunge (p = 0.048) test of the FMS™; (4) Conclusion: In summary, we found emerging evidence that school year group is significantly associated with mastery of movement skills and patterns. Results from the current study suggest that developing a specifically tailored movement-oriented intervention would be a strategic step towards improving the low levels of adolescent fundamental and functional movement proficiency.

Elementary physical education: A focus on fitness activities and smaller class sizes are associated with higher levels of physical activity

Optimizing physical activity during physical education is necessary for children to achieve daily physical activity recommendations. The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among various contextual factors with accelerometer measured physical activity during elementary physical education. Data were collected during 2015–2016 from 281 students (1st–5th grade, 137 males, 144 females) from a private school located in a metropolitan area of Utah in the U.S. Students wore accelerometers for 12 consecutive weeks at an accelerometer wear frequency of 3 days per week during physical education. A multi-level general linear mixed effects model was employed to examine the relationship among various physical education contextual factors and percent of wear time in moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (%MVPA), accounting for clustering of observations within students and the clustering of students within classrooms. Explored contextual factors included grade level, lesson context, sex, and class size. Main effects and interactions among the factors were explored in the multi-level models. A two-way interaction of lesson context and class size on %MVPA was shown to be statistically significant. The greatest differences were found to be between fitness lessons using small class sizes compared to motor skill lessons using larger class sizes (β = 14.8%, 95% C.I. 5.7%–23.9% p < 0.001). Lessons that included a focus on fitness activities with class sizes that were < 25 students associated with significantly higher %MVPA during elementary physical education.

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Small class sizes relate to increased physical activity during physical education.

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Fitness lessons yielded higher physical activity compared to motor skills/games.

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Small classes and fitness lessons are additive for increasing physical activity.

A school-based physical activity promotion intervention in children: rationale and study protocol for the PREVIENE Project

Background

The lack of physical activity and increasing time spent in sedentary behaviours during childhood place importance on developing low cost, easy-toimplement school-based interventions to increase physical activity among children. The PREVIENE Project will evaluate the effectiveness of five innovative, simple, and feasible interventions (active commuting to/from school, active Physical Education lessons, active school recess, sleep health promotion, and an integrated program incorporating all 4 interventions) to improve physical activity, fitness, anthropometry, sleep health, academic achievement, and health-related quality of life in primary school children.

Methods

A total of 300 children (grade 3; 8-9 years of age) from six schools in Granada (Spain) will be enrolled in one of the 8-week interventions (one intervention per school; 50 children per school) or a control group (no intervention school; 50 children). Outcomes will include physical activity (measured by accelerometry), physical fitness (assessed using the ALPHA fitness battery), and anthropometry (height, weight and waist circumference). Furthermore, they will include sleep health (measured by accelerometers, a sleep diary, and sleep health questionnaires), academic achievement (grades from the official school’s records), and health-related quality of life (child and parental questionnaires). To assess the effectiveness of the different interventions on objectively measured PA and the other outcomes, the generalized linear model will be used.

Discussion

The PREVIENE Project will provide the information about the effectiveness and implementation of different school-based interventions for physical activity promotion in primary school children.

Effectiveness of exercise intervention on improving fundamental movement skills and motor coordination in overweight/obese children and adolescents: A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Childhood obesity is negatively associated with fundamental movement skill and motor coordination, which in turn constrains physical activity participation and adherence thereby forming a 'vicious cycle'. However, developing motor skill and coordination in childhood could help to break the vicious cycle to reduce childhood obesity. The objective of this systematic review was to determine the effectiveness of exercise and physical activity interventions on improving fundamental movement skill and motor coordination in overweight/obese children and adolescents.

DESIGN

A systematic review with quality assessment.

METHODS

A comprehensive systematic search was conducted from MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, CINAHL, Scopus, Web of Science, EMBASE without date restriction for randomized control trials, interventions or longitudinal studies of movement skill/motor skill/motor coordination in overweight/obese participants between 0-18 years of age. A total of 3944 publications were screened, and 17 published studies were included.

RESULTS

Altogether 38 tests for locomotor, object-control, balance and complex task tests were examined in selected studies, with 33 reporting increases after interventions, while only five tests indicated no change. The evidence strongly suggests that exercise/physical activity interventions were effective in improving locomotor skill, object-control skill and complex tasks in overweight/obese peers. However, the results for balance were equivocal.

