Combination HIV prevention for female sex workers: what is the evidence?

The Relationship Between Past Condom Use and Condom Use Intention Among Male Construction Worker Clients of Sex Workers in the Western Cape, South Africa: A Parallel Multiple Mediator Model

Male clients of sex workers in South Africa are at high risk for HIV, yet limited research has examined the psychological factors influencing their condom use intentions. This study addressed this gap by assessing the mediating roles of positive attitudes towards condom use, condom use self-efficacy, and perceived norms in the relationship between past condom use and intentions to use condoms. A cross-sectional survey was used to obtain data from male construction workers who reported sexual intercourse with a sex worker in the past three months. Using a parallel multiple mediator model, the analysis revealed that condom use self-efficacy (β = 0.060, 95% CI [0.021, 0.107]) and positive attitudes towards condom use (β = 0.027, 95% CI [0.004, 0.058]) significantly mediated the relationship between past condom use and condom use intention, while perceived norms did not (β = - 0.001, 95% CI [- 0.007, 0.007]). These findings underscore the importance of targeting instrumental and affective attitudes and enhancing self-efficacy to promote consistent condom use in this population. Although perceived norms were not determined to be statistically significant in this study, their potential role as a mediator merits further exploration, particularly in light of the study limitations. This research highlights the need for tailored interventions to reduce HIV risk among male clients of sex workers in South Africa.

Contextual Factors Influencing Implementation of HIV Treatment Support Strategies for Female Sex Workers Living With HIV in South Africa: A Qualitative Analysis Using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research

BACKGROUND

Female sex workers (FSWs) face a confluence of multilevel barriers to HIV care. In South Africa, 63% of FSWs are living with HIV and <40% are virally suppressed. The objective of this analysis was to identify implementation determinants of 2 HIV treatment support strategies.

METHODS

The Siyaphambili trial tested a decentralized treatment provision and an individualized case management strategy aimed to support FSWs living with unsuppressed HIV viral loads. We identified a nested sample of trial participants using maximum variation sampling (n = 36) as well as a purposively selected sample of implementors (n = 12). We used semistructured interview guides, developed using the Consolidated Framework for Implementation Research (CFIR) and deductively coded the transcripts using CFIR, systematically assessing the strength and valence of implementation. We compared construct ratings to determine whether any constructs distinguished implementation across strategies.

RESULTS

Across 3 CFIR domains (innovation characteristics, inner setting, and outer setting), 12 constructs emerged as facilitating, hindering, or having mixed effects on strategy implementation. The relative advantage, design, adaptability, and complexity constructs of the innovation characteristics and the work infrastructure construct of the inner setting were strongly influential (±2 or +2). While the majority of construct valence and strength rating (9-12) were not distinguishing across strategies, we observed 3 weakly distinguishing CFIR constructs (relative advantage, complexity, and available resources).

CONCLUSIONS

Given the potential benefits of differentiated service delivery strategies, identifying the relative importance of implementation determinants facilitates transparency and evaluation, supporting future strategy design and implementation. Optimizing implementation will support addressing inequities in HIV care and treatment services.

Facilitators and Barriers to Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Uptake Willingness for Full-Service Sex Workers: A Social-Ecological Approach

Full-service sex workers (FSSWs) are at heightened risk of contracting HIV due to facing multi-level challenges to sexual health. This study investigated factors associated with willingness to use Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis (PrEP) - a daily HIV preventative medication, among FSSWs. Using social-ecological theory, an online survey was developed with initial guidance from a local sex worker advocacy organization to assess barriers and facilitators to PrEP uptake willingness. The survey was disseminated with the assistance of local and national sex work advocacy organizations. In our sample of FSSWs (n=83), two barriers and two facilitators initially were associated with PrEP uptake. However, in adopting a more conservative analysis, only anticipating stigmatizing disapproval from others for using PrEP and providing others with PrEP knowledge maintained statistical significance. These two variables collectively explained nearly 30% of the variance in PrEP uptake willingness. Implications for both future research and clinical work with FSSWs are discussed.

Female transactional sex workers' experiences and health-seeking behaviour in low-middle income countries: a scoping review

BACKGROUND

For a variety of reasons related to biology, behaviour, and environment, a subset of a population known as female sex workers (FSWs) or female transactional sex workers is at increased risk of health, depression, social stigma and access to timely and quality healthcare when needed. In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), there was lack of understanding regarding the experiences and healthcare utilisation and behaviours, the health burden among them, their experiences, and how they access health care. Using Anderson's behavioural model of health service utilisation as a framework, this review aimed to explore the experiences of, and healthcare seeking behaviours of female sex workers in low-and middle-income countries.

METHODS

Six relevant databases such as PubMed, Embase, Global Health, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar were searched for peer-reviewed research articles published between January 1990 and December 2023 that discussed female transactional sex work in low- and middle-income countries. Subject terms such as: low-and middle- incomes, sex workers (female and male), sexually transmitted infections (STIs) in the sex work industry, prostitution, commercial sex, and health-seeking behaviour were used for the databases search. Out of 6,135 articles that were retrieved for the study, 26 met the inclusion criteria. Of the total number of studies, four were reviews, eight were quantitative studies, six were qualitative studies, and two utilised mixed methods.

FINDINGS

Results from a thematic analysis of studies that combined quantitative and qualitative methods yielded six overarching themes.The study found that women engaged in sex work for different reasons - to fend for themselves (i.e., livelihood), self-employment and others do it for pleasure. However, force sex or unprotected which can lead to sexually transmitted infections, sexual abuse, job insecurity, were critical risks factors in engaging in sex work. These factors make them vulnerable to predators and health risks. It was found that sex workers were aware of the importance of seeking healthcare, and do make the efforts, however, crucial factors such as difficulty accessing healthcare and maltreatment by healthcare providers and social stigma disincentivises FSW health-seeking behaviours. Sexual workers reported discomfort disclosing their occupations because of the stigma and discrimination which further affects their regular health examinations and obtaining medically approved condoms from healthcare facilities.

CONCLUSION

Complex challenges rooted in economic vulnerability, social marginalisation, and limited access to healthcare afflict female sex workers in LMICs. The maltreatment and stigma can potentially affect LMICs from achieving using health facility care, with potential implications on achieving the universal health coverage goals. Comprehensive, rights-based strategies that address structural injustices and empower these women to live healthier, more secure lives are necessary to address their special needs.

PrEP facilitators and barriers in substance use bridge clinics for women who engage in sex work and who use drugs

BACKGROUND

Women who engage in sex work and use drugs (WSWUD) experience disproportionate HIV risks. Substance use treatment bridge clinics offer an opportunity to increase HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) delivery to WSWUD, but research on best practices is lacking. Therefore, we explored facilitators and barriers to PrEP across the PrEP care continuum in these settings.

METHODS

Bridge clinic and affiliated harm reduction health service providers and WSWUD from Boston were recruited using passive and active outreach between December 2021 and August 2022. Participants were invited to take part in semi-structured phone or in-person interviews to explore HIV prevention and PrEP care experiences overall and within bridge clinic settings. Deductive codes were developed based on HIV risk environment frameworks and the Information-Motivation-Behavioral Skills model and inductive codes were added based on transcript review. Grounded content analysis was used to generate themes organized around the PrEP care continuum.

RESULTS

The sample included 14 providers and 25 WSWUD. Most WSWUD were aware of PrEP and more than half had initiated PrEP at some point. However, most who initiated PrEP did not report success with daily oral adherence. Providers and WSWUD described facilitators and barriers to PrEP across the steps of the care continuum: Awareness, uptake, adherence, and retention. Facilitators for WSWUD included non-stigmatizing communication with providers, rapid wraparound substance use treatment and HIV services, having a PrEP routine, and service structures to support PrEP adherence. Barriers included low HIV risk perceptions and competing drug use and survival priorities. Provider facilitators included clinical note templates prompting HIV risk assessments and training. Barriers included discomfort discussing sex work risks, competing clinical priorities, and a lack of PrEP adherence infrastructure.

CONCLUSION

WSWUD and bridge clinic providers favored integrated HIV prevention and substance use services in harm reduction and bridge clinic settings. Harm reduction and bridge clinic programs played a key role in HIV prevention and PrEP education for WSWUD. Effective behavioral and structural interventions are still needed to improve PrEP adherence for WSWUD.

HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis uptake, retention and adherence among female sex workers in sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) uptake, retention and adherence among female sex workers (FSWs) receiving care through community and facility delivery models in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

DESIGN

Systematic review and meta-analysis.

DATA SOURCES

We searched online databases (PubMed, MEDLINE, SCOPUS, EMBASE, Google Scholar, Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews and Web of Science) between January 2012 and 3 April 2022.

ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA FOR STUDIES

Randomised controlled trials, cohort studies, cross-sectional studies and quasi-experimental studies with PrEP uptake, adherence and retention outcomes among FSWs in SSA.

DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS

Seven coders extracted data. The framework of the Cochrane Consumers and Communication Review Group guided data synthesis. The Risk of Bias In Non-Randomized Studies of Interventions tool was used to evaluate the risk of bias. Meta-analysis was conducted using a random-effects model. A narrative synthesis was performed to analyse the primary outcomes of PrEP uptake, adherence and retention.

