Ras and Rho GTPases: a family reunion

Activity and resistance to KRASG12C inhibitors in non-small cell lung cancer and colorectal cancer

Non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) and colorectal cancer (CRC) are associated with a high mortality rate. Mutations in the V-Ki-ras2 Kirsten Rat Sarcoma Viral Oncogene Homolog (KRAS) proto-oncogene GTPase (KRAS) are frequently observed in these cancers. Owing to its structural attributes, KRAS has traditionally been regarded as an "undruggable" target. However, recent advances have identified a novel mutational regulatory site, KRASG12C switch II, leading to the development of two KRASG12C inhibitors (adagrasib and sotorasib) that are FDA-approved. This groundbreaking discovery has revolutionized our understanding of the KRAS locus and offers treatment options for patients with NSCLC harboring KRAS mutations. Due to the presence of alternative resistance pathways, the use of KRASG12C inhibitors as a standalone treatment for patients with CRC is not considered optimal. However, the combination of KRASG12C inhibitors with other targeted drugs has demonstrated greater efficacy in CRC patients harboring KRAS mutations. Furthermore, NSCLC and CRC patients harboring KRASG12C mutations inevitably develop primary or acquired resistance to drug therapy. By gaining a comprehensive understanding of resistance mechanisms, such as secondary mutations of KRAS, mutations of downstream intermediates, co-mutations with KRAS, receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) activation, Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transitions (EMTs), and tumor remodeling, the implementation of KRASG12C inhibitor-based combination therapy holds promise as a viable solution. Furthermore, the emergence of protein hydrolysis-targeted chimeras and molecular glue technologies has been facilitated by collaborative efforts in structural science and pharmacology. This paper aims to provide a comprehensive review of the recent advancements in various aspects related to the KRAS gene, including the KRAS signaling pathway, tumor immunity, and immune microenvironment crosstalk, as well as the latest developments in KRASG12C inhibitors and mechanisms of resistance. In addition, this study discusses the strategies used to address drug resistance in light of the crosstalk between these factors. In the coming years, there will likely be advancements in the development of more efficacious pharmaceuticals and targeted therapeutic approaches for treating NSCLC and CRC. Consequently, individuals with KRAS-mutant NSCLC may experience a prolonged response duration and improved treatment outcomes.

Deciphering the Role of BCAR3 in Cancer Progression: Gene Regulation, Signal Transduction, and Therapeutic Implications

This review comprehensively explores the gene BCAR3, detailing its regulation at the gene, mRNA, and protein structure levels, and delineating its multifunctional roles in cellular signaling within cancer contexts. The discussion covers BCAR3's involvement in integrin signaling and its impact on cancer cell migration, its capability to induce anti-estrogen resistance, and its significant functions in cell cycle regulation. Further highlighted is BCAR3's modulation of immune responses within the tumor microenvironment, a novel area of interest that holds potential for innovative cancer therapies. Looking forward, this review outlines essential future research directions focusing on transcription factor binding studies, isoform-specific expression profiling, therapeutic targeting of BCAR3, and its role in immune cell function. Each segment builds towards a holistic understanding of BCAR3's operational mechanisms, presenting a critical evaluation of its therapeutic potential in oncology. This synthesis aims to not only extend current knowledge but also catalyze further research that could pivotally influence the development of targeted cancer treatments.

Unraveling the Role of Ras Homolog Enriched in Brain (Rheb1 and Rheb2): Bridging Neuronal Dynamics and Cancer Pathogenesis through Mechanistic Target of Rapamycin Signaling

Ras homolog enriched in brain (Rheb1 and Rheb2), small GTPases, play a crucial role in regulating neuronal activity and have gained attention for their implications in cancer development, particularly in breast cancer. This study delves into the intricate connection between the multifaceted functions of Rheb1 in neurons and cancer, with a specific focus on the mTOR pathway. It aims to elucidate Rheb1's involvement in pivotal cellular processes such as proliferation, apoptosis resistance, migration, invasion, metastasis, and inflammatory responses while acknowledging that Rheb2 has not been extensively studied. Despite the recognized associations, a comprehensive understanding of the intricate interplay between Rheb1 and Rheb2 and their roles in both nerve and cancer remains elusive. This review consolidates current knowledge regarding the impact of Rheb1 on cancer hallmarks and explores the potential of Rheb1 as a therapeutic target in cancer treatment. It emphasizes the necessity for a deeper comprehension of the molecular mechanisms underlying Rheb1-mediated oncogenic processes, underscoring the existing gaps in our understanding. Additionally, the review highlights the exploration of Rheb1 inhibitors as a promising avenue for cancer therapy. By shedding light on the complicated roles between Rheb1/Rheb2 and cancer, this study provides valuable insights to the scientific community. These insights are instrumental in guiding the identification of novel targets and advancing the development of effective therapeutic strategies for treating cancer.

Enabling Systemic Identification and Functionality Profiling for Cdc42 Homeostatic Modulators

Homeostatic modulation is pivotal in modern therapeutics. However, the discovery of bioactive materials to achieve this functionality is often random and unpredictive. Here, we enabled a systemic identification and functional classification of chemicals that elicit homeostatic modulation of signaling through Cdc42, a classical small GTPase of Ras superfamily. Rationally designed for high throughput screening, the capture of homeostatic modulators (HMs) along with molecular re-docking uncovered at least five functionally distinct classes of small molecules. This enabling led to partial agonists, hormetic agonists, bona fide activators and inhibitors, and ligand-enhanced agonists. Novel HMs exerted striking functionality in bradykinin-Cdc42 activation of actin remodelingand modified Alzheimer's disease-like behavior in mouse model. This concurrent computer-aided and experimentally empowered HM profiling highlights a model path for predicting HM landscape.

One Sentence Summary

With concurrent experimental biochemical profiling and in silico computer-aided drug discovery (CADD) analysis, this study enabled a systemic identification and holistic classification of Cdc42 homeostatic modulators (HMs) and demonstrated the power of CADD to predict HM classes that can mimic the pharmacological functionality of interests.

Introduction

Maintainingbody homeostasisis the ultimate keyto health. Thereare rich resources of bioactive materials for this functionality from both natural and synthetic chemical repertories including partial agonists (PAs) and various allosteric modulators. These homeostatic modulators (HMs) play a unique role in modern therapeutics for human diseases such as mental disorders and drug addiction. Buspirone, for example, acts as a PA for serotonin 5-HT 1A receptor but is an antagonist of the dopamine D 2 receptor. Such medical useto treat general anxietydisorders (GADs) has become one of the most-commonly prescribed medications. However, most HMs in current uses target membrane proteins and are often derived from random discoveries. HMs as therapeutics targeting cytoplasmic proteins are even more rare despite that they are in paramount needs (e. g. targeting Ras superfamily small GTPases).

Rationale

Cdc42, a classical member of small GTPases of Ras superfamily, regulates PI3K-AKT and Raf-MEK-ERK pathways and has been implicated in various neuropsychiatric and mental disorders as well as addictive diseases and cancer. We previously reported the high-throughput in-silico screening followed by biological characterization of novel small molecule modulators (SMMs) of Cdc42-intersectin (ITSN) protein-protein interactions (PPIs). Based on a serendipitously discovered SMM ZCL278 with PA profile as a model compound, we hypothesized that there are more varieties of such HMs of Cdc42 signaling, and the model HMs can be defined by their distinct Cdc42-ITSN binding mechanisms using computer-aided drug discovery (CADD) analysis. We further reasoned that molecular modeling coupled with experimental profiling can predict HM spectrum and thus open the door for the holistic identification and classification of multifunctional cytoplasmic target-dependent HMs as therapeutics.

Results

The originally discovered Cdc42 inhibitor ZCL278 displaying PA properties prompted the inquiry whether this finding represented a random encounter of PAs or whether biologically significant PAs can be widely present. The top ranked compounds were initially defined by structural fitness and binding scores to Cdc42. Because higher binding scores do not necessarily translate to higher functionality, we performed exhaustive experimentations with over 2,500 independent Cdc42-GEF (guanine nucleotide exchange factor) assays to profile the GTP loading activities on all 44 top ranked compounds derived from the SMM library. The N-MAR-GTP fluorophore-based Cdc42-GEF assay platform provided the first glimpse of the breadth of HMs. A spectrum of Cdc42 HMs was uncovered that can be categorized into five functionally distinct classes: Class I-partial competitive agonists, Class II-hormetic agonists, Class III- bona fide inhibitors (or inverse agonists), Class IV- bona fide activators or agonists, and Class V-ligand-enhanced agonists. Remarkably, model HMs such as ZCL278, ZCL279, and ZCL367 elicited striking biological functionality in bradykinin-Cdc42 activation of actin remodeling and modified Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like behavior in mouse model. Concurrently, we applied Schrödinger-enabled analyses to perform CADD predicted classification of Cdc42 HMs. We modified the classic molecular docking to instill a preferential binding pocket order (PBPO) of Cdc42-ITSN, which was based on the five binding pockets in interface of Cdc42-ITSN. We additionally applied a structure-based pharmacophore hypothesis generation for the model compounds. Then, using Schrödinger's Phase Shape, 3D ligand alignments assigned HMs to Class I, II, III, IV, and V compounds. In this HM library compounds, PBPO, matching pharmacophoric featuring, and shape alignment, all put ZCL993 in Class II compound category, which was confirmed in the Cdc42-GEF assay.