CONCLUSIONS

Results from existing studies suggest overweight/obese peers have lower levels of fundamental movement skill than their healthy weight peers. However, exercise/physical activity interventions are effective in improving their skills. To maximize skill improvement, we recommend focused fundamental movement skill and motor coordination activities for skill development. These progressions in interventions may help break the vicious cycle of childhood obesity.

Promoting motor skills in low-income, ethnic children: The Physical Activity in Linguistically Diverse Communities (PALDC) nonrandomized trial

OBJECTIVES

This study reports the long-term effects of a professional learning program for classroom teachers on fundamental motor skill (FMS) proficiency of primary school students from ethnically diverse backgrounds.

DESIGN

A cluster non-randomized trial using a nested cross-sectional design.

METHODS

The study was conducted in 8 primary schools located in disadvantaged and culturally diverse areas in Sydney, Australia. The intervention used an action learning framework, with each school developing and implementing an action plan for enhancing the teaching of FMS in their school. School teams comprised 4-5 teachers and were supported by a member of the research team. The primary outcome was total proficiency score for 7 FMS (run, jump, catch, throw, kick, leap, side gallop). Outcome data were analyzed using mixed effects models.

RESULTS

Eight-hundred and sixty-two students (82% response rate) were assessed at baseline in 2006 and 830 (82%) at follow-up in 2010. Compared with students in the control schools, there was a significantly greater increase in total motor skill proficiency among children in the intervention schools at follow-up (adjusted difference=5.2 components, 95%CI [1.65, 8.75]; p=0.01) and in four of the seven motor skills.

CONCLUSIONS

Training classroom teachers to develop and implement units of work based around individual FMS is a promising strategy for increasing FMS among ethnically diverse children over an extended period of time.

Examination of motor skill competency in students: evidence-based physical education curriculum

BACKGROUND

Researchers found that children with a competent level of motor skill performance are more likely to be physically active. This study examined how well K-1 students demonstrated motor skill competency in relation to Physical Education Content Standard 1.

METHODS

Participants were K-1 grade students (N = 1,223-1,588; boys = 568-857; girls = 526-695; Mean age = 5.5 yrs old) who were enrolled in nine elementary schools. The K-1 students' motor skill competency in running, weight transferring, hand dribbling, and underhand catching skills was assessed using four PE Metrics skill assessment rubrics in the intervention year 1 and year 2, respectively. Data were analyzed by means of descriptive statistics and independent sample t-tests.

RESULTS

The students in the intervention year 1 and year 2 cohorts performed at the Competent Level or higher in the four skill assessments. The prevalence of the students' demonstration of skill competency across the four skills was high in the two intervention years. The intervention year 2 cohort scored significantly higher than the intervention year 1 cohort in the four skill assessments. The boys significantly outperformed than the girls in the two manipulative skills in the intervention year 1 and in the two manipulative skills and the weight transferring skill in the intervention year 2. No gender differences in the running skill in either year were found.

CONCLUSIONS

The evidence-based CATCH PE play a critical role in developing and building K-1 students' ability to demonstrate motor skill competency in four fundamental skills.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov ID: NCT03015337 , registered date: 1/09/2017, as "retrospectively registered".

Does physical education influence eye-hand coordination? The Lifestyles of our Kids intervention study

In Australian government-funded primary schools, the responsibility for physical education (PE) falls mainly on general classroom teachers, many of whom possess limited PE training. This study sought to examine the impact of specialist-taught PE on eye-hand coordination (EHC) development. In this 4-year cluster-randomized intervention, participants were 187 boys and 172 girls initially in grade 2 in 29 primary schools, where no school employed university-trained specialist PE teachers. In 13 (intervention) schools, specialist PE teachers conducted 268 PE classes (two 45-minute sessions/wk) from grade 2 to grade 6. The intervention was based on traditional PE educational objectives, including fundamental motor skills, but did not specifically focus on EHC. The remaining 16 (control) schools continued with common-practice PE taught by general classroom teachers (30-60 min/wk). EHC was measured by a ball throw and wall-rebound catch test and recorded at ages 8, 10, and 12 (SD 0.3) at ends of grades 2, 4, and 6, respectively. There was steady yearly improvement of EHC in both groups, but no evidence of any intervention effect in boys (P=.88) or girls (P=.20). The introduction of specialist-taught PE during 4 years of primary school did not influence EHC development. Considering evidence that classroom teachers make little contribution to PE in this jurisdiction, together with the steady progression of EHC over the 4 years, other influences such as organized sport, after-school activities, natural development, and parental instruction are conceivably more influential factors in EHC development during primary school years.