RESULTS

Of 8538 records evaluated, 23 studies with 40 669 FSWs were included in this analysis. The pooled proportion of FSWs initiating PrEP was 70% (95% CI: 56% to 85%) in studies that reported on facility-based models and 49% (95% CI: 10% to 87%) in community-based models. At 6 months, the pooled proportion of FSWs retained was 66% (95% CI: 15% to 100%) for facility-based models and 83% (95% CI: 75% to 91%) for community-based models. Factors associated with increased PrEP uptake were visiting a sex worker programme (adjusted OR (aOR) 2.92; 95% CI: 1.91 to 4.46), having ≥10 clients per day (aOR 1.71; 95% CI: 1.06 to 2.76) and lack of access to free healthcare in government-run health clinics (relative risk: 1.16; 95% CI: 1.06 to 1.26).

CONCLUSIONS

A hybrid approach incorporating both facility-based strategies for increasing uptake and community-based strategies for improving retention and adherence may effectively improve PrEP coverage among FSWs.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER

CRD42020219363.

Exploring Attitudes Toward Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis for HIV Prevention Prior to Implementation Among Female Sex Workers in Malaysia: Results from a Qualitative Study

Introduction

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is an effective method for prevention of HIV transmission. Female sex workers (FSW) in Malaysia are at substantially increased risk of acquiring HIV compared to the general female population, yet little is known about this population's current HIV prevention practices or acceptance of PrEP. This study aims to inform the culturally relevant implementation of PrEP through the qualitative exploration of (1) the potential need for PrEP in this population and (2) the factors that determine FSW willingness to use oral PrEP.

Methods

In-depth, semi-structured interviews (n = 30) were conducted with FSW in English, Malay, or Tamil. Transcribed and translated interviews were analyzed using a grounded theory approach.

Results

FSW express positive interest in PrEP but prefer it as a supplement to condoms, not a replacement. Perceived challenges to PrEP use include cost, adherence, and side effects.

Conclusion

The findings suggest that in combination with condom use, PrEP may be an acceptable method of HIV prevention. Effective PrEP rollout may also include condom promotion using a peer-driven model, cost subsidies, and sex work harm reduction and empowerment components.

Increasing age and duration of sex work among female sex workers in South Africa and implications for HIV incidence estimation: Bayesian evidence synthesis and simulation exercise

Introduction

In sub-Saharan Africa, accurate estimates of the HIV epidemic in female sex workers are crucial for effective prevention and care strategies. These estimates are typically derived from mathematical models that assume certain demographic and behavioural characteristics like age and duration of sex work to remain constant over time. We reviewed this assumption for female sex workers in South Africa.

Methods

We reviewed studies that reported estimates on either the age or the duration of sex work among female sex workers in South Africa. We used Bayesian hierarchical models to synthesize reported estimates and to study time trends. In a simulation exercise, we also investigated the potential impact of the "constant age and sex work duration"-assumption on estimates of HIV incidence.

Results

We included 24 different studies, conducted between 1996 and 2019, contributing 42 estimates on female sex worker age and 27 estimates on sex work duration. There was evidence suggesting an increase in both the duration of sex work and the age of female sex workers over time. According to the fitted models, over each decade the expected duration of sex work increased by 55.6% (95%-credible interval [CrI]: 23.5%-93.9%) and the expected age of female sex workers increased by 14.3% (95%-CrI: 9.1%-19.1%). Over the 23-year period, the predicted mean duration of sex work increased from 2.7 years in 1996 to 7.4 years in 2019, while the predicted mean age increased from 26.4 years to 32.3 years. Allowing for these time trends in the simulation exercise resulted in a notable decline in estimated HIV incidence rate among sex workers over time. This decline was significantly more pronounced than when assuming a constant age and duration of sex work.

Conclusions

In South Africa, age and duration of sex work in female sex workers increased over time. While this trend might be influenced by factors like expanding community mobilization and improved rights advocacy, the ongoing criminalisation, stigmatisation of sex work and lack of alternative employment opportunities could also be contributing. It is important to account for these changes when estimating HIV indicators in female sex workers.

What does the scale-up of long-acting HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis mean for the global hepatitis B epidemic?

INTRODUCTION

The HIV and hepatitis B virus (HBV) epidemics are interconnected with shared routes of transmission and specific antiviral drugs that are effective against both viruses. Nearly, 300 million people around the world live with chronic HBV, many of whom are from priority populations who could benefit from HIV prevention services. Oral pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV has implications in the prevention and treatment of HBV infection, but many people at increased risk of HIV acquisition may instead prefer long-acting formulations of PrEP, which are currently not active against HBV.

DISCUSSION

People at increased risk for HIV acquisition may also be at risk for or already be living with HBV infection. Oral PrEP with tenofovir is effective in preventing both HIV and HBV, and tenofovir is also the recommended treatment for chronic HBV infection. Although implementation of oral PrEP has been challenging in sub-Saharan Africa, investments in its scale-up could secondarily reduce the clinical impact of HBV. Long-acting PrEP, including injectable medicines and implantable rings, may overcome some of the implementation challenges associated with oral PrEP, such as daily pill burden, adherence challenges and stigma; however, current formulations of long-acting PrEP do not have activity against HBV replication. Ideally, PrEP programmes would offer both oral and long-acting formulations with HBV screening to optimize HIV prevention services and HBV prevention and care, when appropriate. People who are not immune to HBV would benefit from being vaccinated against HBV before initiating long-acting PrEP. People who remain non-immune to HBV despite vaccination may benefit from being offered oral, tenofovir-based PrEP given its potential for HBV PrEP. People using PrEP and living with HBV who are not linked to dedicated HBV care would also benefit from laboratory monitoring at PrEP sites to ensure safety when using and after stopping tenofovir. PrEP programmes are ideal venues to offer HBV screening, HBV vaccination for people who are non-immune and treatment with tenofovir-based PrEP for people with indications for HBV therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Long-acting PrEP holds promise for reducing HIV incidence, but its implications for the HBV epidemic, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, should not be overlooked.

Programme science: a route to effective coverage and population-level impact for HIV and sexually transmitted infection prevention

Improvements in context-specific programming are essential to address HIV and other sexually transmitted and blood-borne infection epidemics globally. A programme science approach emphasises the need for context-specific evidence and knowledge, generated on an ongoing basis, to inform timely and appropriate programmatic decisions. We aim to accelerate and improve the use of embedded research, inquiry, and learning to optimise population-level impact of public health programmes and to introduce an effective programme coverage framework as one tool to facilitate this goal. The framework was developed in partnership with public health experts in HIV and sexually transmitted and blood-borne infections through several workshops and meetings. The framework is a practice-based tool that centres on the use of data from iterative cycles of programme-embedded research and learning, as well as routine programme monitoring, to refine the strategy and implementation of a programme. This programme science approach aims to reduce programme coverage gaps, to optimise impact at the population level, and to achieve effective coverage. This framework should facilitate the generation of programme-embedded research and learning agendas to inform resource allocation, optimise population-level impact, and achieve equitable and effective programme coverage.

Type of Exchange Sex and Associated Behaviors and Outcomes Among Cisgender Men and Women at Increased Risk for HIV via Heterosexual Transmission in Six U.S. Metropolitan Areas

Exchange sex is associated with sexual risk behaviors and poor outcomes and different types may incur different levels of risk. We assessed risk profiles of different types of exchange sex among non-injecting cisgender men and women who participated in the 2019 National HIV Behavioral Surveillance project at six sites. Six percent of men and 19% of women reported exchange sex in the past year; most engaged in non-commercial exchange sex for drugs/money with smaller percentages reporting formal sex work or non-commercial exchange sex for goods or services other than drugs/money. Exchange sex was associated with sexual risk and prevention behaviors and psychosocial and sexual health outcomes and associations varied by type of exchange sex. Efforts to improve access to STI/HIV testing and PrEP may benefit from tailoring based on type of exchange sex. Findings indicate value in a broader definition of exchange sex with follow-up assessment of exchange sex typology.

Association of sex work and social-structural factors with non-fatal overdose among women who use drugs in Vancouver, Canada

BACKGROUND

Women who use drugs (WWUD) and engage in sex work experience disproportionate sex- and drug-related harms, such as HIV, however comparatively little is known about their overdose risk. Therefore, we examined the association between sex work and overdose and secondarily explored the association of social-structural factors, such as policing and gendered violence, with overdose.

METHODS

Data were derived from two community cohort studies based in Vancouver, Canada between 2005 to 2018. We used logistic regression with GEE to examine the associations between a) sex work and nonfatal overdose and b) social-structural and individual variables with overdose among WWUD who engaged in sex work during the study. Sex work, overdose, and other variables were time-updated, captured every six months.

RESULTS

Among 857 WWUD included, 56% engaged in sex work during the study. Forty-three percent of WWUD engaged in sex work had at least one overdose compared to 26% of WWUD who did not. Sex work was not significantly associated with an increased odds of overdose (AOR = 1.14, 95% CI: 0.93-1.40). In the exploratory analysis amongst 476 WWUD engaged in sex work, social-structural variables associated with overdose in the multivariable model included exposure to: punitive policing (OR = 1.97, 95% CI: 1.30-2.96) and physical or sexual violence (OR = 2.55, 95% CI: 1.88-3.46).

