Parental perceptions and infant temperament development

From Negative Emotionality to Aggressive Behavior: Maternal and Paternal Parenting Stress as Intervening Factors

Child temperament plays a key role in the development of psychopathology, notably through transactions with the family environment. In particular, temperamental negative emotionality is a documented antecedent of child aggressive behavior, with parenting stress sometimes proposed to play a mediating role in this association. However, research has mostly addressed bivariate associations and seldom considered the full chain linking child negative emotionality to aggression through parenting stress. In addition, most relevant studies have focused on mothers; therefore, possible combined contributions of maternal and paternal stress, such as interactive effects, are under-investigated. Addressing these gaps, this longitudinal multi-informant study aimed to examine the mediating role of maternal parenting stress, paternal parenting stress, and their interaction in the association between infant negative emotionality and child aggression. Among 186 mostly White middle-class families (98 boys), infant negative emotionality was reported by mothers and fathers at 15 months, both parents reported on their own parenting stress at 3 years, and child aggression was assessed by teachers in the first grade of elementary school. The results revealed a moderated mediated pathway, such that there was a significant indirect effect of child negative emotionality on aggression through paternal stress, however only when maternal stress was also high. These findings suggest that the risk of negative emotionality translating to aggressive behavior is magnified when both parents experience high levels of stress in their parenting role. The results also underscore that both parents play significant yet different roles in the process linking early negative emotionality to subsequent aggression.

Interactions Between Child Personality and Parenting in Relation to Child Well-Being: Support for Diathesis-Stress and Differential Susceptibility Patterns

It is well-recognized that the individual characteristics of children moderate the effects of developmental conditions on the well-being of a child. The majority of interactions follow a diathesis-stress pattern; there is also evidence for differential susceptibility and vantage sensitivity models. The present study aimed to examine interactions between parenting and child personality in relation to the well-being of a Russian child and to evaluate the models for moderated relationships. Participants were primary caregivers of 370 children aged 2-7 years. Moderation effects were examined using hierarchical multiple regression and bivariate linear models. In order to differentiate between the models of environmental sensitivity, the analysis of regions of significance was used. Consistent with a diathesis-stress framework, the results revealed that among children low in conscientiousness and high in activity, punitive parenting was a risk factor for externalizing problems; among introverted and fearful children, punitive parenting was a risk factor for internalizing problems. Positive parenting/involvement was a protective factor for internalizing behavior, only for children low in openness. The findings also demonstrate the following evidence for the differential susceptibility model: children low in Beta higher-order personality trait (also known as plasticity or personal growth) showed more total problems when faced with low positive parenting, but fewer problems when experiencing high-quality parenting.

Parity moderates the effect of delivery mode on maternal ratings of infant temperament

Objective

Cesarean section (CS) rates are rising rapidly around the world but no conclusive evidence has been obtained about the possible short- and long-term effects of CS on child behavior. We evaluated prospectively the association between CS and infant temperament across the first 9 postpartum months, controlling for indications for CS and investigating parity and infant sex as moderators.

Methods

The sample consisted of mothers and their healthy infants. Infant temperament was measured using the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire completed by the mothers at 6 weeks (n = 452) and 9 months (n = 258) postpartum. Mode of birth was classified into spontaneous vaginal birth (n = 347 for 6 weeks sample; 197 for 9 months sample), CS planned for medical reasons (n = 55; 28) and emergency CS (n = 50; 33).

Results

Multiple regression analysis revealed no main effects of birth mode, but showed a significant interaction between birth mode and parity indicating that emergency CS in firstborn infants was associated with more difficult temperament at 6 weeks. There were no significant associations between indications for CS and infant temperament, although breech presentation predicted difficult temperament at 9 months.

Conclusion

We largely failed to support the association between CS and infant temperament. Although our results suggest that emergency CS may be associated with temperament in firstborns, further research is needed to replicate this finding, preferably using observational measures to assess child temperament.

Protocol for the Pregnancy During the COVID-19 Pandemic (PdP) Study: A Longitudinal Cohort Study of Mental Health Among Pregnant Canadians During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Developmental Outcomes in Their Children

BACKGROUND

The COVID-19 pandemic and countermeasures implemented by governments around the world have led to dramatically increased symptoms of depression and anxiety. Pregnant individuals may be particularly vulnerable to the negative psychological effects of COVID-19 public health measures because they represent a demographic that is most affected by disasters and because pregnancy itself entails significant life changes that require major psychosocial and emotional adjustments.

OBJECTIVE

The PdP study was designed to investigate the associations among exposure to objective hardship caused by the pandemic, perceived stress and psychological distress in pregnant individuals, and developmental outcomes in their offspring.