Manipulative skill competency and health-related physical fitness in elementary school students

BACKGROUND

Improving motor skill competency and enhancing health-related physical fitness are desired learning outcomes for school-aged children. Achieving motor skill competency and a healthy level of physical fitness lay a foundation for being a physically active person across a lifetime. The purpose of this study was to investigate relationships between levels of manipulative skill competency and physical fitness for elementary school boys and girls.

METHODS

In this study, 565 fourth-grade students and their 9 physical education teachers were voluntary participants. The students were assessed in 4 basic specialized manipulative skills and 4 fitness components during regular physical education lessons. Data were analyzed with descriptive statistics, univariate analyses, and multiple R ² liner regression methods.

RESULTS

Boys were more proficient at the manipulative skills than girls, while girls had significant higher percentages for meeting the healthy fitness zone for the fitness tests than boys. Four manipulative skills significantly predicted progressive aerobic cardiovascular endurance run (PACER), push-up, and trunk lifts tests at p < 0.05 level, but not curl-up test for both boys and girls. Boys and girls in the skill-competent group significantly outperformed their counterparts in the skill-incompetent group on PACER, push-up, and trunk lifts tests at p < 0.05 level, with an exception of curl-up test.

CONCLUSION

The more competent in manipulative skills, the higher healthy level in cardiovascular endurance, upper-body muscular strength and endurance, and flexibility the students demonstrated. Demonstrating manipulative skill competence and maintaining a healthy level of physical fitness are 2 major desired learning outcomes for elementary school students to be able to achieve.

The effectiveness of a community-based fundamental motor skill intervention in children aged 3-8 years: Results of the "Multimove for Kids" project

OBJECTIVES

The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of a 30-week fundamental motor skill program in typically developing young children and to investigate possible sex differences.

DESIGN

A multicenter quasi experimental design was set up for this study which involved 992 children aged 3-8 years.

METHODS

All participants received their typical Physical Education curriculum and habitual movement activities. The intervention group (n=523; 53.5% boys) received a weekly 60-min motor skill session provided by trained local instructors in existing child settings; the control group (n=469; 49.7% boys) received no additional practice. Fundamental motor skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development, 2nd Edition before and after the intervention. To assess the effect of the intervention and possible sex differences, hierarchical linear regressions analyses were conducted for locomotor and object control gain scores.

RESULTS

The intervention group demonstrated a higher gain in both locomotor (β=3.78, SE=1.08, p<0.001) and object control (β=4.46, SE=1.06, p<0.001) skills than the control group. Girls demonstrated a lower gain in object control skills (β=-3.50, SE=0.49, p<0.001) and higher gain in locomotor skills (β=1.01, SE=0.44, p=0.022) than boys, regardless of group.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrated the effectiveness of a wide-scale community-based intervention in typically developing children. The sex differences reported may indicate the need to use different pedagogical and instructional strategies to enable boys and girls to develop and master a wide range of motor skills.

A non-equivalent group pilot trial of a school-based physical activity and fitness intervention for 10-11 year old english children: born to move

Background

PE lessons are the formal opportunity in schools for promotion of physical activity and fitness. This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a pilot PE intervention on physical activity, fitness, and psychosocial outcomes.

Methods

Participants were 139 children aged 10–11 years from four schools. For six weeks children in two schools received a twice-weekly pilot ‘Born to Move’ (BTM) physical activity (PA) and fitness intervention alongside one regular PE lesson. Children in the two comparison (COM) schools received their regular twice weekly PE lessons. Outcomes were lesson time and whole-day light (LPA), moderate (MPA), vigorous (VPA), and MVPA, and sedentary time, muscular fitness, cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF), and lesson-specific perceived exertion, enjoyment, and perceived competence. Outcomes were assessed at baseline (T0), midway through the intervention (T1), and at the end (T2) using ANOVAs and ANCOVAs. Intervention fidelity was measured using child and teacher surveys at T2 and analysed using Chi-square tests.