Conclusion

HMs can target diseased cells or tissues while minimizing impacts on tissues that are unaffected. Using Cdc42 HM model compounds as a steppingstone, GTPase activation-based screening of SMM library uncovered five functionally distinct Cdc42 HM classes among which novel efficacies towards alleviating dysregulated AD-like features in mice were identified. Furthermore, molecular re-docking of HM model compounds led to the concept of PBPO. The CADD analysis with PBPO revealed similar profile in a color-coded spectrum to these five distinct classes of Cdc42 HMs identified by biochemical functionality-based screening. The current study enabled a systemic identification and holistic classification of Cdc42 HMs and demonstrated the power of CADD to predict an HM category that can mimic the pharmacological functionality of interests. With artificial intelligence/machine learning (AI/ML) on the horizon to mirror experimental pharmacological discovery like AlphaFold for protein structure prediction, our study highlights a model path to actively capture and profile HMs in potentially any PPI landscape.

Graphic Abstract

Identification and functional classification of Cdc42 homeostatic modulators HMs

Using Cdc42 HM model compounds as reference, GTPase activation-based screening of compound libraries uncovered five functionally distinct Cdc42 HM classes. HMs showed novel efficacies towards alleviating dysregulated Alzheimer's disease (AD)-like behavioral and molecular deficits. In parallel, molecular re-docking of HM model compounds established their preferential binding pocket orders (PBPO). PBPO-based profiling (Red reflects the most, whereas green reflects the least, preferable binding pocket) revealed trends of similar pattern to the five classes from the functionality-based classification.

Loss of STARD13 contributes to aggressive phenotype transformation and poor prognosis in papillary thyroid carcinoma

PURPOSE

StAR Related Lipid Transfer Domain Containing 13 (STARD13) serves as a tumor suppressor and has been characterized in several types of malignancies. However, the role and the molecular mechanism of STARD13 in regulating the progression of papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC) remain underexplored.

METHODS

The gene expression and clinical information of thyroid cancer were downloaded using "TCGAbiolinks" R package. Quantitative PCR and immunohistochemical staining were conducted to detect the expression of STARD13 in clinical tumor and adjacent non-tumor samples. Wound-healing assay, Transwell assay and 3D spheroid invasion assay were performed to evaluate the migratory and invasive capacities of PTC cells. Cell proliferation ability was determined by CCK-8 assay, colony formation assay and 5-ethynyl-2'-deoxyuridine (EdU) incorporation assay. The alterations of indicated proteins were detected by Western blotting.

RESULTS

In the present study, we found that STARD13 was significantly underexpressed in PTC, which was correlated with poor prognosis. Downregulation of STARD13 might be due to methylation of promoter region. Loss-and gain-of-function experiments demonstrated that STARD13 impeded migratory and invasive capacities of PTC cells in vitro and in vivo. In addition, we found that STARD13 regulated the morphology of PTC cells and inhibited epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT).

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that STARD13 acts as a metastasis suppressor and might be a potential therapeutic target in PTC.

Differential functions of RhoGDIβ in malignant transformation and progression of urothelial cell following N-butyl-N-(4-hydmoxybutyl) nitrosamine exposure

BACKGROUND

Functional role of Rho GDP-dissociation inhibitor beta (RhoGDIβ) in tumor biology appears to be contradictory across various studies. Thus, the exploration of the molecular mechanisms underlying the differential functions of this protein in urinary bladder carcinogenesis is highly significant in the field. Here, RhoGDIβ expression patterns, biological functions, and mechanisms leading to transformation and progression of human urothelial cells (UROtsa cells) were evaluated following varying lengths of exposure to the bladder carcinogen N-butyl-N-(4-hydmoxybutyl) nitrosamine (BBN).

RESULTS

It was seen that compared to expression in vehicle-treated control cells, RhoGDIβ protein expression was downregulated after 2-month of BBN exposure, but upregulated after 6-month of exposure. Assessments of cell function showed that RhoGDIβ inhibited UROtsa cell growth in cells with BBN for 2-month exposure, whereas it promoted the invasion of cells treated with BBN for 6 months. Mechanistic studies revealed that 2-month of BBN exposure markedly attenuated DNMT3a abundance, and this led to reduced miR-219a promoter methylation, increased miR-219a binding to the RhoGDIβ mRNA 3'UTR, and reduced RhoGDIβ protein translation. While after 6-mo of BBN treatment, the cells showed increased PP2A/JNK/C-Jun axis phosphorylation and this in turn mediated overall RhoGDIβ mRNA transcription and protein expression as well as invasion.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings indicate that RhoGDIβ is likely to inhibit the transformation of human urothelial cells during the early phase of BBN exposure, whereas it promotes invasion of the transformed/progressed urothelial cells in the late stage of BBN exposure. The studies also suggest that RhoGDIβ may be a useful biomarker for evaluating the progression of human bladder cancers.

Benzydamine-An Affordable Over-the-Counter Drug with Psychoactive Properties-From Chemical Structure to Possible Pharmacological Properties

Benzydamine is a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug with distinct pharmacological properties from other compounds in the same therapeutic class. The differences are structural and pharmacological in nature; the anti-inflammatory mechanism is not strictly explained by the ability to interfere with the synthesis of prostaglandins. The compound is used strictly in local inflammatory diseases (inflammation in the oral and vaginal mucosa). In addition to the therapeutic indications found in the summary of product characteristics (SPC), the compound is used, in high doses, as a psychotropic substance for oral administration, having similar properties to lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD). As an over-the-counter (OTC) compound, it is easy to obtain, and the consequences of using it for purposes other than those assumed by the manufacturer raise various concerns. The reasons are related to the pharmacodynamic and pharmaco-toxicological properties, since neither the mechanism of action nor the possible side effects that would result from systemic consumption, in high doses, even occasionally, have been fully elucidated. The present review aims to analyze the pharmacodynamic properties of benzydamine, starting from the chemical structure, by comparison with structurally similar compounds registered in therapy (as an anti-inflammatory or analgesic) or used for recreational purposes.

Lack of Paxillin phosphorylation promotes single-cell migration in vivo

Focal adhesions are structures that physically link the cell to the extracellular matrix for cell migration. Although cell culture studies have provided a wealth of information regarding focal adhesion biology, it is critical to understand how focal adhesions are dynamically regulated in their native environment. We developed a zebrafish system to visualize focal adhesion structures during single-cell migration in vivo. We find that a key site of phosphoregulation (Y118) on Paxillin exhibits reduced phosphorylation in migrating cells in vivo compared to in vitro. Furthermore, expression of a non-phosphorylatable version of Y118-Paxillin increases focal adhesion disassembly and promotes cell migration in vivo, despite inhibiting cell migration in vitro. Using a mouse model, we further find that the upstream kinase, focal adhesion kinase, is downregulated in cells in vivo, and cells expressing non-phosphorylatable Y118-Paxillin exhibit increased activation of the CRKII-DOCK180/RacGEF pathway. Our findings provide significant new insight into the intrinsic regulation of focal adhesions in cells migrating in their native environment.

Targeting TET2 as a Therapeutic Approach for Angioimmunoblastic T Cell Lymphoma

Angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma (AITL), a type of malignant lymphoma with unique genomic aberrations, significant clinicopathological features, and poor prognosis, is characterized by immune system dysregulation. Recent sequencing studies have identified recurrent mutations and interactions in tet methylcytosine dioxygenase 2 (TET2), ras homology family member A (RHOA), DNA methyltransferase 3 alpha (DNMT3A), and mitochondrial isocitrate dehydrogenase II (IDH2). Notably, since B-cell lymphomas are frequently observed along with AITL, this review first summarizes its controversial mechanisms based on traditional and recent views. Epigenetic regulation represented by TET2 plays an increasingly important role in understanding the multi-step and multi-lineage tumorigenesis of AITL, providing new research directions and treatment strategies for patients with AITL. Here, we review the latest advances in our understanding of AITL and highlight relevant issues that have yet to be addressed in clinical practice.