CONCLUSIONS

WWUD engaged in sex work had an increased overdose burden that may be driven by social-structural factors rather than sex work itself. Interventions that address policing and gendered violence represent potential targets for effective overdose prevention.

Impact and cost-effectiveness of the national scale-up of HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis among female sex workers in South Africa: a modelling analysis

INTRODUCTION

In 2016, South Africa (SA) initiated a national programme to scale-up pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among female sex workers (FSWs), with ∼20,000 PrEP initiations among FSWs (∼14% of FSW) by 2020. We evaluated the impact and cost-effectiveness of this programme, including future scale-up scenarios and the potential detrimental impact of the COVID-19 pandemic.

METHODS

A compartmental HIV transmission model for SA was adapted to include PrEP. Using estimates on self-reported PrEP adherence from a national study of FSW (67.7%) and the Treatment and Prevention for FSWs (TAPS) PrEP demonstration study in SA (80.8%), we down-adjusted TAPS estimates for the proportion of FSWs with detectable drug levels (adjusted range: 38.0-70.4%). The model stratified FSW by low (undetectable drug; 0% efficacy) and high adherence (detectable drug; 79.9%; 95% CI: 67.2-87.6% efficacy). FSWs can transition between adherence levels, with lower loss-to-follow-up among highly adherent FSWs (aHR: 0.58; 95% CI: 0.40-0.85; TAPS data). The model was calibrated to monthly data on the national scale-up of PrEP among FSWs over 2016-2020, including reductions in PrEP initiations during 2020. The model projected the impact of the current programme (2016-2020) and the future impact (2021-2040) at current coverage or if initiation and/or retention are doubled. Using published cost data, we assessed the cost-effectiveness (healthcare provider perspective; 3% discount rate; time horizon 2016-2040) of the current PrEP provision.

RESULTS

Calibrated to national data, model projections suggest that 2.1% of HIV-negative FSWs were currently on PrEP in 2020, with PrEP preventing 0.45% (95% credibility interval, 0.35-0.57%) of HIV infections among FSWs over 2016-2020 or 605 (444-840) infections overall. Reductions in PrEP initiations in 2020 possibly reduced infections averted by 18.57% (13.99-23.29). PrEP is cost-saving, with $1.42 (1.03-1.99) of ART costs saved per dollar spent on PrEP. Going forward, existing coverage of PrEP will avert 5,635 (3,572-9,036) infections by 2040. However, if PrEP initiation and retention doubles, then PrEP coverage increases to 9.9% (8.7-11.6%) and impact increases 4.3 times with 24,114 (15,308-38,107) infections averted by 2040.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings advocate for the expansion of PrEP to FSWs throughout SA to maximize its impact. This should include strategies to optimize retention and should target women in contact with FSW services.

Factors Associated with Exchange Sex Among Cisgender Persons Who Inject Drugs: Women and MSM-23 U.S. Cities, 2018

Persons who inject drugs (PWID) and exchange sex face disproportionate HIV rates. We assessed prevalence of exchange sex (receiving money/drugs for sex from ≥ 1 male partner(s) during the past year) among cisgender PWID, separately for women and men with a history of sex with men (MSM). We examined factors associated with exchange sex, including sociodemographic characteristics, sexual and drug use behaviors, and healthcare access/utilization. Over one-third of the 4657 participants reported exchange sex (women: 36.2%; MSM: 34.8%). Women who exchanged sex (WES) were significantly more likely to test HIV-positive than other women. Men who exchanged sex with men (MESM) showed a similar trend. WES and MESM shared many characteristics, including being uninsured, experiencing recent homelessness, condomless sex, polydrug use, and receptive/distributive needle sharing. These findings highlight a need to strengthen prevention interventions and address structural determinants of HIV for WES and MESM, particularly PWID who exchange sex.

Diverse contexts and social factors among young cisgender men and transgender women who sell or trade sex in Bangkok and Pattaya, Thailand: formative research for a PrEP program implementation study

HIV incidence is high and persistent among cisgender men who have sex with men (MSM) and transgender women (TGW) who have sex with men, particularly among those who sell or trade sex. In preparation for an open-label combination HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) program for these groups, we conducted formative research to explore the context of sex work/trade and factors that affect implementation of PrEP interventions. This study analyzed interviews with 20 young (aged 18-26 years) MSM and TGW who sell/trade sex and three sex work venue managers in Bangkok and Pattaya, Thailand. Participants described diverse contexts of sex work/trade, including in multiple informal and formal sex venues. Several participants reported mobility across provinces and out of the country, which led to intermittent sex work/trade. TGW sex workers reported challenges with access and cost of femininizing hormones and limited employment opportunities. Factors that could facilitate or challenge PrEP program implementation included HIV stigma, the role of venue management in sexual health practice, lack of PrEP knowledge, lower perceived HIV risk, and interest in personal health and wellbeing. Program implementers must consider myriad factors to successfully implement PrEP among young MSM and TGW engaged in sex work or trade in Thailand.

Telemedicine Experience for PrEP Care among PrEP-Eligible Women and Their Primary Care Providers during the First Year of the COVID-19 Pandemic in the United States

(1) Background: During the two-year-long siege from the COVID-19 pandemic, a significant proportion of doctor visits transitioned from in-person to virtual. Scare evidence is available to assess the quality of patient-provider communication via the platform of telemedicine, especially for PrEP care within primary care settings. (2) Methods: Participants included 18 primary care providers and 29 PrEP-eligible women. Through content analysis and thematic analysis, facilitators and barriers embedded at different levels of telemedicine were identified and assessed. (3) Results: Women and providers reported pros and cons regarding their telemedicine experiences during the initial wave of COVID-19. Both groups of participants agreed that telemedicine visits were more convenient, efficient, and comfortable than in-person visits. However, without face-to-face interactions, some women felt less empathy, caring, and connected with their providers during virtual visits. Health providers expressed concerns with telemedicine, including patients’ privacy, lack of intimacy between patients and providers, and delayed lab work. (4) Conclusions: Our data indicate multi-level factors may affect telemedicine experience among PrEP-eligible women and health providers. Participants expressed concerns that may further entrench these long-existing health disparities in healthcare. Proactive efforts from policymakers, health professionals, researchers, and stakeholders are urgently required to tackle identified barriers and to pave the way for the new infrastructure that ensures health equity in society.

Ways of HIV transmission in China: The effect of age, period, and cohort

Background

Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a global pandemic caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which is transmitted through human behaviors, such as sexual intercourse, intravenous drug injection, and blood transfusion. Rare studies have focused on the evaluation of the effects of culture, society, and HIV-related policies in adjusting people's HIV-related behaviors, i.e., ways of HIV transmission.

Methods

By taking the new HIV infections in Hubei Province each year from 1995 to 2020 as the sample, our study used the Hierarchical Age-Period-Cohort (HAPC) model to analyze the effects of age, period, and cohort on the trends of ways of HIV transmission.

Results

From 1995 to 2020, the number of new HIV infections in Hubei presented a general upward trend. A total of 34,636 HIV infections were reported during this period. According to the statistics of the new HIV infections in Hubei Province between 1995 and 2020, there is a negative correlation between age (-0.099, p < 0.001), squared age (-0.002, p < 0.001), and the rate of blood transmission. While there is a positive correlation between age (0.143, p < 0.001), squared age (0.002, p < 0.001), and the rate of HIV infection through sexual transmission. The significant period and cohort effects on ways of HIV transmission were also observed in the Chinese population.

Conclusion

Sexual and blood transmission are the two main ways of HIV infection in China and Hubei. The trend of blood transmission is in accordance with the wave of blood trade in the early 1990s in China. The trend of sexual transmission indicates an increasing need to promote safer sexual behavior among the older population and later generations and design more tailored, innovative, and diverse HIV prevention strategies, especially for the high-risk groups.

HIV prevalence and associated factors among female sex workers in Ethiopia, east Africa: A cross-sectional study using a respondent-driven sampling technique

BACKGROUND

HIV acquisition among Female Sex Workers (FSWs) is 30 times higher than the acquisition rate among females in the respective general population. A higher HIV burden in FSWs challenges the prevention and control of the virus in other population groups. However, there is inadequate evidence on the burden of HIV among FSWs in Ethiopia. This study was conducted to assess the extent of HIV and associated factors among FSWs in the country.

METHODS

This was a cross-sectional study that involved a total of 6,085 FSWs. The participants were selected using a respondent-driven sampling technique (RDS). FSWs who lived at the study sites for at least a month before the study time were considered eligible for recruitment. The study was conducted from January 01 to June 30, 2020 in 16 cities across Ethiopia. A mixed-effect logistic regression model was applied to determine factors associated with HIV positivity.

FINDINGS

The pooled HIV prevalence among FSWs in this study was 18·7% (95% CI: 17·8, 19·7) with considerable variation across cities. The highest HIV prevalence was observed in Bahir Dar city, 28·2% (95% CI: 23·9, 33.0) and the lowest was seen in Shashemene city, 14.0% (95% CI: 10·2, 18·9). The odds of HIV positivity in FSWs was associated with being older than 35 years of age (AOR = 8·1; 95% CI: 6·1, 10·3), reactive for Treponema Pallidum (AOR = 2·6; 95% CI: 1·0, 3·4), being widowed (OR = 2·2; 95% CI: 1·6, 2·9), not able to read and write (OR = 2·0; 95% CI: 1·5, 2·4), incidence of condom breakage (OR = 1·5; 95% CI: 1·2, 1·7) and having a history of STIs (OR = 1·3; 95% CI: 1·1, 1·6).