METHODS

The PdP study comprises a prospective longitudinal cohort of individuals who were pregnant at enrollment, with repeated follow-ups during pregnancy and the postpartum period. Participants were eligible if they were pregnant, ≥17 years old, at ≤35 weeks of gestation at study enrollment, living in Canada, and able to read and write in English or French. At enrollment, participants completed an initial survey that assessed demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, previous pregnancies and births, prepregnancy health, health conditions during pregnancy, medications, psychological distress, social support, and hardships experienced because of the COVID-19 pandemic (eg, lost employment or a loved one dying). For the first three months following the initial survey, participants received a monthly email link to complete a follow-up survey that asked about their experiences since the previous survey. After three months, follow-up surveys were sent every other month to reduce participant burden. For each of these surveys, participants were first asked if they were still pregnant and then routed either to the next prenatal survey or to the delivery survey. In the postpartum period, surveys were sent at 3, 6, and 12 months of infant age to assess maternal stress, psychological distress, and infant development.

RESULTS

Participant recruitment via social media (Facebook and Instagram) began on April 5, 2020, and is ongoing. As of April 2021, more than 11,000 individuals have started the initial survey. Follow-up data collection is ongoing.

CONCLUSIONS

This longitudinal investigation seeks to elucidate the associations among hardships, maternal psychological distress, child development during the COVID-19 pandemic, and risk and resilience factors that amplify or ameliorate these associations. The findings of this study are intended to generate knowledge about the psychological consequences of pandemics on pregnant individuals and point toward prevention and intervention targets.

INTERNATIONAL REGISTERED REPORT IDENTIFIER (IRRID)

DERR1-10.2196/25407.

The development of temperament and maternal perception of child: A cross-cultural examination in the United States and Japan

Previous research shows cross-cultural differences in adult personality and child temperament, yet the developmental origin of these cultural differences remains unclear. To understand a potential role of socialization grounded in cultural values, this study investigated culturally specific maternal perceptions of child and children's development of temperament in the U.S. and Japan. Maternal perception of child was assessed via maternal interview in the U.S. (n = 42) and Japan (n = 40). Six months after the interview, child's temperament was assessed. Cross-cultural differences in maternal perception of child and child's temperament, and the relation between the two were analyzed. US-American infants scored higher on the surgency/extraversion trait than Japanese infants, whereas Japanese infants scored higher on the negative affectivity/neuroticism trait than US-American infants. US-American mothers used more positive evaluation and private/autonomy descriptions of their infants, whereas Japanese mothers used more negative evaluation and context-specific descriptions of their infants by making references to other people, time, or location. Child's negative affectivity trait was closely related to maternal perception of child's social/context characteristics and negative evaluations. The findings provide support for the socio-cultural framework of temperament development and suggest an important consideration of cultural factors when designing educational and parenting programs.

Parents' optimism is related to their ratings of their children's behaviour

Associations between parents' dispositional optimism‐pessimism (LOT‐R) and their ratings of their children's behaviour were studied prospectively from infancy (M = 6.3, SD = 1.3 months) to middle childhood (M = 5.5, SD = 0.23 years) (n = 212). One parent's higher optimism (overall LOT‐R and component score) and/or lower pessimism (component score) at infancy predicted the same parent's own but not the other parent's ratings of the child's behaviour as less internalising and less externalising, and socially more competent and greater in self‐mastery in middle childhood, even when controlling for child's positive and negative affectivity 5 years earlier. Ratings of lower negative affectivity in their infant predicted the same parent's increasing optimism and decreasing pessimism over 5 years. The associations between parental optimism and the child's social competence and self‐mastery survived after adjustments for parental neuroticism and depressive symptoms. Neither parent nor child gender systematically moderated the associations. The current findings shed light on the developmental paths of children's positive behavioural outcomes. (n = 144). Copyright © 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Transactional development of parent personality and child temperament

Stability and change in parental extraversion and neuroticism were studied in transaction with their views of their child's temperament from the age of six months to the age of five‐and‐a‐half years in 109 mother–father–child triads (parent–daughter: n = 61, parent–son: n = 48). While parental traits showed high stability, infants' higher positive affectivity predicted an increase in parental extraversion over 5 years, and infant's higher activity predicted a decrease in parental neuroticism. Parent‐rated temperament showed expected heterotypic continuity. Initially higher parental extraversion predicted an increase in the child's effortful control, and higher parental neuroticism predicted an increase in the child's negative affectivity. The results indicate that parental personality and child temperament develop in transaction promoting change in each other. Copyright © 2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Antecedents of fathers' perception of child behavior at child age 12 months