The complex, dynamic SpliceOme of the small GTPase transcripts altered by technique, sex, genetics, tissue specificity, and RNA base editing

The small GTPase family is well-studied in cancer and cellular physiology. With 162 annotated human genes, the family has a broad expression throughout cells of the body. Members of the family have multiple exons that require splicing. Yet, the role of splicing within the family has been underexplored. We have studied the splicing dynamics of small GTPases throughout 41,671 samples by integrating Nanopore and Illumina sequencing techniques. Within this work, we have made several discoveries. 1). Using the GTEx long read data of 92 samples, each small GTPase gene averages two transcripts, with 83 genes (51%) expressing two or more isoforms. 2). Cross-tissue analysis of GTEx from 17,382 samples shows 41 genes (25%) expressing two or more protein-coding isoforms. These include protein-changing transcripts in genes such as RHOA, RAB37, RAB40C, RAB4B, RAB5C, RHOC, RAB1A, RAN, RHEB, RAC1, and KRAS. 3). The isolation and library technique of the RNAseq influences the abundance of non-sense-mediated decay and retained intron transcripts of small GTPases, which are observed more often in genes than appreciated. 4). Analysis of 16,243 samples of "Blood PAXgene" identified seven genes (3.7%; RHOA, RAB40C, RAB4B, RAB37, RAB5B, RAB5C, RHOC) with two or more transcripts expressed as the major isoform (75% of the total gene), suggesting a role of genetics in altering splicing. 5). Rare (ARL6, RAB23, ARL13B, HRAS, NRAS) and common variants (GEM, RHOC, MRAS, RAB5B, RERG, ARL16) can influence splicing and have an impact on phenotypes and diseases. 6). Multiple genes (RAB9A, RAP2C, ARL4A, RAB3A, RAB26, RAB3C, RASL10A, RAB40B, and HRAS) have sex differences in transcript expression. 7). Several exons are included or excluded for small GTPase genes (RASEF, KRAS, RAC1, RHEB, ARL4A, RHOA, RAB30, RHOBTB1, ARL16, RAP1A) in one or more forms of cancer. 8). Ten transcripts are altered in hypoxia (SAR1B, IFT27, ARL14, RAB11A, RAB10, RAB38, RAN, RIT1, RAB9A) with RHOA identified to have a transient 3'UTR RNA base editing at a conserved site found in all of its transcripts. Overall, we show a remarkable and dynamic role of splicing within the small GTPase family that requires future explorations.

Pax3 loss of function delays tumour progression in kRAS-induced zebrafish rhabdomyosarcoma models

Rhabdomyosarcoma is a soft tissue cancer that arises in skeletal muscle due to mutations in myogenic progenitors that lead to ineffective differentiation and malignant transformation. The transcription factors Pax3 and Pax7 and their downstream target genes are tightly linked with the fusion positive alveolar subtype, whereas the RAS pathway is usually involved in the embryonal, fusion negative variant. Here, we analyse the role of Pax3 in a fusion negative context, by linking alterations in gene expression in pax3a/pax3b double mutant zebrafish with tumour progression in kRAS-induced rhabdomyosarcoma tumours. Several genes in the RAS/MAPK signalling pathway were significantly down-regulated in pax3a/pax3b double mutant zebrafish. Progression of rhabdomyosarcoma tumours was also delayed in the pax3a/pax3b double mutant zebrafish indicating that Pax3 transcription factors have an unappreciated role in mediating malignancy in fusion negative rhabdomyosarcoma.

Mechanisms of isoform-specific residue influence on GTP-bound HRas, KRas, and NRas

HRas, KRas, and NRas are GTPases with a common set of effectors that control many cell-signaling pathways, including proliferation through Raf kinase. Their G-domains are nearly identical in sequence, with a few isoform-specific residues that have an effect on dynamics and biochemical properties. Here, we use accelerated molecular dynamics (aMD) simulations consistent with solution x-ray scattering experiments to elucidate mechanisms through which isoform-specific residues associated with each Ras isoform affects functionally important regions connected to the active site. HRas-specific residues cluster in loop 8 to stabilize the nucleotide-binding pocket, while NRas-specific residues on helix 3 directly affect the conformations of switch I and switch II. KRas, the most globally flexible of the isoforms, shows greatest fluctuations in the switch regions enhanced by a KRas-specific residue in loop 7 and a highly dynamic loop 8 region. The analysis of isoform-specific residue effects on Ras proteins is supported by NMR experiments and is consistent with previously published biochemical data.

Nuclear RAC1 is a modulator of the doxorubicin-induced DNA damage response

Rho GTPases like RAC1 are localized on the inner side of the outer cell membrane where they act as molecular switches that can trigger signal transduction pathways in response to various extracellular stimuli. Nuclear functions of RAC1 were identified that are related to mitosis, cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Previously, we showed that RAC1 plays a role in the doxorubicin (Dox)-induced DNA damage response (DDR). In this context it is still unknown whether cytosolic RAC1 modulates the Dox-induced DDR or if a nuclear fraction of RAC1 is involved. Here, we silenced RAC1 in mouse embryonic fibroblasts (MEF) pharmacologically with EHT1864 or by using siRNA against Rac1. Additionally, we transfected MEF with RAC1 mutants (wild-type, dominant-negative, constitutively active) containing a nuclear localization sequence (NLS). Afterwards, we analysed the Dox-induced DDR by evaluation of fluorescent nuclear γH2AX and 53BP1 foci formation, as well as by detection of activated proteins of the DDR by western blot to elucidate the role of nuclear RAC1 in the DDR. Treatment with EHT1864 as well as Rac1 knock-down reduced the Dox-induced DSB-formation to a similar extent. Enhanced nuclear localization of dominant-negative as well as constitutively active RAC1 mimicked these effects. Expression of the RAC1 mutants altered the Dox-induced amount of pP53 and pKAP1 protein. The observed effects were independent of S1981 ATM phosphorylation. We conclude that RAC1 is required for a substantial activation of the Dox-induced DDR and balanced levels of active/inactive RAC1 inside the nucleus are a prerequisite for this response.

SH3 domain regulation of RhoGAP activity: Crosstalk between p120RasGAP and DLC1 RhoGAP

RhoGAP proteins are key regulators of Rho family GTPases and influence a variety of cellular processes, including cell migration, adhesion, and cytokinesis. These GTPase activating proteins (GAPs) downregulate Rho signaling by binding and enhancing the intrinsic GTPase activity of Rho proteins. Deleted in liver cancer 1 (DLC1) is a tumor suppressor and ubiquitously expressed RhoGAP protein; its activity is regulated in part by binding p120RasGAP, a GAP protein for the Ras GTPases. In this study, we report the co-crystal structure of the p120RasGAP SH3 domain bound directly to DLC1 RhoGAP, at a site partially overlapping the RhoA binding site and impinging on the catalytic arginine finger. We demonstrate biochemically that mutation of this interface relieves inhibition of RhoGAP activity by the SH3 domain. These results reveal the mechanism for inhibition of DLC1 RhoGAP activity by p120RasGAP and demonstrate the molecular basis for direct SH3 domain modulation of GAP activity.

Structural/functional studies of Trio provide insights into its configuration and show that conserved linker elements enhance its activity for Rac1

Trio is a large and highly conserved metazoan signaling scaffold that contains two Dbl family guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) modules, TrioN and TrioC, selective for Rac and RhoA GTPases, respectively. The GEF activities of TrioN and TrioC are implicated in several cancers, especially uveal melanoma. However, little is known about how these modules operate in the context of larger fragments of Trio. Here we show via negative stain electron microscopy that the N-terminal region of Trio is extended and could thus serve as a rigid spacer between the N-terminal putative lipid-binding domain and TrioN, whereas the C-terminal half of Trio seems globular. We found that regions C-terminal to TrioN enhance its Rac1 GEF activity and thus could play a regulatory role. We went on to characterize a minimal, well-behaved Trio fragment with enhanced activity, Trio1284-1959, in complex with Rac1 using cryo-electron microscopy and hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry and found that the region conferring enhanced activity is disordered. Deletion of two different strongly conserved motifs in this region eliminated this enhancement, suggesting that they form transient intramolecular interactions that promote GEF activity. Because Dbl family RhoGEF modules have been challenging to directly target with small molecules, characterization of accessory Trio domains such as these may provide alternate routes for the development of therapeutics that inhibit Trio activity in human cancer.