Results

The BTM group engaged in moderate PA for significantly more lesson time (29.4 %) than the COM group (25.8 %; p = .009, d = .53). The amount of moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA) during the T1 BTM lesson contributed 14.0 % to total MVPA, which was significantly more than the COM group’s T1 PE lesson (11.4 %; p < .001, d = .47). The BTM group were significantly more active during the whole-day (p < .05) and the school-day (p < .01). In both groups push-up test performance increased (p < .001) and CRF test performance decreased (p < .01). Perceived exertion, enjoyment, and perceived competence increased in both groups (p < .05), but the BTM group rated their enjoyment of the T1 BTM lesson higher than the COM group rated their PE lesson (p = .02, d = .56). The children’s and teachers’ responses to the intervention indicated that the delivery aims of enjoyment, engagement, inclusivity, and challenge were satisfied.

Conclusions

The BTM pilot programme has potential to positively impact on physical activity, fitness, and psychosocial outcomes. Further, BTM was enjoyed by the children, and valued by the teachers. This study can inform the design of a modified larger-scale cluster RCT evaluation.

Improving fundamental movement skills in Hong Kong students through an assessment for learning intervention that emphasizes fun, mastery, and support: the A + FMS randomized controlled trial study protocol

BACKGROUND

Assessment for learning has been identified as an effective strategy to help children learn more effectively. Developing children to master basic movement skills in primary school requires formative assessments to inform instruction and learning. This study reports the rationale and methods for an assessment-based intervention that emphasizes fun, mastery and support (A + FMS) designed to improve fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency of primary schoolchildren.

METHODS/DESIGN

Utilizing a cluster randomized controlled trial, the A + FMS intervention was designed to improve FMS proficiency of Hong Kong Chinese schoolchildren. A target sample of 282 students or more from 10 Grade 3 classes (from five schools) will be recruited and randomly assigned into an experimental group or a wait-list control group. Competence motivation theory provided a framework for the intervention that emphasizes fun activities to develop basic fundamentals, improving mastery of movement, and providing support for teaching and learning skills. Primary outcome measures are the raw scores of six objectively measured FMS (i.e., jump, hop, skip, dribble, catch, and overhand throw). Secondary outcomes include self-reported measures: enjoyment in physical education, perceived physical competence, perceived skill competence, and perceived social support. Teachers in the experimental group are required to attend a six-h training workshop and integrate 550 min of assessment for learning strategies into their physical education lessons. Resources such as videos, skills checklists, and equipment will also be provided to support children to accumulate extra learning and practice time after school. The rate of changes in primary and secondary outcomes across the experimental and control groups will be compared to determine the effectiveness of the program.

DISCUSSION

The A + FMS is an innovative school-based intervention targeting improvements in movement mastery by supporting physical education teachers in FMS instruction and assessment practices. The findings from the study may be used to guide pre-service teacher education and continuous professional development in FMS teaching and assessment. Trial registration CUHK_CCRB00479.

Motor Performance as Predictor of Physical Activity in Children: The CHAMPS Study-DK

PURPOSE

Physical activity (PA) is associated with several health benefits in children, and PA habits developed in childhood tend to persist into adulthood. PA may be the foundation of a healthy lifestyle, and motor performance has been shown to be positively associated with PA in cross-sectional studies. The purpose of this study was to explore the longitudinal relation between motor performance and PA in a 3-yr follow-up study.

METHODS

Longitudinal analyses were performed using data from 673 participants (44% boys, 6-12 yr old) who had been included in the Childhood Health Activity and Motor Performance School study-DK. Baseline motor performance tests consisted of vertical jump, shuttle run, hand grip strength, backward balance, precision throw, and cardiovascular fitness. Composite z-scores were generated to express health-related fitness and performance-related fitness. PA was measured by accelerometer at baseline and at 3-yr follow-up and was expressed as a percentage of time in moderate-to-vigorous PA.

RESULTS

Cardiovascular fitness, vertical jump, health-related fitness, and performance-related fitness showed significant positive associations with 3-yr follow-up measures of PA in both sexes. Furthermore, shuttle run showed significant inverse associations with follow-up measures of PA for both sexes.