INTERPRETATION

One in five FSWs was HIV positive. HIV prevalence was higher in the older age groups and in those who were positive for Treponema Pallidum (Syphilis). The findings indicated the importance of strengthening HIV prevention and control in FSWs to achieve the national goal to eliminate HIV by 2030.

FUNDING

The study was supported by The Ethiopian Ministry of Health through the Federal HIV/AIDS Prevention and Control Office.

Risk heterogeneity in compartmental HIV transmission models of ART as prevention in Sub-Saharan Africa: A scoping review

BACKGROUND

Transmission models provide complementary evidence to clinical trials about the potential population-level incidence reduction attributable to ART (ART prevention impact). Different modelling assumptions about risk heterogeneity may influence projected ART prevention impacts. We sought to review representations of risk heterogeneity in compartmental HIV transmission models applied to project ART prevention impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa.

METHODS

We systematically reviewed studies published before January 2020 that used non-linear compartmental models of sexual HIV transmission to simulate ART prevention impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa. We summarized data on model structure/assumptions (factors) related to risk and intervention heterogeneity, and explored multivariate ecological associations of ART prevention impacts with modelled factors.

RESULTS

Of 1384 search hits, 94 studies were included. 64 studies considered sexual activity stratification and 39 modelled at least one key population. 21 studies modelled faster/slower ART cascade transitions (HIV diagnosis, ART initiation, or cessation) by risk group, including 8 with faster and 4 with slower cascade transitions among key populations versus the wider population. In ecological analysis of 125 scenarios from 40 studies (subset without combination intervention), scenarios with risk heterogeneity that included turnover of higher risk groups were associated with smaller ART prevention benefits. Modelled differences in ART cascade across risk groups also influenced the projected ART benefits, including: ART prioritized to key populations was associated with larger ART prevention benefits. Of note, zero of these 125 scenarios considered lower ART coverage among key populations.

CONCLUSION

Among compartmental transmission models applied to project ART prevention impacts in Sub-Saharan Africa, representations of risk heterogeneity and projected impacts varied considerably. Inclusion/exclusion of risk heterogeneity with turnover, and intervention heterogeneity across risk groups could influence the projected impacts of ART scale-up. These findings highlight a need to capture risk heterogeneity with turnover and cascade heterogeneity when projecting ART prevention impacts.

Acceptability of multiple modalities of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) among female sex workers in Tanzania: a mixed-methods study

OBJECTIVES

Modalities of pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) for HIV prevention offer options to women at high risk including female sex workers (FSW). This study aimed to explore FSW's acceptability and preferences for oral pills, long-acting (LA) injectable and vaginal ring PrEP.

DESIGN

Sequential, explanatory, mixed methods.

SETTING

Iringa, Tanzania.

PARTICIPANTS

FSW aged above 18 were recruited from sex work venues using time-location sampling (n=496); HIV-uninfected (n=293) were included in this analysis. Subsequently, survey participants were recruited for in-depth interviews (n=10) and two focus group discussions (n=20).

PRIMARY OUTCOME MEASURES

(1) Acceptability of PrEP (Do you personally think it would be worth it to you to take ART if it could prevent HIV?: yes/no) and (2) preference for LA injectable versus oral pills (If you personally were going to take ART to prevent HIV infection, would you prefer to take it in the form of a daily pill or an injection once every 3 months? Injection/pill).

RESULTS

Participants were (92%) unaware of PrEP but 58% thought it would be worth it to personally take PrEP. Acceptability of PrEP was significantly associated with higher social cohesion (aOR 2.12; 95% CI 1.29 to 3.50) and STI symptoms in the past 6 months (aOR 2.52; 95% CI 1.38 to 4.62). Most (88%) preferred LA vs oral PrEP. Qualitative findings revealed generally positive reactions to all types of PrEP, and they were viewed as a welcome backup to condoms. Participants had concerns about pills (burden of daily use, stigma from clients), and the vaginal ring (fear of client noticing and becoming suspicious, fear of infertility) and overall preferred LA-PrEP (less frequent use, easy to hide, belief in higher efficacy).

CONCLUSIONS

Offering multiple formulations of PrEP within the context of community-driven HIV prevention interventions among FSW may facilitate increased uptake and adherence. LA injectable PrEP may be a particularly preferred formulation among FSW.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

NCT02281578.

HIV prevention programme with young women who sell sex in Mombasa, Kenya: learnings for scale-up

INTRODUCTION

In 2018, the National AIDS and sexually transmitted infection (STI) Control Programme developed a national guidelines to facilitate the inclusion of young women who sell sex (YWSS) in the HIV prevention response in Kenya. Following that, a 1-year pilot intervention, where a package of structural, behavioural and biomedical services was provided to 1376 cisgender YWSS to address their HIV-related risk and vulnerability, was implemented.

METHODS

Through a mixed-methods, pre/post study design, we assessed the effectiveness of the pilot, and elucidated implementation lessons learnt. The three data sources used included: (1) monthly routine programme monitoring data collected between October 2019 and September 2020 to assess the reach and coverage; (2) two polling booth surveys, conducted before and after implementation, to determine the effectiveness; and (3) focus group discussions and key informant interviews conducted before and after intervention to assess the feasibility of the intervention. Descriptive analysis was performed to produce proportions and comparative statistics.

RESULTS

During the intervention, 1376 YWSS were registered in the programme, 28% were below 19 years of age and 88% of the registered YWSS were active in the last month of intervention. In the survey, respondents reported increases in HIV-related knowledge (61.7% vs. 90%, p <0.001), ever usage of pre-exposure prophylaxis (8.5% vs. 32.2%, p < 0.001); current usage of pre-exposure prophylaxis (5.3% vs. 21.1%, p<0.002); ever testing for HIV (87.2% vs. 95.6%, p <0.04) and any clinic visit (35.1 vs. 61.1, p <0.001). However, increase in harassment by family (11.7% vs. 23.3%, p<0.04) and discrimination at educational institutions (5.3% vs. 14.4%, p<0.04) was also reported. In qualitative assessment, respondents reported early signs of success, and identified missed opportunities and made recommendations for scale-up.

CONCLUSIONS

Our intervention successfully rolled out HIV prevention services for YWSS in Mombasa, Kenya, and demonstrated that programming for YWSS is feasible and can effectively be done through YWSS peer-led combination prevention approaches. However, while reported uptake of treatment and prevention services increased, there was also an increase in reported harassment and discrimination requiring further attention. Lessons learnt from the pilot intervention can inform replication and scale-up of such interventions in Kenya.

Autonomy and Care in Context: The Paradox of Sex Workers' Acceptability of HIV Self-Tests in São Paulo, Brazil

Cisgender female sex workers (CFSW) continue to face structural barriers to HIV prevention. We analyzed the acceptability of the oral HIV self-test (HIV-ST) among CFSW as part of a pragmatic trial on HIV prevention in Brazil. Data from in-depth interviews conducted with 12 women from diverse sex worker contexts and participant observation were analyzed using thematic analysis. CFSW valued autonomy in their workplaces and saw the HIV-ST as a possibility for self-care. Some feared clients' reactions, manager reprimands, and a positive result. HIV and sex work stigma largely drove self-care practices and perceived acceptability of the self-test. We argue that the autonomy offered by the self-test presents a paradox: increasing autonomy on the one hand while risking sidestepping structural dimensions of HIV vulnerability on the other. These nuances must be considered in interventions promoting the HIV-ST by considering the specificities of sex worker contexts, addressing stigma, and effectively involving CFSW and their organizations in intervention development.

Exploring the Role of Provider–Patient Communication in Women’s Sexual Health and Pre-Exposure Prophylaxis Care in the Primary Care Settings in New York State of the United States

Background: Women shoulder a disproportionate burden of HIV infection in the United States and worldwide. Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) is an effective tool for HIV prevention, but its use is suboptimal. Primary care providers (PCP) are considered the ideal PrEP caregivers, but they generally underperform in PrEP care implementation. Methods: From 2020 to 2022, we employed semi-structured in-depth interviews to collect information about barriers and facilitators in PrEP care and beliefs and opinions regarding sexual wellness among 18 PCP and 29 PrEP-eligible women. We employed content analysis and thematic analysis to explore the transcribed narrative data. Results: The current study was guided by the “Communication Pathways” Framework. We studied how communication functions affect PrEP care and women’s sexual wellness on the pathways. We identified several specific pathways between communication and PrEP care implementation in primary care settings, including patient knowledge, linkage to care, therapeutic alliance, and decision making on PrEP care. A paradox regarding who should initiate the discussion regarding sexual history and PrEP care was identified. Conclusions: Findings suggested that a navigation and assistance system for PrEP care in patients and providers is urgently needed. Future studies should facilitate PrEP discussion, engagement, and monitoring in primary care settings.