A semaphorin-plexin-Rasal1 signaling pathway inhibits gastrin expression and protects against peptic ulcers

Peptic ulcer disease is a frequent clinical problem with potentially serious complications such as bleeding or perforation. A decisive factor in the pathogenesis of peptic ulcers is gastric acid, the secretion of which is controlled by the hormone gastrin released from gastric G cells. However, the molecular mechanisms regulating gastrin plasma concentrations are poorly understood. Here, we identified a semaphorin-plexin signaling pathway that operates in gastric G cells to inhibit gastrin expression on a transcriptional level, thereby limiting food-stimulated gastrin release and gastric acid secretion. Using a systematic siRNA screening approach combined with biochemical, cell biology, and in vivo mouse experiments, we found that the RasGAP protein Rasal1 is a central mediator of plexin signal transduction, which suppresses gastrin expression through inactivation of the small GTPase R-Ras. Moreover, we show that Rasal1 is pathophysiologically relevant for the pathogenesis of peptic ulcers induced by nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), a main risk factor of peptic ulcers in humans. Last, we show that application of recombinant semaphorin 4D alleviates peptic ulcer disease in mice in vivo, demonstrating that this signaling pathway can be harnessed pharmacologically. This study unravels a mode of G cell regulation that is functionally important in gastric homeostasis and disease.

Genome-Wide Selection Signatures and Human-Mediated Introgression Events in Bos taurus indicus-influenced Composite Beef Cattle

Genetic introgression from interbreeding hybridization of European Bos taurus taurus (EBT) and Indian Bos taurus indicus (IBI) cattle breeds have been widely used to combine the climatic resilience of the IBI cattle and the higher productivity of EBT when forming new composite beef cattle (CB) populations. The subsequent breeding strategies have shifted their initial genomic compositions. To uncover population structure, signatures of selection, and potential introgression events in CB populations, high-density genotypes [containing 492,954 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) after the quality control] of 486 individuals from 15 cattle breeds, including EBT, IBI, and CB populations, along with two Bos grunniens genotypes as outgroup were used in this study. Then, in-depth population genetics analyses were performed for three CB breeds of Beefmaster, Brangus, and Santa Gertrudis. Neighbor-joining, principal components, and admixture analyses confirmed the historical introgression of EBT and IBI haplotypes into CB breeds. The f_dM statistics revealed that only 12.9% of CB populations' genetic components are of IBI origin. The results of signatures of selection analysis indicated different patterns of selection signals in the three CB breeds with primary pressure on pathways involved in protein processing and stress response in Beefmaster, cell proliferation regulation and immune response in Brangus, and amino acids and glucose metabolisms in Santa Gertrudis. An average of >90% of genomic regions underlying selection signatures were of EBT origin in the studied CB populations. Investigating the CB breeds' genome allows the estimation of EBT and IBI ancestral proportions and the locations within the genome where either taurine or indicine origin alleles are under selective pressure. Such findings highlight various opportunities to control the selection process more efficiently and explore complementarity at the genomic level in CB populations.

An injury-responsive Rac-to-Rho GTPase switch drives activation of muscle stem cells through rapid cytoskeletal remodeling

Many tissues harbor quiescent stem cells that are activated upon injury, subsequently proliferating and differentiating to repair tissue damage. Mechanisms by which stem cells sense injury and transition from quiescence to activation, however, remain largely unknown. Resident skeletal muscle stem cells (MuSCs) are essential orchestrators of muscle regeneration and repair. Here, with a combination of in vivo and ex vivo approaches, we show that quiescent MuSCs have elaborate, Rac GTPase-promoted cytoplasmic projections that respond to injury via the upregulation of Rho/ROCK signaling, facilitating projection retraction and driving downstream activation events. These early events involve rapid cytoskeletal rearrangements and occur independently of exogenous growth factors. This mechanism is conserved across a broad range of MuSC activation models, including injury, disease, and genetic loss of quiescence. Our results redefine MuSC activation and present a central mechanism by which quiescent stem cells initiate responses to injury.

Signaling Pathways that Regulate Macropinocytosis in Mammalian Cells

Macropinocytosis is an evolutionarily conserved endocytic pathway that mediates non-selective uptake of extracellular fluid in bulk. Macropinocytosis is initiated by localized polymerization of the actin cytoskeleton, which generates plasma membrane protrusions that enclose part of the environment into large endocytic vesicles. From amoebae to mammalian cells, the actin dynamics that drive macropinosome formation are regulated by a conserved set of intracellular signaling proteins including Ras superfamily GTPases and PI3-kinases. In mammalian cells, multiple upstream signaling pathways control activity of these core regulators in response to cell-extrinsic and cell-intrinsic stimuli. Growth factor signaling pathways play a central role in macropinocytosis induction. In addition, an increasing number of functionally diverse processes has been identified as macropinocytosis regulators, including several nutrient-sensing and developmental signaling pathways. Many of these signaling pathways have proto-oncogenic properties, and their dysregulation drives the high macropinocytic activity that is commonly observed in cancer cells. These regulatory principles illustrate how macropinocytosis is controlled by complex upstream inputs to exert diverse cellular functions in physiological and pathological contexts.

Roles of Myc-associated zinc finger protein in malignant tumors

As an important transcription factor that is widely expressed in most tissues of the human body, Myc-associated zinc finger protein (MAZ) has been reported highly expressed in many malignant tumors and thought to be a promising therapeutic target for cancer treatment. In this review, we aim to offer a comprehensive understanding of MAZ regulation in malignant tumors. The carboxy terminal of MAZ protein contains six C2H2 zinc fingers, and its regulation of transcription is based on the interaction between the GC-rich DNA binding sites of target genes and its carboxy-terminal zinc finger motifs. MAZ protein has been found to activate or inhibit the transcriptional initiation process of many target genes, as well as play an important role in the transcriptional termination process of some target genes, so MAZ poses dual regulatory functions in the initiation and termination process of gene transcription. Through the transcriptional regulation of c-myc and Ras gene family, MAZ poses an important role in the occurrence and development of breast cancer, pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, glioblastoma, neuroblastoma, and other malignant tumors. Our review shows a vital role of MAZ in many malignant tumors and provides novel insight for cancer diagnosis and treatment.

A chemorepellent inhibits local Ras activation to inhibit pseudopod formation to bias cell movement away from the chemorepellent

The ability of cells to sense chemical gradients is essential during development, morphogenesis, and immune responses. Although much is known about chemoattraction, chemorepulsion remains poorly understood. Proliferating Dictyostelium cells secrete a chemorepellent protein called AprA. AprA prevents pseudopod formation at the region of the cell closest to the source of AprA, causing the random movement of cells to be biased away from the AprA. Activation of Ras proteins in a localized sector of a cell cortex helps to induce pseudopod formation, and Ras proteins are needed for AprA chemorepulsion. Here we show that AprA locally inhibits Ras cortical activation through the G protein–coupled receptor GrlH, the G protein subunits Gβ and Gα8, Ras protein RasG, protein kinase B, the p21-activated kinase PakD, and the extracellular signal–regulated kinase Erk1. Diffusion calculations and experiments indicate that in a colony of cells, high extracellular concentrations of AprA in the center can globally inhibit Ras activation, while a gradient of AprA that naturally forms at the edge of the colony allows cells to activate Ras at sectors of the cell other than the sector of the cell closest to the center of the colony, effectively inducing both repulsion from the colony and cell differentiation. Together, these results suggest that a pathway that inhibits local Ras activation can mediate chemorepulsion.

miR-145-5p targets paxillin to attenuate angiotensin II-induced pathological cardiac hypertrophy via downregulation of Rac 1, pJNK, p-c-Jun, NFATc3, ANP and by Sirt-1 upregulation

Pathological cardiac hypertrophy is associated with many diseases including hypertension. Recent studies have identified important roles for microRNAs (miRNAs) in many cardiac pathophysiological processes, including the regulation of cardiomyocyte hypertrophy. However, the role of miR-145-5p in the cardiac setting is still unclear. In this study, H9C2 cells were overexpressed with microRNA-145-5p, and then treated with Ang-II for 24 h, to study the effect of miR-145-5p on Ang-II-induced myocardial hypertrophy in vitro. Results showed that Ang-II treatment down-regulated miR-145-5p expression were revered after miR-145-5p overexpression. Based on results of bioinformatics algorithms, paxillin was predicted as a candidate target gene of miR-145-5p, luciferase activity assay revealed that the luciferase activity of cells was substantial downregulated the following co-transfection with wild paxillin 3'UTR and miR-145-5p compared to that in scramble control, while the inhibitory effect of miR-145-5p was abolished after transfection of mutant paxillin 3'UTR. Additionally, overexpression of miR-145-5p markedly inhibited activation of Rac-1/ JNK /c-jun/ NFATc3 and ANP expression and induced SIRT1 expression in Ang-II treated H9c2 cells. Jointly, our study suggested that miR-145-5p inhibited cardiac hypertrophy by targeting paxillin and through modulating Rac-1/ JNK /c-jun/ NFATc3/ ANP / Sirt1 signaling, therefore proving novel downstream molecular pathway of miR-145-5p in cardiac hypertrophy.