CONCLUSIONS

Cardiorespiratory fitness, shuttle run, vertical jump, health-related fitness, and performance-related fitness were significantly associated with time spent in moderate-to-vigorous PA at 3-yr follow-up. The clinical relevance of the results indicates that cardiorespiratory fitness and shuttle run in childhood may be important determinants of PA in adolescence.

Can Fundamental Movement Skill Mastery Be Increased via a Six Week Physical Activity Intervention to Have Positive Effects on Physical Activity and Physical Self-Perception?

BACKGROUND

Previous research has suggested a positive relationship between fundamental movement skills (FMS) mastery and physical activity (PA) level. Research conducted on interventions to improve FMS mastery is equivocal and further research is needed.

METHODS

An intervention group of 82 children (35 boys and 47 girls) and a control group of 83 children (42 boys and 41 girls) were recruited from Years 4 and 5 (mean age ± SD = 8.3 ± 0.4 years) of two schools in Central England. The intervention included a combination of circuits and dancing to music. Pre and post intervention tests were conducted. Tests included: subjective assessment of eight FMS; objective measurement of two FMS; four day pedometer step count recording; height and mass for Body Mass Index (BMI); and the completion of Harter et al.'s (1982) self-perception questionnaire.

RESULTS

Following a two (pre to post) by two (intervention and control group) mixed-model ANOVA it was highlighted that the intervention group improved mastery in all eight FMS, and increased both daily steps and physical self-perception.

CONCLUSIONS

It can be concluded that focussing one Physical Education (PE) lesson per week on the development of FMS has had a positive benefit on FMS, PA level and physical self-perception for the children in this study.

Evaluation of physical activity interventions in children via the reach, efficacy/effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance (RE-AIM) framework: A systematic review of randomized and non-randomized trials

CONTEXT

Existing reviews of physical activity (PA) interventions designed to increase PA behavior exclusively in children (ages 5 to 11years) focus primarily on the efficacy (e.g., internal validity) of the interventions without addressing the applicability of the results in terms of generalizability and translatability (e.g., external validity).

OBJECTIVE

This review used the RE-AIM (Reach, Efficacy/Effectiveness, Adoption, Implementation, Maintenance) framework to measure the degree to which randomized and non-randomized PA interventions in children report on internal and external validity factors.

METHODS AND RESULTS

A systematic search for controlled interventions conducted within the past 12years identified 78 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Based on the RE-AIM criteria, most of the studies focused on elements of internal validity (e.g., sample size, intervention location and efficacy/effectiveness) with minimal reporting of external validity indicators (e.g., representativeness of participants, start-up costs, protocol fidelity and sustainability).

CONCLUSIONS

Results of this RE-AIM review emphasize the need for future PA interventions in children to report on real-world challenges and limitations, and to highlight considerations for translating evidence-based results into health promotion practice.

Early motor skill competence as a mediator of child and adult physical activity

OBJECTIVE

In order to effectively promote physical activity (PA) during childhood, and across the lifespan, a better understanding of the role of early motor skill development on child and adult PA is needed.

METHODS

Here, we propose a conceptual model delineating the hypothesized influence of motor skill development on child and adult PA, while providing an overview of the current empirical research related to this model.

RESULTS

There is consistent and emerging evidence showing that adequate motor skill competence, particularly locomotor and gross motor skills, is associated with increased PA levels during the preschool, child, and adolescent years, with early motor skill development also influencing enjoyment of PA as well as long-term PA and motor skill performance. The physical education setting appears to be a well-suited environment for motor skill development.

CONCLUSION

Employing appropriate strategies to target motor skill development across the childhood years is of paramount interest in helping shape children's PA behavior, their experiences related to PA, as well as maintain their PA.

The relationship between adolescents' physical activity, fundamental movement skills and weight status

The aim of this study was to determine if a potential relationship among physical activity (PA), fundamental movement skills and weight status exists amongst early adolescent youth. Participants were a sample of 85 students; 54 boys (mean age = 12.94 ± 0.33 years) and 31 girls (mean age = 12.75 ± 0.43 years). Data gathered during physical education class included PA (accelerometry), fundamental movement skills and anthropometric measurements. Standard multiple regression revealed that PA and total fundamental movement skill proficiency scores explained 16.5% (P < 0.001) of the variance in the prediction of body mass index. Chi-square tests for independence further indicated that compared with overweight or obese adolescents, a significantly higher proportion of adolescents classified as normal weight achieved mastery/near-mastery in fundamental movement skills. Results from the current investigation indicate that weight status is an important correlate of fundamental movement skill proficiency during adolescence. Aligned with most recent research, school- and community-based programmes that include developmentally structured learning experiences delivered by specialists can significantly improve fundamental movement skill proficiency in youth.