This study investigates whether fathers' adverse childhood experiences (ACE) and attachment style reported during pregnancy predict fathers' perception of child behavior assessed 12 months postpartum, expressed by the Parenting Stress Index (PSI), Child Domain. Prospective fathers (N = 835) were recruited to "The Little in Norway (LiN) study" (Moe & Smith) at nine well-baby clinics in Norway, with data collection composed of five time points during pregnancy and two time points postpartum (6 and 12 months). The main analyses included linear regression, path-analysis modeling, and intraclass correlation based on mixed effects modeling. First, linear regression analyses showed that neither fathers' ACE nor attachment style significantly predicted perceived child behavior postpartum directly. Furthermore, path analyses showed that ACE and less secure attachment style (especially avoidant attachment) measured early in pregnancy strongly predicted negatively perceived child behavior, mediated by fathers' mental health symptoms during pregnancy and partner disharmony postpartum. Second, intraclass correlation analyses showed that fathers' perceived child behavior showed substantial stability between 6 and 12 months postpartum. Family interventions beginning in pregnancy may be most beneficial given that fathers' early experiences and perceptions of attachment in pregnancy were associated with later partner disharmony and stress.

Effect of Maternal Distress on Perceptions of Infant Behavior May Differ in Chinese-American and European-American Mothers and Infants

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the associations between maternal distress (symptoms of depression and anxiety) and observer and maternal ratings of infant temperament in Chinese-American (CA) and European-American (EA) 4-month-old infants (N = 114 dyads).

METHODS

Maternal distress was obtained through self-reported symptoms of depression and anxiety. Mothers reported infant temperament (distress at limitations, soothability, and fear) through the short form of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised. To obtain observer-rated infant reactivity, infants were administered a battery of visual and auditory stimuli in the laboratory, in which infant behaviors (fret/cry, limb activity, and arching of the back) were coded.

RESULTS

Maternal distress accounted more for the maternal perception of her infant among EA mothers than among CA mothers, but the relation was only observed for soothability. Higher maternal distress was associated with maternal report of lower soothability for EA mothers. Observer-rated infant reactivity, but not maternal distress, was positively associated with EA and CA maternal report of distress at limitations. Observer-rated infant negativity was associated with somewhat higher ratings of infant fear for EA mothers, although this association for EA mothers was not significantly different from CA mothers.

CONCLUSIONS

Potential biases in maternal report of infant behavior due to effects from maternal distress may not be generalizable across cultures but may vary because of cultural norms for emotional experience and expectations for infant behavior. EA mothers' ratings of infant distress and soothability, but not fear, may be influenced by maternal distress.

Infant rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) personality and subjective well-being

Infant temperament is theorized to lay the foundation for adult personality; however, many questions remain regarding personality in infancy, including the number of dimensions, extent to which they are adult-like, and their relation to other outcomes, such as mental and physical health. Here we tested whether adult-like personality dimensions are already present in infancy in a nonhuman primate species. We measured personality and subjective well-being in 7-month-old rhesus macaques (N = 55) using the Hominoid Personality Questionnaire and Subjective Well-Being Questionnaire, both of which were developed for adult primates based on human measures. Multiple human raters, who provided infants with daily care since birth, independently rated each infant. We found high interrater reliability. Results from a parallel analysis and scree plot indicated a five component structure, which, using principal components analysis, we found to be comprised of dimensions relating to Openness (e.g., curiosity, inquisitive, playfulness), Assertiveness (e.g., dominance, bullying, aggressive), Anxiety (e.g., vigilance, fearful), Friendliness (e.g., sociable, affectionate, sympathetic), and Intellect (e.g., organized, not erratic). These components are largely analogous to those in adult macaques, suggesting remarkably stable structural personality components across the lifespan. Infant macaques' subjective well-being positively correlates with Openness and Assertiveness and negatively correlated with Anxiety, similar to findings in adult macaques and other primates. Together, these findings suggest that, in macaques, infant personality dimensions may be conceptually related to adult personality and challenge the view that infant temperament may be disorganized and not as meaningful as adult personality. Further research is necessary to explore the antecedents, predictive validity, and stability of these personality components across situations and with development.

Caregiver perceptions of child development in rural Madagascar: a cross-sectional study

Background

Human capital (the knowledge, skills, and health that accumulate over life) can be optimized by investments in early childhood to promote cognitive and language development. Parents and caregivers play a crucial role in the promotion and support of cognitive development in their children. Thus, understanding caregiver perceptions of a child’s capabilities and attributes, including intelligence, may enhance investments early in life. To explore this question, we asked caregivers to rank their child’s intelligence in comparison with other children in the community, and compared this ranking with children’s scores on an assessment of developmental abilities across multiple domains.