Ras Family of Small GTPases in CRC: New Perspectives for Overcoming Drug Resistance

Colorectal cancer remains among the cancers with the highest incidence, prevalence, and mortality worldwide. Although the development of targeted therapies against the EGFR and VEGFR membrane receptors has considerably improved survival in these patients, the appearance of resistance means that their success is still limited. Overactivation of several members of the Ras-GTPase family is one of the main actors in both tumour progression and the lack of response to cytotoxic and targeted therapies. This fact has led many resources to be devoted over the last decades to the development of targeted therapies against these proteins. However, they have not been as successful as expected in their move to the clinic so far. In this review, we will analyse the role of these Ras-GTPases in the emergence and development of colorectal cancer and their relationship with resistance to targeted therapies, as well as the status and new advances in the design of targeted therapies against these proteins and their possible clinical implications.

The Importance of Being PI3K in the RAS Signaling Network

Ras proteins are essential mediators of a multitude of cellular processes, and its deregulation is frequently associated with cancer appearance, progression, and metastasis. Ras-driven cancers are usually aggressive and difficult to treat. Although the recent Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval of the first Ras G12C inhibitor is an important milestone, only a small percentage of patients will benefit from it. A better understanding of the context in which Ras operates in different tumor types and the outcomes mediated by each effector pathway may help to identify additional strategies and targets to treat Ras-driven tumors. Evidence emerging in recent years suggests that both oncogenic Ras signaling in tumor cells and non-oncogenic Ras signaling in stromal cells play an essential role in cancer. PI3K is one of the main Ras effectors, regulating important cellular processes such as cell viability or resistance to therapy or angiogenesis upon oncogenic Ras activation. In this review, we will summarize recent advances in the understanding of Ras-dependent activation of PI3K both in physiological conditions and cancer, with a focus on how this signaling pathway contributes to the formation of a tumor stroma that promotes tumor cell proliferation, migration, and spread.

Different signaling and functionality of Rac1 and Rac1b in the progression of lung adenocarcinoma

Rac1 is a ubiquitously expressed Rho GTPase and an important regulator of the actin cytoskeleton. Its splice variant Rac1b exhibits a 19-amino acid (aa) in-frame insertion and is predominantly active. Both proteins were described in tumorigenesis or metastasis. We investigated the contribution of Rac1 and Rac1b to tumor progression of human non-small-cell lung adenocarcinoma (NSCLA). Rac1 protein was present in 8/8 NSCLA cell lines analyzed, whereas Rac1b was expressed in only 6/8. In wound-healing assays, enhanced green fluorescence protein (EGFP)-Rac1 slightly decreased cell migration, whereas proliferation was increased in both, Rac1- and Rac1b-expressing cells. In the in vivo chorioallantoic invasion model, EGFP-Rac1-expressing cells formed more invasive tumors compared to EGFP-Rac1b. This increased invasiveness correlated with enhanced phosphorylation of p38α, AKT and glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), and activation of serum response- and Smad-dependent gene promoters by Rac1. In contrast, Rac1b solely activated the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) JNK2, together with TCF/LEF1- and nuclear factor kappa B (NFκB)-responsive gene reporters. Rac1b, as Rac1, phosphorylated p38α, AKT and GSK3β. Knockdown of the splicing factor epithelial splicing regulatory protein 1 (ESRP1), which mediates out-splicing of exon 3b from Rac1 pre-messenger RNA, resulted in increased Rac1b messenger RNA (mRNA) and suppression of the epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT)-associated transcription factor ZEB1. Our data demonstrate different signaling and functional activities of Rac1 and Rac1b and an important role for Rac1 in lung cancer metastasis.

The Crossroads between RAS and RHO Signaling Pathways in Cellular Transformation, Motility and Contraction

Ras and Rho proteins are GTP-regulated molecular switches that control multiple signaling pathways in eukaryotic cells. Ras was among the first identified oncogenes, and it appears mutated in many forms of human cancer. It mainly promotes proliferation and survival through the MAPK pathway and the PI3K/AKT pathways, respectively. However, the myriad proteins close to the plasma membrane that activate or inhibit Ras make it a major regulator of many apparently unrelated pathways. On the other hand, Rho is weakly oncogenic by itself, but it critically regulates microfilament dynamics; that is, actin polymerization, disassembly and contraction. Polymerization is driven mainly by the Arp2/3 complex and formins, whereas contraction depends on myosin mini-filament assembly and activity. These two pathways intersect at numerous points: from Ras-dependent triggering of Rho activators, some of which act through PI3K, to mechanical feedback driven by actomyosin action. Here, we describe the main points of connection between the Ras and Rho pathways as they coordinately drive oncogenic transformation. We emphasize the biochemical crosstalk that drives actomyosin contraction driven by Ras in a Rho-dependent manner. We also describe possible routes of mechanical feedback through which myosin II activation may control Ras/Rho activation.

GLOBAL AND TARGETED PROFILING OF GTP-BINDING PROTEINS IN BIOLOGICAL SAMPLES BY MASS SPECTROMETRY

GTP-binding proteins are among the most important enzyme families that are involved in a plethora of biological processes. However, owing to the enormous diversity of the nucleotide-binding protein family, comprehensive analyses of the expression level, structure, activity, and regulatory mechanisms of GTP-binding proteins remain challenging with the use of conventional approaches. The many advances in mass spectrometry (MS) instrumentation and data acquisition methods, together with a variety of enrichment approaches in sample preparation, render MS a powerful tool for the comprehensive characterizations of the activities and expression levels of various GTP-binding proteins. We review herein the recent developments in the application of MS-based techniques, together with general and widely used affinity enrichment approaches, for the proteome-wide and targeted capture, identification, and quantification of GTP-binding proteins. The working principles, advantages, and limitations of various strategies for profiling the expression level, activity, posttranslational modifications, and interactome of GTP-binding proteins are discussed. It can be envisaged that future applications of MS-based proteomics will lead to a better understanding about the roles of GTP-binding proteins in different biological processes and human diseases. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Mass Spec Rev.

Ras sumoylation in cell signaling and transformation

Ras proteins are small GTPases that participate in multiple signal cascades, regulating crucial cellular processes including cell survival, proliferation, and differentiation. Mutations or deregulated activities of Ras are frequently the driving force for oncogenic transformation and tumorigenesis. Posttranslational modifications play a crucial role in mediating the stability, activity, or subcellular localization/trafficking of numerous cellular regulators including Ras proteins. A series of recent studies reveal that Ras proteins are also regulated by sumoylation. All three Ras protein isoforms (HRas, KRas, and NRas) are modified by SUMO3. The conserved lysine42 appears to be the primary site for mediating sumoylation. Expression of KRas^V12/R42 mutants compromised the activation of the Raf/MEK/ERK signaling axis, leading to a reduced rate of cell migration and invasion in vitro in multiple cell lines. Moreover, treatment of transformed pancreatic cells with a SUMO E2 inhibitor blocks cell migration in a concentration-dependent manner, which is associated with a reduced level of both KRas sumoylation and expression of mesenchymal cell markers. Furthermore, mouse xenograft experiments reveal that expression of a SUMO-resistant mutant appears to suppress tumor development in vivo. Combined, these studies indicate that sumoylation functions as an important mechanism in mediating the roles of Ras in cell proliferation, differentiation, and malignant transformation and that the SUMO-modification system of Ras oncoproteins can be explored as a new druggable target for various human malignancies.

Effects of decreased Rac activity and malignant state on oral squamous cell carcinoma in vitro

Rac proteins, members of the Rho family of small GTP-binding proteins, have been implicated in transducing a number of signals for various biological mechanisms, including cell cytoskeleton organization, transcription, proliferation, migration, and cancer cell motility. Among human cancers, Rac proteins are highly activated by either overexpression of the genes, up-regulation of the protein, or by mutations that allow the protein to elude normal regulatory signaling pathways. Rac proteins are involved in controlling cell survival and apoptosis. The effects of Rac inhibition by the Rac-specific small molecule inhibitor NSC23766 or by transfection of dominant negative Rac (Rac-DN) were examined on three human-derived oral squamous cell carcinoma cell lines that exhibit different malignancy grades, OSC-20 (grade 3), OSC-19 (grade 4C), and HOC313 (grade 4D). Upon suppression of Rac, OSC-19 and HOC313 cells showed significant decreases in Rac activity and resulted in condensation of the nuclei and up-regulation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), leading to caspase-dependent apoptosis. In contrast, OSC-20 cells showed only a slight decrease in Rac activity, which resulted in slight activation of JNK and no change in the nuclei. Fibroblasts treated with NSC23766 also showed only a slight decrease in Rac activity with no change in the nuclei or JNK activity. Our results indicated that apoptosis elicited by the inhibition of Rac depended on the extent of decreased Rac activity and the malignant state of the squamous cell carcinoma. In addition, activation of JNK strongly correlated with apoptosis. Rac inhibition may represent a novel therapeutic approach for cancer treatment.