PROFICIENCY AT OBJECT CONTROL SKILLS BY NINE- TO TEN-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN IN SOUTH AFRICA: THE NW-CHILD STUDY

Adequate proficiency at object control skills, which is influenced by biological and environmental constraints, underlies the development of more complex sport-specific skills. This study describes proficiency at six object control skills and demographic correlates associated with each skill and each skill criteria in 9- to 10-year-old children who were randomly selected from 20 schools (N=826) and tested with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Cross-tabulation and hierarchical linear models were used to analyze the effects of sex (433 boys, 393 girls), ethnicity (619 Black, 207 White), and high (n=312) and low (n= 514) socioeconomic school environments. Twenty-three percent of the sample showed below average proficiency. Significant sex and socioeconomic school environment differences were found favoring boys and children from higher socioeconomic environments, although kicking showed significant interaction effects. It is concluded that environmental opportunities are the primary cause of differences across skills and the rates at which the skills are learned.

Public Disclosure to Improve Physical Education in an Urban School District: Results From a 2-Year Quasi-Experimental Study

BACKGROUND

Many elementary schools have policies requiring a minimum amount of physical education (PE). However, few schools comply with local/state PE policy and little is known about how to improve adherence. We evaluated changes in PE among fifth-grade classes, following participatory action research efforts to improve PE quantity and policy compliance that focused on publically disclosing PE data.

METHODS

Data were collected in 20 San Francisco public elementary schools in spring 2011 and 2013. PE schedules were collected and PE classes were directly observed (2011, N = 30 teachers; 2013, N = 33 teachers). Data on the proportion of schools meeting state PE mandates in 2011 were shared within the school district and disclosed to the general public in 2012.

RESULTS

From 2011 to 2013, PE increased by 11 minutes/week based on teachers' schedules (95% CI: 3.0, 19.6) and by 14 minutes/week (95% CI: 1.9, 26.0) based on observations. The proportion of schools meeting the state PE mandate increased from 20% to 30% (p = .27).

CONCLUSIONS

Positive changes in PE were seen over a 2-year period following the public disclosure of data that highlighted poor PE policy compliance. Public disclosure could be a method for ensuring greater PE policy adherence.

The PLUNGE randomized controlled trial: evaluation of a games-based physical activity professional learning program in primary school physical education

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the efficacy of the Professional Learning for Understanding Games Education (PLUNGE) program on fundamental movement skills (FMS), in-class physical activity and perceived sporting competence.

METHODS

A cluster-randomized controlled trial involving one year six class each from seven primary schools (n=168; mean age=11.2 years, SD=1.0) in the Hunter Region, NSW, Australia. In September (2013) participants were randomized by school into the PLUNGE intervention (n=97 students) or the 7-week wait-list control (n=71) condition. PLUNGE involved the use of Game Centered curriculum delivered via an in-class teacher mentoring program. Students were assessed at baseline and 8-week follow-up for three object control FMS (Test of Gross Motor Development 2), in-class physical activity (pedometer steps/min) and perceived sporting competence (Self-perception Profile for Children).

RESULTS

Linear mixed models revealed significant group-by-time intervention effects (all p<0.05) for object control competency (effect size: d=0.9), and in-class pedometer steps/min (d=1.0). No significant intervention effects (p>0.05) were observed for perceived sporting competence.

CONCLUSIONS

The PLUNGE intervention simultaneously improved object control FMS proficiency and in-class PA in stage three students.

Health Promotion in a Low-income Primary School: Children with and Without DCD Benefit, but Differently

Poor motor performance and reduced physical fitness are characteristic of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). These features have also been identified more frequently among children living in low socio-economic circumstances.

AIMS

To evaluate the outcomes of a nine-week health promotion program (HPP) on the motor performance and fitness levels of children (6-10 years) with and without DCD attending a low-income primary school.