Engagement in HIV services over time among young women who sell sex in Zimbabwe

INTRODUCTION

Young female sex workers (FSW) are disproportionately vulnerable to HIV. Zimbabwe data show higher HIV incidence and lower engagement in services compared to older FSW. Utilizing data from a combination HIV prevention and treatment intervention, we describe engagement in the HIV services over time among FSW 18-24 years, compared to those ≥25 years of age.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Data were collected via respondent-driven sampling (RDS) surveys in 14 communities in 2013 and 2016, with >2500 FSW per survey. They included blood samples for HIV and viral load testing. As the intervention had no significant impact on HIV care cascade outcomes, data were aggregated across study arms. Analyses used RDS-II estimation.

RESULTS

Mean age in 2013 and 2016 was 31 and 33 years, with 27% and 17% aged 18-24 years. Overall HIV prevalence was 59% at each timepoint, and 35% and 36% among younger FSW. From 2013 to 2016 there was an increase in young HIV-positive FSW knowing their status (38% vs 60%, OR = 2.51, p<0.01). Outcomes for all FSW improved significantly over time at all steps of the cascade, and the relative change over time was similar among older versus younger FSW for most cascade variables.

DISCUSSION

Young FSW had improvements in care cascade outcomes, and proportionate improvements similar to older FSW, yet they remain less engaged in services overall. This implies that the dedicated FSW services in Zimbabwe are having a comparably positive impact across age groups, however more is likely required to address young FSW's unique vulnerabilities and needs.

Conflicted masculinities: understanding dilemmas and (re)configurations of masculinity among men in long-term relationships with female sex workers, in Kampala, Uganda

This ethnographic study explores the experience of men in long-term relationships with sex workers and their construction of masculine identities in Kampala, Uganda. Data were collected in 2019 and comprise in-depth interviews with 13 male partners and two group discussions of women with long-term male partners. Thematic analysis used an intersectional lens to frame reconfigurations of gender and masculinity in the context of relationships with sex workers. All men had been clients of sex workers before progressing to become long-term partners. We discuss the complex ways in which men participated in value systems of respectability and reputation to (re)configure gender relations that made sense of their long-term relationships with sex workers. Men viewed their relationships with women through the normative lens of traditional masculine roles associated with monopoly over a partner's sexuality, provider and father. However, poverty, HIV, the failure to have exclusive sexual rights over a partner, and the shame associated with sex work intersected and disrupted masculinities. Despite this, men found meaning in these relationships through the woman's commitment to the relationship, her financial support, her help in accessing HIV services, and the children from the relationship, thereby attaining respectability and avoiding a crisis of masculinity.

The Effect of HIV Programs in South Africa on National HIV Incidence Trends, 2000-2019

BACKGROUND

Recent studies have shown HIV incidence declines at a population level in several African countries. However, these studies have not directly quantified the extent to which incidence declines are attributable to different HIV programs.

METHODS

We calibrated a mathematical model of the South African HIV epidemic to age- and sex-specific data from antenatal surveys, household surveys, and death registration, using a Bayesian approach. The model was also parameterized using data on self-reported condom use, voluntary medical male circumcision (VMMC), HIV testing, and antiretroviral treatment (ART). Model estimates of HIV incidence were compared against the incidence rates that would have been expected had each program not been implemented.

RESULTS

The model estimated incidence in 15-49 year olds of 0.84% (95% CI: 0.75% to 0.96%) at the start of 2019. This represents a 62% reduction (95% CI: 55% to 66%) relative to 2000, a 47% reduction (95% CI: 42% to 51%) relative to 2010, and a 73% reduction (95% CI: 68% to 77%) relative to the incidence that would have been expected in 2019 in the absence of any interventions. The reduction in incidence in 2019 because of interventions was greatest for ART and condom promotion, with VMMC and behavior change after HIV testing having relatively modest impacts. HIV program impacts differed significantly by age and sex, with condoms and VMMC having greatest impact in youth, and overall incidence reductions being greater in men than in women.

CONCLUSIONS

HIV incidence in South Africa has declined substantially since 2000, with ART and condom promotion contributing most significantly to this decline.

Sexual health communication between sex worker mothers and their children in India

In India, relatively little is known about sex worker mothers' beliefs regarding sexual health communication with their children. Using qualitative data collected in Kolkata, India, this study used the Parent Expansion of the Theory of Planned Behaviour to examine sex worker mothers' beliefs about sexual health communication and factors shaping these beliefs. Sex worker mothers' beliefs about sexual health communication were shaped by societal norms and collectivising processes often driven by Durbar Mahila Samanwaya Committee (DMSC), a sex workers' collective in Kolkata, India. Specifically, we found that challenging stigma, assuming ownership over one's body and health, and making relevant material resources and knowledge accessible and meaningful were key in supporting mothers to overcome barriers around sexual health communication. These collectivising processes shaped mothers' beliefs about sexual health communication and facilitated their ability to engage in it. Future research, policies and programmes should consider the far-reaching impact of community-led structural interventions on sex worker mothers and their children.

HIV Pre-exposure Prophylaxis Implant Stated Preferences and Priorities: Results of a Discrete Choice Experiment Among Women and Adolescent Girls in Gauteng Province, South Africa

For adolescent girls (AG) and young women (YW), adherence barriers may limit the effectiveness of daily oral HIV pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP). Due to its low-burden and long-lasting product attributes, PrEP implants could remove some of the critical adherence barriers of oral PrEP products for individuals at risk of HIV. To explore stated preferences for a long-acting PrEP implant, we conducted a quantitative survey and discrete choice experiment with AG (ages 15-17), YW (18-34), and female sex workers (FSW; ≥ 18) in Gauteng Province, South Africa. We completed 600 quantitative surveys across the three subgroups of women. Respondents stated preference for an implant that provided longer HIV protection (24 months versus 6 months) and required a single insertion. They stated that they preferred a biodegradable implant that could be removed within 1 month of insertion. Respondents had no preference for a particular insertion location. Overall, 78% of respondents said they would be likely (33%) or very likely (45%) to use a PrEP implant were one available, with the majority (82%) stating preference for a product that would provide dual protection against HIV and unintended pregnancies. To reduce their risk of HIV, AG, YW, and FSW in our survey reported a strong willingness to use long-acting, highly-effective, dissolvable PrEP implants.

PrEP acceptability and initiation among women engaged in sex work in Uganda: Implications for HIV prevention

BACKGROUND

Women engaged in sex work (WESW) are disproportionately affected by HIV. In Uganda, HIV prevalence among WESW is estimated at 37%, accounting for 18% of all new infections in the country. WESW experience poverty, gender-based violence, and other issues that reduce their power and limit their ability to negotiate condom use. Female-controlled strategies, including pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP), may afford women more transmission protection, but barriers to access and use persist. This cross-sectional study examined baseline PrEP acceptability and initiation among WESW recently enrolled in a randomized clinical trial in Uganda to test the impact of a combination HIV risk reduction and economic empowerment intervention on sexual risk outcomes (clinicaltrials.gov, NCT03583541).

METHODS

A total of 542 WESW from 19 high HIV-prevalent geographical areas were enrolled in the Kyaterekera study between June 2019 and March 2020. Women were eligible for the study if they: (1) were age 18 or over; (2) reported engagement in transactional sex (a sex act in exchange for pay) in the past 30 days; and (3) reported engagement in one or more episodes of unprotected sex in the past 30 days. Women completed a baseline assessment, were tested for HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) at enrollment, and were connected with antiretroviral therapy (ART), STI treatment, or PrEP, based on need and interest. Descriptive statistics examined baseline data on PrEP acceptability and initiation. Independent variables (i.e. years in sex work, recent sexual coercion, perceived HIV and sex work stigmas, harmful alcohol use, barriers to medical care, and social support) were derived from the empirical literature and women's self-report. Bivariate analysis was performed to test associations between main effects of these variables. Using binomial logistic regression, predictive models were evaluated for two distinct outcomes-PrEP acceptability and PrEP initiation/uptake.

FINDINGS

At baseline, 59% of women (n = 322) tested HIV negative. Among WESW testing negative, 11% (n = 36) were already PrEP enrolled. Most women reported willingness to use PrEP (n = 317; 91%). Slightly over half of WESW not already on PrEP agreed to initiate PrEP (n = 158; 55%). Logistic regression models demonstrate that acceptability of or willingness to use PrEP was significantly associated with fewer years engaged in sex work (AOR= ·18, 95% CI 0·05-·66, p<·01) and greater perceived social support from family (AOR= 1·39, 95% CI 1·03 -1.88, p<·05). PrEP initiation was negatively associated with greater perceived social support from friends (AOR=·81, 95% CI ·68-0·97, p<·05) and positively associated with higher perceived stigma due to sex work among family members (AOR=2·20, 95% CI 1·15-4·22, p<·05).

INTERPRETATION

Despite endorsing PrEP use, many WESW remain reluctant to use it. This gap in prevention practice highlights the heart of a failing PrEP prevention cascade. Findings point to the important role family and friend support may play in destigmatizing sex work and PrEP use for women. Social and structural-level efforts are needed to improve educational messaging and to integrate positive messaging into health promotion campaigns for women and their families, while also working toward decriminalizing sex work.

FUNDING

This paper was made possible with funding from United States National Institute of Mental Health (Grant number: R01MH116768).