Evolution of Molecular Targets in Melanoma Treatment

Melanoma is the deadliest type of skin cancers, accounting for more than 80% of skin cancer mortality. Although melanoma was known very early in the history of medicine, treatment for this disease had remained largely the same until very recently. Previous treatment options, including removal surgery and systemic chemotherapy, offered little benefit in extending the survival of melanoma patients. However, the last decade has seen breakthroughs in melanoma treatment, which all emerged following new insight into the oncogenic signaling of melanoma. This paper reviewed the evolution of drug targets for melanoma treatment based on the emergence of novel findings in the molecular signaling of melanoma. One of the findings that are most influential in melanoma treatment is that more than 50% of melanoma tumors contain BRAF mutations. This is fundamental for the development of BRAF inhibitors, which is the first group of drugs that significantly improves the overall survival of melanoma patients compared to the traditional chemotherapeutic dacarbazine. More recently, findings of the role of immune checkpoint molecules such as CTLA-4 and PD1/PD-L1 in melanoma biology have led to the development of a new therapeutic category: immune checkpoint inhibitors, which, for the first time in the history of cancer treatment, produced a durable response in a subset of melanoma patients. However, as this paper discussed next, there is still an unmet need for melanoma treatment. A significant population of patients did not respond to either BRAF inhibitors or immune checkpoint inhibitors. Of those patients who gained an initial response from those therapies, a remarkable percentage would develop drug resistance even when MEK inhibitors were added to the treatment. Finally, this paper discusses some possible targets for melanoma treatment.

Regulation and functions of the RhoA regulatory guanine nucleotide exchange factor GEF-H1

Since the discovery by Madaule and Axel in 1985 of the first Ras homologue (Rho) protein in Aplysia and its human orthologue RhoB, membership in the Rho GTPase family has grown to 20 proteins, with representatives in all eukaryotic species. These GTPases are molecular switches that cycle between active (GTP bound) and inactivate (GDP bound) states. The exchange of GDP for GTP on Rho GTPases is facilitated by guanine exchange factors (GEFs). Approximately 80 Rho GEFs have been identified to date, and only a few GEFs associate with microtubules. The guanine nucleotide exchange factor H1, GEF-H1, is a unique GEF that associates with microtubules and is regulated by the polymerization state of microtubule networks. This review summarizes the regulation and functions of GEF-H1 and discusses the roles of GEF-H1 in human diseases.

Siah2 integrates mitogenic and extracellular matrix signals linking neuronal progenitor ciliogenesis with germinal zone occupancy

Evidence is lacking as to how developing neurons integrate mitogenic signals with microenvironment cues to control proliferation and differentiation. We determine that the Siah2 E3 ubiquitin ligase functions in a coincidence detection circuit linking responses to the Shh mitogen and the extracellular matrix to control cerebellar granule neurons (CGN) GZ occupancy. We show that Shh signaling maintains Siah2 expression in CGN progenitors (GNPs) in a Ras/Mapk-dependent manner. Siah2 supports ciliogenesis in a feed-forward fashion by restraining cilium disassembly. Efforts to identify sources of the Ras/Mapk signaling led us to discover that GNPs respond to laminin, but not vitronectin, in the GZ microenvironment via integrin β1 receptors, which engages the Ras/Mapk cascade with Shh, and that this niche interaction is essential for promoting GNP ciliogenesis. As GNPs leave the GZ, differentiation is driven by changing extracellular cues that diminish Siah2-activity leading to primary cilia shortening and attenuation of the mitogenic response.

In neural development, progenitors transition from a proliferative to a differentiated state. Here, the authors show that cerebellar granule neurons retract primary cilia as they exit their proliferative niche upon decreased ECM engagement, enabling radial migration due to loss of Shh sensitivity.

Mutational landscape of K-Ras substitutions at 12th position-a systematic molecular dynamics approach

K-Ras is a small GTPase and acts as a molecular switch by recruiting GEFs and GAPs, and alternates between the inert GDP-bound and the dynamic GTP-bound forms. The amino acid at position 12 of K-Ras is a hot spot for oncogenic mutations (G12A, G12C, G12D, G12R, G12S, and G12V), disturbing the active fold of the protein, leading to cancer development. This study aimed to investigate the potential conformational changes induced by these oncogenic mutations at the 12^th position, impairing GAP-mediated GTP hydrolysis. Comprehensive computational tools (iStable, FoldX, SNPeffect, DynaMut, and CUPSAT) were used to evaluate the effect of these six mutations on the stability of wild type K-Ras protein. The docking of GTP with K-Ras was carried out using AutoDock4.2, followed by molecular dynamics simulations. Furthermore, on comparison of binding energies between the wild type K-Ras and the six mutants, we have demonstrated that the G12A and G12V mutants exhibited the strongest binding efficiency compared to the other four mutants. Trajectory analyses of these mutations revealed that G12A encountered the least deviation, fluctuation, intermolecular H-bonds, and compactness compared to the wildtype, which was supported by the lower Gibbs free energy value. Our study investigates the molecular dynamics simulations of the mutant K-Ras forms at the 12^th position, which expects to provide insights about the molecular mechanisms involved in cancer development, and may serve as a platform for targeted therapies against cancer. Communicated by Ramaswamy H. Sarma.

A feedforward circuit shaped by ECT2 and USP7 contributes to breast carcinogenesis

Rationale: A number of guanine nucleotide exchange factors (GEFs) including epithelial cell transforming factor ECT2 are believed to drive carcinogenesis through activating distinct oncogenic GTPases. Yet, whether GEF-independent activity of ECT2 also plays a role in tumorigenesis remains unclear. Methods: Immunohistochemical (IHC) staining, colony formation and xenograft assays were used to examine the role of ECT2 in breast carcinogenesis. Co-immunoprecipitation, immunofluorescent stainings, in vivo deubiquitination and in vitro deubiquitination experiments were performed to examine the physical and functional interaction between ECT2 and ubiquitin-specific protease USP7. High-throughput RNA sequencing, quantitative reverse transcription-PCR and Western blotting were employed to investigate the biological significance of the interplay between ECT2 and USP7. Results: We report that ECT2 plays a tumor-promoting role in breast cancer, and GEF activity-deficient ECT2 is able to alleviate ECT2 depletion associated growth defects in breast cancer cells. Mechanistically, we demonstrated that ECT2 physically interacts with ubiquitin-specific protease USP7 and functionally facilitates USP7 intermolecular self-association, -deubiquitination and -stabilization in a GEF activity-independent manner. USP7 in turn, deubiquitinates and stabilizes ECT2, resulting in a feedforward regulatory circuit that ultimately sustains the expression of oncogenic protein MDM2. Conclusion: Our study uncovers a GEF-independent role of ECT2 in promoting survival of breast cancer cells, provides a molecular insight for the reciprocal regulation of ECT2 and USP7, and supports the pursuit of ECT2/USP7 as potential targets for breast cancer intervention.

C2C12 cell model: its role in understanding of insulin resistance at the molecular level and pharmaceutical development at the preclinical stage

OBJECTIVES

The myoblast cell line, C2C12, has been utilised extensively in vitro as an examination model in understanding metabolic disease progression. Although it is indispensable in both preclinical and pharmaceutical research, a comprehensive review of its use in the investigation of insulin resistance progression and pharmaceutical development is not available.

KEY FINDINGS

C2C12 is a well-documented model, which can facilitate our understanding in glucose metabolism, insulin signalling mechanism, insulin resistance, oxidative stress, reactive oxygen species and glucose transporters at cellular and molecular levels. With the aid of the C2C12 model, recent studies revealed that insulin resistance has close relationship with various metabolic diseases in terms of disease progression, pathogenesis and therapeutic management. A holistic, safe and effective disease management is highly of interest. Therefore, significant efforts have been paid to explore novel drug compounds and natural herbs that can elicit therapeutic effects in the targeted sites at both cellular (e.g. mitochondria, glucose transporter) and molecular level (e.g. genes, signalling pathway).