METHODS

The HPP was designed and implemented by undergraduate physiotherapy students using guidelines from the World Health Organization School Health Initiative and their physiotherapy curriculum. Children with DCD (n = 22) and a control group without DCD (n = 19) participated in the evaluation. Motor skill, functional strength, aerobic capacity, and anaerobic power were measured at baseline and after nine weeks.

RESULTS

Both groups of children improved on all measures at the conclusion of the HPP. Children with DCD showed greater improvement than the control group in motor performance and the control group showed greater improvement on one of the anaerobic fitness outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

A school-based HPP that focuses on increasing opportunities for physical activity may be effective in improving motor performance in children with DCD and can increase fitness levels in general.

Recommendations for policy and practice of physical education in culturally and linguistically diverse Australian secondary schools based on a two-year prospective cohort study

Physical activity affords a host of physical and cognitive benefits for children. Physical education classes are one such venue where children can reap recommended amounts of physical activity. However, little research has explored evidence-based physical education instruction, particularly in culturally and linguistically diverse schools. No studies to date have provided recommendations for a range of educational stakeholders that serve these students. The Physical Activity in Linguistically Diverse Communities study examined the evidence-based physical education opportunities and barriers at six culturally and linguistically diverse high schools in New South Wales, Australia. This article provides implications and synthesized recommendations based on Phase One (systematic review) and Phase Two (prospective cohort study of students in six schools) of Physical Activity in Linguistically Diverse Communities for school leadership and psychologists targeting policy and practice changes on a systems level.

How can schools help youth increase physical activity? An economic analysis comparing school-based programs

OBJECTIVE

For optimal health, physical activity should be an integral and routine part of daily life. Youth spend a significant amount of time at school yet rarely achieve the recommended 60 min of moderate and vigorous physical activity in physical education (PE) classes or recess. This study assessed the following types of school-based opportunities to improve physical activity for youth: after-school programs, before-school programs, PE classes, extended-day PE, and short physical activity breaks during the school day.

METHOD

An economic analysis conducted in 2013 compared school-based approaches to increasing physical activity. Analysis factors included costs, reach, effects on physical activity gains, cost-effectiveness, and other potentially augmenting benefits.

RESULTS

Two programs were significantly superior in terms of reach and cost per student: (1) extending the school day with mandatory PE participation and (2) offering short (10-minute) physical activity breaks during regular classroom hours. After-school program costs per student are high and the programs have a smaller reach, but they offer benefits (such as childcare) that may justify their higher costs. Before-school programs did not appear feasible.

CONCLUSION

Incorporating short physical activity breaks into the existing school day would be a cost-effective way to increase school-based activity. This type of program is inexpensive and has broad reach. Inserting activity breaks throughout the day is appropriate, especially when youth are otherwise largely sedentary.

Pedometer determined physical activity and obesity prevalence of Greek children aged 4-6 years

BACKGROUND

Pre-school age is important for developing healthy attitudes towards physical activity (PA). However, research on pre-schoolers' pedometer-determined PA is limited.

AIM

To describe pre-schoolers' ambulatory activity; investigate step count differences in respect to Body Mass Index (BMI) categories and examine the prevalence of obesity.

SUBJECTS AND METHODS

Pre-school aged children (n = 250; 5.5 ± 0.4 years) from Komotini (Greece) wore Omron HJ-720IT-E2 pedometers for 10 consecutive days. Height and weight were measured and BMI was calculated.

RESULTS

Three-way repeated measures ANOVAs revealed that children performed more steps on weekdays than during weekends (p < 0.001) and during leisure time than school (p < 0.001). Significant differences appeared between normal and obese children's counts on weekdays (p < 0.001), weekend days (p < 0.05), during school (p < 0.001), after school (p < 0.005) and in weekly steps (p < 0.005). No gender differences were detected. Moreover, according to a sample t-test analysis, children's daily steps were significantly different from the 10,000 steps/day guideline, while obesity prevalence was 15.6%.

CONCLUSION

School-based ambulatory activity is lower than after school ambulatory activity, independent of BMI-category and gender, although obese children demonstrated fewer steps. Taking into account the high rate of both the obesity prevalence and children not meeting the 10,000 steps/day guideline, the need for preventive policies becomes obvious.