The economics of sex work and major sporting events: Learning from the 2010 FIFA World Cup in South Africa

Risk-taking in sex work is related to financial gains from condom-protected and condomless-acts alongside vulnerabilities, including socio-economic factors, which influence the safety of sex workers. Large international sporting events have been shown to significantly impact the economies of host countries, but there is a dearth of studies that examine how major sporting events may affect the economics of sex work and the risks taken by sex workers and clients. This study examines the determinants of the price of commercial sex alongside the price premium for and correlates of, condomless sex before, during and after the 2010 world cup in South Africa. We analysed data from three phases of repeated cross-sectional surveys with sex workers. Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression models were fitted to examine the predictors of condomless sex. We also fitted fixed-effect regression models to examine the determinants of the price of commercial sex across each survey phase. Findings suggest that the price of sex was higher during the world cup compared to before and after, whilst the price premium for condomless-sex increased from 36% before the world cup to 40% (p-value<0.001) and 57% (p-value<0.001) during and after the world cup, respectively. Across the survey phases, anal, oral or masturbation sex were more likely to be supplied without a condom compared to vaginal sex. The type of sex was the primary determinant of the price of sex across all phases. We show indicative evidence that the 2010 world cup was associated with an increase in the price of sex and supply of condomless-sex. Although these findings should be interpreted as associations rather than causal relationships, we recommend that countries with substantial sex-worker populations that host major events shouldexplicitly consider the context and structures of sex work, and promote client-focused safe-sex-interventions that explicitly consider the economic pressures faced by sexworkers to provide riskier acts, to minimise health impacts.

Intimate Relationships and HIV Infection Risks Among Shan Female Sex Workers From Myanmar in Chiang Mai, Thailand: A Qualitative Study

This study aimed to investigate HIV risks among female sex workers (FSWs) who were from the Shan ethnic group, and how they relate to complex relationships with inconsistent condom use. The study was conducted using in-depth interviews with 17 Shan FSWs (aged 18-45 years old) in Chiang Mai. Intimate relationships between participants and regular clients/steady partners were found to facilitate inconsistent condom use. Participating Shan FSWs sustained intimacy with regular clients not only for economic ends but also for emotional support. Gender norms and male power dominated condom use decision making. Some participants lacked proper HIV preventive knowledge regarding condom breakage and HIV risks. Effective intervention and proper HIV preventive practices should address these intimate contexts. Capacity building among women would assist FSWs to make choices that protect them from HIV/STDs infections. Couples-based HIV interventions addressing emotional intimacy is an urgent need for HIV communication and service delivery in Thailand.

Community-based point-of-care testing to identify new HIV infections: A cross-sectional study from Pune, India

ABSTRACT

The World Health Organization recommends point-of-care testing (POCT) to detect human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infected individuals in the community. This will help improve treatment coverage through detection of HIV infection among those who are unaware of their status.This study was planned with an objective to investigate the feasibility and acceptability of POCT for HIV in the community.A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in rural and peri-urban areas of Pune, India. These sites were selected based on the distance from the nearest HIV testing center. Testing locations were identified in consultation with the local stakeholders and grass-root health workers to identify and capture the priority population. The POCT was performed on blood samples collected by the finger-prick method.The proportion of participants seeking HIV tests for the first time was 79.6% that signifies the feasibility of POCT. The acceptability in the peri-urban and rural areas was 70.2% and 69.7%, respectively. POCT was performed at construction sites (24.9%), nearby industries (16.1%) and parking areas of long-distance trucks (8.1%) in the peri-urban area. Three newly diagnosed HIV-infected participants (0.1%) were detected from the peri-urban areas but none from the rural areas. Two of the newly diagnosed participants and their spouses were linked to care.There was a high acceptability of POCT and wider coverage of priority population with a strategy of testing at places preferable to the study population. Therefore, we believe that community-based POCT is a promising tool for improving HIV testing coverage even in low prevalence settings with the concentrated HIV epidemic.

HIV self-testing and oral pre-exposure prophylaxis are empowering for sex workers and their intimate partners: a qualitative study in Uganda

Introduction

HIV self‐testing (HIVST) and oral pre‐exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) are complementary, evidence‐based, self‐controlled HIV prevention tools that may be particularly appealing to sex workers. Understanding how HIVST and PrEP are perceived and used by sex workers and their intimate partners could inform prevention delivery for this population. We conducted qualitative interviews to examine ways in which HIVST and PrEP use influence prevention choices among sex workers in Uganda.

Methods

Within a randomized trial of HIVST and PrEP among 110 HIV‐negative cisgender women, cisgender men and transgender women sex workers (NCT03426670), we conducted 40 qualitative interviews with 30 sex workers and 10 intimate partners (June 2018 to January 2020). Sex worker interviews explored (a) experiences of using HIVST kits; (b) how HIVST was performed with sexual partners; (c) impact of HIVST on PrEP pill taking; and (d) sexual risk behaviours after HIVST. Partner interviews covered (i) introduction of HIVST; (ii) experiences of using HIVST; (iii) HIV status disclosure; and (iv) HIVST's effect on sexual behaviours. Data were analysed using an inductive content analytic approach centering on descriptive category development. Together, these categories detail the meaning of HIVST and PrEP for these qualitative participants.

Results

Using HIVST and PrEP was empowering for this group of sex workers and their partners. Three types of empowerment were observed: (a) economic; (b) relational; and (c) sexual health. (i) Using HIVST and PrEP made sex without condoms safer. Sex workers could charge more for condomless sex, which was empowering economically. (ii) Self‐testing restored trust in partners’ fidelity upon being reunited after a separation. This trust, in combination with condomless sex made possible by PrEP use, restored intimacy, empowering partnered relationships. (iii) HIVST and PrEP enabled sex workers to take control of their HIV prevention efforts and avoid the stigma of public clinic visits. In this way they were empowered to protect their sexual health.

Conclusions

In this sample, sex workers’ use of HIVST and PrEP benefitted not only prevention efforts, but also economic and relational empowerment. Understanding these larger benefits and communicating them to stakeholders could strengthen uptake and use of combination prevention interventions in this marginalized population.

Exploring the Association Between Depression and Social and Biobehavioral HIV Risk Factors Among Female Sex Workers in Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality, South Africa

The aim of this study was to estimate the prevalence of depression among female sex workers (FSW) in an urban coastal city in South Africa, and to explore the relationship between depression and HIV-related social and biobehavioral determinants. A cross-sectional respondent-driven sampling study was conducted with FSW (n = 410), including a sociobehavioral questionnaire, PHQ-9 (Patient Health Questionnaire-9) based assessment of depression, and biological testing for HIV and syphilis. The prevalence of HIV in the sample was 64.1%. The estimated prevalence of depression was 28.8%. Depression was associated with social vulnerability such as living alone [adjusted prevalence ratio 1.82, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.15-2.90] and food insecurity (aPR 2.19, 95% CI 1.42-3.38). A positive syphilis test result (aPR 1.46, 95% CI 1.02-2.09) and self-reported sexually transmitted disease symptoms (aPR 1.78, 95% CI 1.29-2.46) was associated with depression, but self-reported condom use and HIV status was not. FSW were also less likely to disclose their occupational status to health care providers (aPR 0.61, 95% CI 0.42-0.89) or undergo sexually transmitted infection screening in the last 12 months if they are depressed (aPR 0.64, 95% CI 0.43-0.95). The results demonstrate that the prevalence of depression is high among FSW and that depressive symptoms are associated with social covariates and biobehavioral HIV risk factors.

Knowledge and Use of PEP and PrEP Among Key Populations Tested in Community Centers in Portugal

Background: Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) have been increasingly available in Europe. Due to the high burden of HIV in key populations, these could benefit from their use. In 2016, in Portugal, an open, non-interval, prospective cohort study was established in a network of 26 community-based voluntary HIV/STI counseling and testing centers. Data collected included questions on PEP and PrEP knowledge and use. We aimed to estimate the proportion of PEP and PrEP knowledge and its use among key populations, visiting the centers between 2016 and 2019. Method and results: Individuals who self-identify as being among at least one key population for HIV, men who have sex with men (MSM), people who inject drugs (PWID), sex workers (SW), migrants, and male-to-female transgender individuals (MTF), responded to questions on PEP and PrEP knowledge and use while waiting for their test results between 2016 and 2019 (n = 12,893 for PEP; n = 10,973 for PrEP). Reported knowledge was low in all key populations for both tools: 15.7% of respondents reported knowing about PEP and 10.9% about PrEP over the course of 4 years. PEP was used by 1.8% and PrEP by 0.4% of the respondents, MSM being 88.9% of PrEP users, and 52.8% of PEP users. Multivariate logistic regression showed multiple factors associated with knowing the tools, including age, education, country of birth, gender, year of test, having a reactive HIV test in the same visit, reporting an STI or condomless sex in the last 12 months, and identifying with being MSM or SW. Conclusions: Knowledge and use of PEP and PrEP remain low among key populations in Portugal. The need remains to increase knowledge and use among those at risk for HIV infection.