SUMMARY

The use of C2C12 myoblast cell line is meaningful in pharmaceutical and biomedical research due to their expression of GLUT-4 and other features that are representative to human skeletal muscle cells. With the use of the C2C12 cell model, the impact of drug delivery systems (nanoparticles and quantum dots) on skeletal muscle, as well as the relationship between exercise, pancreatic β-cells and endothelial cells, was discovered.

CCR9 and CCL25: A review of their roles in tumor promotion

Chemokines constitute a superfamily of small chemotactic cytokines with functions that are based on interactions with their corresponding receptors. It has been found that, among other functions, chemokines regulate the migratory and invasive abilities of cancer cells. Multiple studies have confirmed that chemokine receptor 9 (CCR9) and its exclusive ligand, chemokine 25 (CCL25), are overexpressed in a variety of malignant tumors and are closely associated with tumor proliferation, apoptosis, invasion, migration and drug resistance. This review evaluates recent advances in understanding the role of CCR9/CCL25 in cancer development. First, we outline the general background of chemokines in cancer and the structure and function of CCR9 and CCL25. Next, we describe the basic function of CCR9/CCL25 in the cancer process. Then, we introduce the role of CCR9/CCL25 and related signaling pathways in various cancers. Finally, future research directions are proposed. In general, this paper is intended to serve as a comprehensive repository of information on this topic and is expected to contribute to the design of other research projects and future efforts to develop treatment strategies for ameliorating the effects of CCR9/CCL25 in cancer.

GPER1 Signaling Initiates Migration of Female V-SVZ-Derived Cells

In the rodent ventricular-subventricular zone (V-SVZ) neurons are generated throughout life. They migrate along the rostral migratory stream (RMS) into the olfactory bulb before their final differentiation into interneurons and integration into local circuits. Estrogen receptors (ERs) are steroid hormone receptors with important functions in neurogenesis and synaptic plasticity. In this study, we show that the ER GPER1 is expressed in subsets of cells within the V-SVZ of female animals and provide evidence for a potential local estrogen source from aromatase-positive astrocytes surrounding the RMS. Blocking of GPER1 in Matrigel cultures of female animals significantly impairs migration of V-SVZ-derived cells. This outgrowth is accompanied by regulation of phosphorylation of the actin-binding protein cofilin by GPER1 signaling including an involvement of the p21-Ras pathway. Our results point to a prominent role of GPER1 in the initiation of neuronal migration from the V-SVZ to the olfactory bulb.

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GPER1 is expressed within all cell types of the stem cell lineage in the V-SVZ

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Blocking of GPER1 leads to a decrease in migration of V-SVZ-derived neuroblasts

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GPER1 signaling in V-SVZ Matrigel cultures involves Ras-induced p21

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Blocking of GPER1 signaling leads to an increase in the ratio of p-cofilin/cofilin

The Inhibition of Wnt Restrain KRASG12V-Driven Metastasis in Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer

The KRAS mutations have been an obstacle to identify therapeutic targets in cancer treatment. In this work, we clarified the distinct metastasis pattern of non-small-cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) induced by KRAS^G12V/KRAS^G12D mutations and inhibited the KRAS^G12V mediated metastasis by Wnt inhibitor. First, we found that KRAS^G12V induced more aggressive phenotype in vitro and in vivo experiments. The Gene Set Enrichment Analysis (GSEA) results of H838 KRAS^G12V cells showed a significant negative correlation with RhoA-related signaling. Following this clue, we observed KRAS^G12D induced higher activation of RhoA and suppressed activation of Wnt/β-catenin in H838KRAS^G12D cells. The restored activation of Wnt/β-catenin in H838KRAS^G12D cells could be detected when expression with a dominant-negative mutant of RhoA or treatment with RhoA inhibitor. Furthermore, the Wnt inhibitor abolished the KRAS^G12V-induced migration. We elucidated the importance of the axis of RhoA/Wnt in regulatory NSCLC metastasis driven by KRAS mutations. Our data indicate that KRAS^G12V driven NSCLC metastasis is Wnt-dependent and the mechanisms of NSCLC metastasis induced by KRAS^G12V/KRAS^G12D is distinct.

IODVA1, a guanidinobenzimidazole derivative, targets Rac activity and Ras-driven cancer models

We report the synthesis and preliminary characterization of IODVA1, a potent small molecule that is active in xenograft mouse models of Ras-driven lung and breast cancers. In an effort to inhibit oncogenic Ras signaling, we combined in silico screening with inhibition of proliferation and colony formation of Ras-driven cells. NSC124205 fulfilled all criteria. HPLC analysis revealed that NSC124205 was a mixture of at least three compounds, from which IODVA1 was determined to be the active component. IODVA1 decreased 2D and 3D cell proliferation, cell spreading and ruffle and lamellipodia formation through downregulation of Rac activity. IODVA1 significantly impaired xenograft tumor growth of Ras-driven cancer cells with no observable toxicity. Immuno-histochemistry analysis of tumor sections suggests that cell death occurs by increased apoptosis. Our data suggest that IODVA1 targets Rac signaling to induce death of Ras-transformed cells. Therefore, IODVA1 holds promise as an anti-tumor therapeutic agent.

km23-1/DYNLRB1 regulation of MEK/ERK signaling and R-Ras in invasive human colorectal cancer cells

We previously found that km23-1/DYNLRB1 is required for transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) production through Ras/ERK pathways in TGFβ-sensitive epithelial cells and in human colorectal cancer (CRC) cells. Here we demonstrate that km23-1/DYNLRB1 is required for mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase (MEK) activation in human CRC cells, detected by km23-1/DYNLRB1-siRNA inhibition of phospho-(p)-MEK immunostaining in RKO cells. Furthermore, we show that CRISPR-Cas9 knock-out (KO) of km23-1/DYNLRB1 reduced cell migration in two additional CRC models, HCT116 and DLD-1. Of interest, in contrast to our previous work showing that dynein motor activity was required for TGFβ-mediated nuclear translocation of Smad2, in the current report, we demonstrate for the first time that disruption of dynein motor activity did not reduce TGFβ-mediated activation of MEK1/2 or c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Moreover, size exclusion chromatography of RKO cell lysates revealed that B-Raf, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), and p-ERK were not present in the large molecular weight fractions containing dynein holocomplex components. Furthermore, sucrose gradient fractionation of cell lysates from both HCT116 and CBS CRC cells demonstrated that km23-1/DYNLRB1 co-sedimented with Ras, p-ERK, and ERK in fractions that did not contain components of holo-dynein. Thus, km23-1/DYNLRB1 may be associated with activated Ras/ERK signaling complexes in cell compartments that do not contain the dynein holoprotein complex, suggesting dynein-independent km23-1/DYNLRB1 functions in Ras/ERK signaling. Finally, of the Ras isoforms, R-Ras is most often associated with cell migration, adhesion, and protrusive activity. Here, we show that a significant fraction of km23-1/DYNLRB1 and RRas wase co-localized at the protruding edges of migrating HCT116 cells, suggesting an important role for the km23-1/DYNLRB1-R-Ras complex in CRC invasion.

KRAS regulation by small non-coding RNAs and SNARE proteins

KRAS receives and relays signals at the plasma membrane (PM) where it transmits extracellular growth factor signals to downstream effectors. SNORD50A/B were recently found to bind KRAS and inhibit its tumorigenic action by unknown mechanisms. KRAS proximity protein labeling was therefore undertaken in SNORD50A/B wild-type and knockout cells, revealing that SNORD50A/B RNAs shape the composition of proteins proximal to KRAS, notably by inhibiting KRAS proximity to the SNARE vesicular transport proteins SNAP23, SNAP29, and VAMP3. To remain enriched on the PM, KRAS undergoes cycles of endocytosis, solubilization, and vesicular transport to the PM. Here we report that SNAREs are essential for the final step of this process, with KRAS localization to the PM facilitated by SNAREs but antagonized by SNORD50A/B. Antagonism between SNORD50A/B RNAs and specific SNARE proteins thus controls KRAS localization, signaling, and tumorigenesis, and disrupting SNARE-enabled KRAS function represents a potential therapeutic opportunity in KRAS-driven cancer.

Loss of thymidine kinase 1 inhibits lung cancer growth and metastatic attributes by reducing GDF15 expression

Metabolic alterations that are critical for cancer cell growth and metastasis are one of the key hallmarks of cancer. Here, we show that thymidine kinase 1 (TK1) is significantly overexpressed in tumor samples from lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) patients relative to normal controls, and this TK1 overexpression is associated with significantly reduced overall survival and cancer recurrence. Genetic knockdown of TK1 with short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) inhibits both the growth and metastatic attributes of LUAD cells in culture and in mice. We further show that transcriptional overexpression of TK1 in LUAD cells is driven, in part, by MAP kinase pathway in a transcription factor MAZ dependent manner. Using targeted and gene expression profiling-based approaches, we then show that loss of TK1 in LUAD cells results in reduced Rho GTPase activity and reduced expression of growth and differentiation factor 15 (GDF15). Furthermore, ectopic expression of GDF15 can partially rescue TK1 knockdown-induced LUAD growth and metastasis inhibition, confirming its important role as a downstream mediator of TK1 function in LUAD. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that TK1 facilitates LUAD tumor and metastatic growth and represents a target for LUAD therapy.

Thymidine kinase 1 (TK1) is overexpressed and associated with poor prognosis in a number of different cancers. However, despite these data suggesting an important role for TK1 in cancer pathogenesis, no study thus far has analyzed the functional effect of TK1 inhibition on tumor growth and metastasis. In this study, we performed TK1 knockdown and found that this protein is necessary for lung adenocarcinoma (LUAD) tumor growth and metastasis. Notably, inhibition of another nucleotide kinase, deoxycytidine kinase (DCK), had no effect on LUAD tumor growth and metastatic attributes. We therefore performed experiments to determine if the TK1 mechanism of action in cancer is distinct from its previously reported role in DNA damage, DNA replication, and DNA repair. We found that TK1 can promote LUAD tumor growth and metastasis in a non-canonical manner by activating Rho GTPase activity and growth and differentiation factor 15 (GDF15) expression. Taken together, our data suggest that TK1 may represent a potential target for development of LUAD therapy, due to its critical role in maintaining lung tumor growth and metastasis.

A novel hiPSC-derived system for hematoendothelial and myeloid blood toxicity screens identifies compounds promoting and inhibiting endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition

The exposure to toxic environmental and pharmaceutical substances can pose a long-term risk to human's health. In this study, we sought to investigate the potential of our recently developed method for induction of myeloid hematoendothelial and blood cells by overexpression of two transcription factors, GATA2 and ETV2, in human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) for toxicity screening. For the primary screen in a high-throughput format, we selected twenty-two chemicals with various degrees of cytotoxicity available from the NIEHS National Toxicology Program (Tox21). The compounds were applied during the endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition and to differentiated myeloid progenitors growing in suspension. The system was capable of identifying compounds with both inhibitory and favorable effects on hematopoietic network, changes in expression of hematopoietic markers, and mitochondrial and cytotoxicity. The findings were confirmed and further investigated by secondary screens, colony forming cell assay, and gene expression profiling. The hematoendothelial toxicity of 5-fluorouracil, berberine chloride, and benzo(a)pyrene is characterized by the inhibition of cell division and a shift of hematopoietic programming to non-hemogenic endothelial and mesenchymal fates. This study demonstrates the feasibility of transcription factor (TF)-based differentiation systems to monitor endothelial and hematotoxicity and serves as an informative platform for screening myelosuppressive or stimulatory drugs and mechanistic studies of their action.

Coordinated Expression of Ras Suppressor 1 (RSU-1) and Growth Differentiation Factor 15 (GDF15) Affects Glioma Cell Invasion

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is the most aggressive type of brain tumor due to its invasive phenotype. Ras suppressor 1 (RSU-1) is a cell-extracellular matrix adhesion protein and we recently found that it promotes cell invasion in aggressive cells and inhibits it in non-invasive. Growth differentiation factor-15 (GDF15) is known to be involved in actin cytoskeleton reorganization and metastasis. In this study, we used three brain cell lines (H4, SW1088 and A172) with increasing RSU-1 expression levels and invasive capacity and decreasing GDF15 levels to investigate the interplay between RSU-1 and GDF15 with regard to cell invasion. Four experimental approaches were used: (a) GDF15 treatment, (b) Rsu-1 silencing, (c) GDF15 silencing, and (d) combined GDF15 treatment and RSU-1 silencing. We found that the differential expression of RSU-1 and GDF15 in H4 and A172 cells leading to inhibition of cell invasion in H4 cells and promotion in A172 through respective changes in PINCH1, RhoA and MMP-13 expression. Interestingly SW1088, with intermediate RSU-1 and GDF15 expression, were not affected by any treatment. We conclude that there is a strong connection between RSU-1 and GDF15 in H4, SW1088 and A172 cells and the relative expression of these two proteins is fundamental in affecting their invasive fate.

Mechanism of CK2.3, a Novel Mimetic Peptide of Bone Morphogenetic Protein Receptor Type IA, Mediated Osteogenesis

BACKGROUND

Osteoporosis is a degenerative skeletal disease with a limited number of treatment options. CK2.3, a novel peptide, may be a potential therapeutic. It induces osteogenesis and bone formation in vitro and in vivo by acting downstream of BMPRIA through releasing CK2 from the receptor. However, the detailed signaling pathways, the time frame of signaling, and genes activated remain largely unknown.

METHODS

Using a newly developed fluorescent CK2.3 analog, specific inhibitors for the BMP signaling pathways, Western blot, and RT-qPCR, we determined the mechanism of CK2.3 in C2C12 cells. We then confirmed the results in primary BMSCs.

RESULTS

Using these methods, we showed that CK2.3 stimulation activated OSX, ALP, and OCN. CK2.3 stimulation induced time dependent release of CK2β from BMPRIA and concurrently CK2.3 colocalized with CK2α. Furthermore, CK2.3 induced BMP signaling depends on ERK1/2 and Smad1/5/8 signaling pathways.

CONCLUSION

CK2.3 is a novel peptide that drives osteogenesis, and we detailed the molecular sequence of events that are triggered from the stimulation of CK2.3 until the induction of mineralization. This knowledge can be applied in the development of future therapeutics for osteoporosis.

Small-Volume Flow Cytometry-Based Multiplex Analysis of the Activity of Small GTPases

Small, monomeric guanine triphosphate hydrolases (GTPases) are ubiquitous cellular integrators of signaling. A signal activates the GTPase, which then binds to an effector molecule to relay a signal inside the cell. The GTPase effector trap flow cytometry assay (G-Trap) utilizes bead-based protein immobilization and dual-color flow cytometry to rapidly and quantitatively measure GTPase activity status in cell or tissue lysates. Beginning with commercial cytoplex bead sets that are color-coded with graded fluorescence intensities of a red (700 nm) wavelength, the bead sets are derivatized to display glutathione on the surface through a detailed protocol described here. A different glutathione-S-transferase-effector protein (GST-effector protein) can then be attached to the surface of each set. For the assay, users can incubate bead sets individually or in a multiplex format with lysates for rapid, selective capture of active, GTP-bound GTPases from a single sample. After that, flow cytometry is used to identify the bead-borne GTPase based on red bead intensity, and the amount of active GTPase per bead is detected using monoclonal antibodies conjugated to a green fluorophore or via labeled secondary antibodies. Three examples are provided to illustrate the efficacy of the effector-functionalized beads for measuring the activation of at least five GTPases in a single lysate from fewer than 50,000 cells.

Small GTPases in megakaryocyte and platelet biology

Review series that provides a state-of-the-art overview of the role of small GTPases in megakaryocyte and platelet biology. While the focus of the reviews is on recent advances in the area of basic science, the clinical relevance of alterations in small GTPase signaling for platelet count and function is also discussed.

Epidermal growth factor receptor controls glycogen phosphorylase in T cells through small GTPases of the RAS family

We recently uncovered a regulatory pathway of the muscle isoform of glycogen phosphorylase (PYGM) that plays an important role in regulating immune function in T cells. Here, using various enzymatic, pulldown, and immunoprecipitation assays, we describe signaling cross-talk between the small GTPases RAS and RAP1A, member of RAS oncogene family (RAP1) in human Kit 225 lymphoid cells, which, in turn, is regulated by the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). We found that this communication bridge is essential for glycogen phosphorylase (PYG) activation through the canonical pathway because this enzyme is inactive in the absence of adenylyl cyclase type 6 (ADCY6). PYG activation required stimulation of both exchange protein directly activated by cAMP 2 (EPAC2) and RAP1 via RAS and ADCY6 phosphorylation, with the latter being mediated by Raf-1 proto-oncogene, Ser/Thr kinase (RAF1). Consistent with this model, PYG activation was EGFR-dependent and may be initiated by the constitutively active form of RAS. Consequently, PYG activation in Kit 225 T cells could be blocked with specific inhibitors of RAS, EPAC, RAP1, RAF1, ADCY6, and cAMP-dependent protein kinase. Our results establish a new paradigm for the mechanism of PYG activation, which depends on the type of receptor involved.