Sexual rights and sexual pleasure: Sustainable Development Goals and the omitted dimensions of the leave no one behind sexual health agenda

This commentary explores the missing discourse of sexual rights and sexual pleasure in the Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) that purport to leave no one behind. The SDG propose a welcome focus on sexual health and human rights for all, expanding beyond the Millennium Development Goals. While promising in many ways for advancing global sexual and reproductive health, and reproductive rights, the omission of sexual rights is troubling. So too is the erasure of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender and queer (LGBTQ) persons, and sex workers, from the SDG discussions of social inequities. Illustrative examples are provided to demonstrate how a sexual rights focus could advance SDG 3 focused on healthy lives and well-being for all. First, sexual rights are presented as integral to realizing Target 3.3's focus on ending the HIV pandemic among LGBTQ persons and sex workers (and LGBTQ sex workers). Second, sexual pleasure is introduced as an integral component of sexual health and sexual rights that could facilitate the realization of Target 3.7's aim to provide universal access to sexual and reproductive health information and education. To truly leave no one behind and realize sexual health for all, the SDG need to begin from a foundation of sexual rights.

Shan Migrant Sex Workers Living with HIV Who Remain Active in Sexual Entertainment Venues in Chiang Mai, Thailand

Migrant female sex workers (MFSW) are at a high and increasing risk of HIV infection and may also be a source of transmission. In Northern Thailand, most MSFW are Shan ethnic nationals from Myanmar. This study aims to understand how the risks of HIV infection and transmission are perceived and acted upon by Shan MFSW living with HIV who remain active in sex work. The paper employs a narrative approach, offering insight into the lives of eight Shan MFSW living with HIV in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Their risk behaviors are examined, from when they first entered sex work through to becoming HIV-positive and adopting antiretroviral treatment, as well as the reasons for continuing sex work. The findings reveal several ways in which stigmatized identities and life conditions influence risk perceptions and behaviors of Shan MFSW. Shan MFSW exemplify biopolitical vulnerability as female migrants, and sex workers in addition to living with HIV and the constraints of poverty, and limited education and skills. Understanding the complexities in their life conditions suggested several ways to improve care for them.

Estimating the epidemic consequences of HIV prevention gaps among key populations

INTRODUCTION

HIV epidemic appraisals are used to characterize heterogeneity and inequities in the context of the HIV pandemic and the response. However, classic measures used in appraisals have been shown to underestimate disproportionate risks of onward transmission, particularly among key populations. In response, a growing number of modelling studies have quantified the consequences of unmet prevention and treatment needs (prevention gaps) among key populations as a transmission population attributable fraction over time (tPAFt ). To aid its interpretation and use by programme implementers and policy makers, we outline and discuss a conceptual framework for understanding and estimating the tPAFt via transmission modelling as a measure of onward transmission risk from HIV prevention gaps; and discuss properties of the tPAFt .

DISCUSSION

The distribution of onward transmission risks may be defined by who is at disproportionate risk of onward transmission, and under which conditions. The latter reflects prevention gaps, including secondary prevention via treatment: the epidemic consequences of which may be quantified by the tPAFt . Steps to estimating the tPAFt include parameterizing the acquisition and onward transmission risks experienced by the subgroup of interest, defining the most relevant counterfactual scenario, and articulating the time-horizon of analyses and population among whom to estimate the relative difference in cumulative transmissions; such steps could reflect programme-relevant questions about onward transmission risks. Key properties of the tPAFt include larger onward transmission risks over longer time-horizons; seemingly mutually exclusive tPAFt measures summing to greater than 100%; an opportunity to quantify the magnitude of disproportionate onward transmission risks with a per-capita tPAFt ; and that estimates are conditional on what has been achieved so far in reducing prevention gaps and maintaining those conditions moving forward as the status quo.

CONCLUSIONS

The next generation of HIV epidemic appraisals has the potential to support a more specific HIV response by characterizing heterogeneity in disproportionate risks of onward transmission which are defined and conditioned on the past, current and future prevention gaps across subsets of the population.

Getting resources to those who need them: the evidence we need to budget for underserved populations in sub-Saharan Africa

INTRODUCTION

In recent years, many countries have adopted evidence-based budgeting (EBB) to encourage the best use of limited and decreasing HIV resources. The lack of data and evidence for hard to reach, marginalized and vulnerable populations could cause EBB to further disadvantage those who are already underserved and who carry a disproportionate HIV burden (USDB). We outline the critical data required to use EBB to support USDB people in the context of the generalized epidemics of sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).

DISCUSSION

To be considered in an EBB cycle, an intervention needs at a minimum to have an estimate of a) the average cost, typically per recipient of the intervention; b) the effectiveness of the intervention and c) the size of the intervention target population. The methods commonly used for general populations are not sufficient for generating valid estimates for USDB populations. USDB populations may require additional resources to learn about, access, and/or successfully participate in an intervention, increasing the cost per recipient. USDB populations may experience different health outcomes and/or other benefits than in general populations, influencing the effectiveness of the interventions. Finally, USDB population size estimation is critical for accurate programming but is difficult to obtain with almost no national estimates for countries in SSA. We explain these limitations and make recommendations for addressing them.

CONCLUSIONS

EBB is a strong tool to achieve efficient allocation of resources, but in SSA the evidence necessary for USDB populations may be lacking. Rather than excluding USDB populations from the budgeting process, more should be invested in understanding the needs of these populations.

"You need money to get high, and that's the easiest and fastest way:" A typology of sex work and health behaviours among people who inject drugs

BACKGROUND

In the United States, the criminalization and stigmatization of drug use and sex work contribute to infectious disease transmission and healthcare disengagement. People who inject drugs (PWID) and engage in sex work experience exacerbated HIV risk. In the context of the ongoing HIV and overdose epidemics little research describes why PWID engage in sex work and its relative HIV risk. To inform intervention needs, we aimed to create a typology of sex work among PWID with a focus on HIV risk and healthcare utilization behaviours.

METHODS

We drew from in-depth interviews conducted across Massachusetts and Rhode Island from 2016-2019. Participants were ≥18 years old and self-reported past-month injection drug use and HIV-negative status. Using data from individuals reporting sex work experience (n=33/78), we utilized the framework method to develop a typology of perspectives on sex work engagement and attributes pertaining to HIV risk and healthcare utilization behaviours.

RESULTS

We uncovered varying perspectives on sex work and associated HIV risks and prevention needs. A typology included three groups who viewed their sex work engagement as a (1) consistent job, (2) income supplement, or (3) survival method to abate withdrawal symptoms. The first group described more consistent sexual and injection behaviours to mitigate HIV risk than the second group. The third group appeared particularly vulnerable to HIV, describing inconsistent condom use and frequent sharing of injection equipment, low healthcare utilization, and limited disclosure of sex work and injection drug use to healthcare providers.

CONCLUSION

Findings highlight distinct perspectives on sex work among PWID involved in it and corresponding perceptions of HIV risk and healthcare utilization behaviours. Understanding the nuances in sex work engagement among PWID can inform interventions to prevent infectious disease transmission, including efforts to further connect this marginalized population to harm reduction, health, and low barrier opioid treatment services.

The EMERALD (Enabling Mobilization, Empowerment, Risk Reduction, and Lasting Dignity) Study: Protocol for the Design, Implementation, and Evaluation of a Community-Based Combination HIV Prevention Intervention for Female Sex Workers in Baltimore, Maryland

Background

Cisgender female sex workers (FSWs) experience high rates of HIV and sexually transmitted infections (STIs), including chlamydia and gonorrhea. Community empowerment–based responses to the risk environment of FSWs have been associated with significant reductions in HIV and STI risk and associated risk behaviors; however, evaluations of US-based interventions targeting FSWs are limited.

Objective

The objective of this study is to describe the design, implementation, and planned evaluation strategy of an ongoing comprehensive community-level intervention in Baltimore City, Maryland, which aims to improve HIV and STI risk and cumulative incidence among FSWs. The two intervention components are the SPARC (Sex Workers Promoting Action, Risk Reduction, and Community Mobilization) drop-in center and the accompanying comprehensive mobile outreach program. The mission of SPARC is to provide low-barrier harm reduction services to FSWs, with a special focus on women who sell sex and use drugs. Services are provided through a harm reduction framework and include reproductive health and sexual health care; medication-assisted treatment; legal aid; counseling; showers, lockers, and laundry; and the distribution of harm reduction tools, including naloxone and sterile drug use supplies (eg, cookers, cotton, syringes, and pipes).

Methods

The SPARC intervention is being evaluated through the EMERALD (Enabling Mobilization, Empowerment, Risk Reduction, and Lasting Dignity) study, which consists of a prospective 2-group comparative nonrandomized trial (n=385), a cross-sectional survey (n=100), and in-depth interviews assessing SPARC implementation (n=45). Participants enrolled in the nonrandomized trial completed a survey and HIV and STI testing at 4 intervals (baseline and 6, 12, and 18 months). Participants recruited from predefined areas closest to SPARC comprised the intervention group, and participants from all other areas of Baltimore were included in the control group.

Results

We hypothesize that addressing structural drivers and more immediate medical needs, in combination with peer outreach, will improve the HIV and STI risk environment, leading to community empowerment, and reduce the HIV and STI cumulative incidence and behavioral risks of FSWs. Data collection is ongoing. A baseline description of the cohort is presented.

Conclusions

In the United States, structural interventions aimed at reducing HIV and STIs among FSWs are scarce; to our knowledge, this is the first intervention of its kind in the United States. The results of the EMERALD study can be used to inform the development of future interventions targeting FSWs and other at-risk populations.

Trial Registration

ClinicalTrials.gov NCT04413591; https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04413591.

International Registered Report Identifier (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/23412

Access to HIV-prevention in female sex workers in Ukraine between 2009 and 2017: Coverage, barriers and facilitators

The provision of comprehensive prevention services is vital for reducing the high burden of HIV amongst Ukrainian female sex workers (FSWs). To identify barriers and facilitators that influence access to HIV prevention amongst this population between 2009 and 2017, we developed a literature-informed conceptual framework and conducted a document analysis to identify the components of the Ukrainian prevention package (PP). Using the Integrated Bio Behavioural Surveillance Surveys, we then conducted descriptive analyses to explore PP coverage from 2009 to 2017 and the influence of factors, identified by our conceptual framework. After increasing over four years, a drop in PP coverage was observed from 2013 onwards. Being a client of a non-governmental organisation, street and highway solicitation, non-condom use, and knowledge of HIV may influence access to HIV prevention in the Ukrainian context. Future interventions should consider barriers and facilitators to HIV prevention and the multiple structural levels on which they operate.

Impact of Testing on Sexually Transmitted Infections among Female Brothel Sex Workers in Bangladesh: A Randomized Controlled Trial

Past studies that have designed interventions to reduce the prevalence of sexually transmitted infections (STIs) have typically provided onsite treatment to sex workers who tested positive, which were expensive and difficult to implement. The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an intervention which tested for STIs and provided information on the closest treatment facility on reducing the prevalence of STIs among female brothel-based sex workers (BSWs) in Bangladesh. The study adopted a pre-post interventional design as well as a randomized controlled study design. A baseline sample and follow-up urine sample were collected to evaluate the prevalence of STIs among participants in the treatment, but not control group. A baseline survey and interviews were also conducted for both the groups. The study found a nonsignificant reduction from baseline to follow-up in STI prevalence among intervention participants (adjusted odds ratio [aOR]: 0.74; 95% CI: 0.38, 1.45). However, the participants in the intervention group were significantly more likely to have a repeat client (aOR: 1.60; 95% CI: 1.12, 2.29) and nonsignificantly less likely to engage with a client suspected of having an STI (aOR: 0.62; 95% CI: 0.39, 1.00) than participants in the control group. The intervention testing of STIs and providing information to the positive cases about nearest treatment facilities were not effective in reducing the prevalence of STIs among BSWs. Further study of the clinical and behavioral impacts of such efforts to reduce STIs among BSWs is warranted.

Correlates of newly diagnosed HIV infection among cisgender women sex workers and transgender women sex workers in Greater Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia

Globally, cisgender women sex workers (CWSWs) and transgender women sex workers (TWSWs) experience increased vulnerabilities to HIV infection. Unfortunately, there is limited data on the drivers of HIV infection in these two understudied populations, particularly in Southeast Asia. To better understand factors associated with HIV infection, we evaluated correlates of newly diagnosed HIV infection in these two populations in Greater Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. A total of 469 women (CWSW: n = 283; TWSW: n = 186) were included in this study. Most participants who tested HIV+ were unaware of their infection (59.6%; n = 34/57). Separate binary and multivariable logistic regressions were conducted to identify correlates of newly diagnosed HIV in CWSWs and TWSWs. Among CWSWs, Chlamydia trachomatis (aOR = 5.66; p = 0.007) and lifetime use of ecstasy/MDMA (aOR = 5.34; p = 0.03) were associated with newly diagnosed HIV, while condomless vaginal sex with clients was associated with lower likelihood of HIV infection (aOR = 0.98; p = 0.01). Among TWSWs, being single (aOR = 6.76; p = 0.03), using mobile application to solicit clients (aOR = 25.33; p = 0.006), and having C. trachomatis infection (aOR = 88.22, p = 0.02) were associated with newly diagnosed HIV. Expansion of HIV/sexually transmitted infection screening is needed to increase detection of HIV and linkage to care for sex workers. Interventions to reduce HIV infection among CWSWs and TWSWs should be tailored to these populations' unique vulnerabilities.

Modelling the effect of market forces on the impact of introducing human immunodeficiency virus pre-exposure prophylaxis among female sex workers

Pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) to prevent human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) enables female sex workers (FSWs) to protect themselves from HIV without relying on clients using condoms. Yet, because PrEP reduces HIV risk, financial incentives to not use condoms may lead to risk compensation: reductions in condom use and/or increases in commercial sex, and may reduce the price of unprotected sex. In this analysis, we integrate market forces into a dynamic HIV transmission model to assess how risk compensation could change the impact of PrEP among FSWs and clients. We parameterise how sexual behavior may change with PrEP use among FSWs using stated preference data combined with economic theory. Our projections suggest the impact of PrEP is sensitive to risk compensatory behaviors driven by changes in the economics of sex work. Condom substitution could reduce the impact of PrEP on HIV incidence by 55%, while increases in the frequency of commercial sex to counter decreases in the price charged for unprotected sex among PrEP users could entirely mitigate the impact of PrEP. Accounting for competition between PrEP users and nonusers exacerbates this further. Alternative scenarios where increases in unprotected sex among PrEP users are balanced by decreases in non-PrEP users have the opposite effect, resulting in PrEP having much greater impact. Intervention studies need to determine how HIV prevention products may change the economics of sex work and provision of unprotected sex to enable a better understanding of their impact.

Mathematical Model Impact Analysis of a Real-Life Pre-exposure Prophylaxis and Treatment-As-Prevention Study Among Female Sex Workers in Cotonou, Benin

BACKGROUND

Daily pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP) and treatment-as-prevention (TasP) reduce HIV acquisition and transmission risk, respectively. A demonstration study (2015-2017) assessed TasP and PrEP feasibility among female sex workers (FSW) in Cotonou, Benin.

SETTING

Cotonou, Benin.

METHODS

We developed a compartmental HIV transmission model featuring PrEP and antiretroviral therapy (ART) among the high-risk (FSW and clients) and low-risk populations, calibrated to historical epidemiological and demonstration study data, reflecting observed lower PrEP uptake, adherence and retention compared with TasP. We estimated the population-level impact of the 2-year study and several 20-year intervention scenarios, varying coverage and adherence independently and together. We report the percentage [median, 2.5th-97.5th percentile uncertainty interval (95% UI)] of HIV infections prevented comparing the intervention and counterfactual (2017 coverages: 0% PrEP and 49% ART) scenarios.

RESULTS

The 2-year study (2017 coverages: 9% PrEP and 83% ART) prevented an estimated 8% (95% UI 6-12) and 6% (3-10) infections among FSW over 2 and 20 years, respectively, compared with 7% (3-11) and 5% (2-9) overall. The PrEP and TasP arms prevented 0.4% (0.2-0.8) and 4.6% (2.2-8.7) infections overall over 20 years, respectively. Twenty-year PrEP and TasP scale-ups (2035 coverages: 47% PrEP and 88% ART) prevented 21% (17-26) and 17% (10-27) infections among FSW, respectively, and 5% (3-10) and 17% (10-27) overall. Compared with TasP scale-up alone, PrEP and TasP combined scale-up prevented 1.9× and 1.2× more infections among FSW and overall, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The demonstration study impact was modest, and mostly from TasP. Increasing PrEP adherence and coverage improves impact substantially among FSW, but little overall. We recommend TasP in prevention packages.

A thematic analysis of experiences of HIV risks among female sex workers in the Yunnan-Vietnam Chinese border region

Background

The Yunnan province is located near the “Golden Triangle” border region between China, Myanmar and Thailand, which has the highest HIV/AIDS prevalence in China. Female sex workers (FSWs) in the Yunnan province are highly vulnerable to HIV infection. The objective of this study was to examine the experiences of FSWs in the Yunnan to better understand the risk of infection and the potential for transmission of HIV.

Methods

Semi-structured interviews were conducted between May 2018 and June 2018 with 20 FSWs recruited in Hekou County, Yunnan Province, China. Thematic analysis was conducted to identify themes that highlighted increased exposure of FSWs to the risk of HIV infection and transmission.

Results

The findings showed that FSWs’ primary source for HIV information was gynecologists, with few visiting the local HIV charity Red Ribbon. FSWs reported infrequent visits for check-ups with some seeing a gynecologist once a year. FSWs felt that the onus was on them to prevent STI/HIV infection by using a condom during sex, regardless of their ability to negotiate use. FSWs were also reluctant to see a gynecologists for treatment. Instead, they resorted to douching as a way of preventing HIV/STIs and treating vaginal health problems, such as leucorrhea. Most FSWs worked without the influence of alcohol and drugs. A small number of FSWs reported heroin addiction and injecting drug use.

Conclusion

The findings suggest a need for innovative HIV prevention strategies among FSWs and their clients in the Chinese border region. Governmental agencies should continue to implement practical strategies in terms of HIV prevention education and condom use through tailored interventions that are localized. Such strategies should include localized tailored interventions that dispel myths about douching as a method of HIV/STI prevention and incorporate a mobile outreach approach, similar to the ‘roadside restaurant’ outreach that has been successful in rural China.