Methods

Our study examined cross-sectional data of 3361 children aged 16–42 months in rural Madagascar. Child intelligence, as perceived by their caregiver, was captured using a ladder ranking scale based on the MacArthur Scale for Subjective Social Status. Children’s developmental abilities were assessed using scores from the Ages and Stages Questionnaire: Inventory (ASQ-I), which measures cognitive, language, and socio-emotional development. Ranked percentiles of the ASQ-I were generated within communities and across the whole sample. We created categories of under-estimation, matched, and over-estimation by taking the differences in rankings between caregiver-perceived child intelligence and ASQ-I. Child nutritional status, caregiver belief of their influence on child intelligence, and sociodemographic factors were examined as potential correlates of discordance between the measures using multinomial logistic regressions.

Results

We found caregiver perceptions of intelligence in Madagascar did not align consistently with the ASQ-I, with approximately 8% of caregivers under-estimating and almost 50% over-estimating their children’s developmental abilities. Child nutritional status, caregiver belief of their influence on child intelligence, caregiver education, and wealth were associated with under- or over-estimation of children’s developmental abilities.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest parents may not always have an accurate perception of their child’s intelligence or abilities compared with other children. The results are consistent with the limited literature on parental perceptions of child nutrition, which documents a discordance between caregiver perceptions and objective measures. Further research is needed to understand the common cues caregivers that use to identify child development milestones and how these may differ from researcher-observed measures in low-income settings.

Trial registration

Current Controlled Trials ISRCTN14393738. Registered June 23, 2015.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s12889-019-7578-3) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Parents' Perception of Their 2⁻10-Year-Old Children's Contribution to The Dyadic Parent-Child Relationship in Terms of Positive and Negative Behaviors

Parent-child relationship is developed and changed through reciprocal interactions between a child and his/her parent, and these interactions can strongly influence the child's development across domains (e.g., emotional, physical, and intellectual). However, little is known about the parental perception of the child's contribution to the dyadic parent-child relationship in terms of positive and negative behaviors. We therefore aimed to develop and validate an economical parent-report instrument to assess these important aspects. The validation study included 1642 mothers (Mage = 37.1) and 1068 fathers (Mage = 40.4) of 1712 children aged 2⁻10 years (Mage = 6.6) who completed the new instrument, the Child Relationship Behavior Inventory (CRBI). Statistical results indicated that the CRBI is a reliable and valid measure. Mothers reported more positive child behaviors towards them, whereas fathers perceived fewer problems with problematic relationship behavior than mothers. In their parents' perception, girls showed more positive and less problematic relationship behaviors than boys. The frequency of problematic child relationship behavior significantly decreased with increasing child age while positive relationship behavior did not show any correlation with the child's age. To assess both positive and negative child relationship behaviors could be helpful to better understand the relevance of these different aspects for the development of the parent-child relationship.

Interactive Effects of Infant Gestational Age and Infant Fussiness on the Risk of Maternal Depressive Symptoms in a Nationally Representative Sample

OBJECTIVE

To examine the interactive effects of gestational age and infant fussiness on the risk of maternal depressive symptoms in a nationally representative sample.

METHODS

Our sample included 8200 children from the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study, Birth Cohort. Gestational age categories were very preterm (VPT, 24-31 weeks), moderate/late preterm (MLPT, 32-36 weeks) and full term (FT, 37-41 weeks). Maternal depressive symptoms (categorized as nondepressed/mild/moderate-severe), from the modified Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Questionnaire, and infant fussiness (categorized as fussy/not fussy) were assessed at 9 months from parent-report questionnaires. We examined the interactive effects of infant fussiness and gestational age categories and estimated adjusted odds ratios (aOR) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) of maternal depressive symptoms using multinomial logistic regression.

RESULTS

Infant fussiness interacted with gestational age categories in predicting maternal depressive symptoms (P = .04), with severity varying by gestational age and infant fussiness. Compared with mothers of VPT infants without fussiness, mothers of VPT infants with fussiness had greater odds of mild depressive symptoms (aOR, 2.32; 95% CI, 1.19-4.53). Similarly, compared with mothers of MLPT and FT infants without fussiness, mothers of fussy MLPT and FT infants had greater odds of moderate-severe symptoms (aOR, 2.30; 95% CI, 1.40-3.80, and aOR, 1.74; 95% CI, 1.40-2.16, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

Mothers of MLPT and FT infants with fussiness had increased odds of moderate-severe depressive symptoms, and mothers of VPT infants with fussiness had increased risk of mild symptoms. Early screening for infant fussiness in preterm and FT may help identify mothers with depressive symptoms in need of support.

Latent State-Trait Modeling: A New Tool to Refine Temperament Methodology

Questions concerning longitudinal stability and multi-method consistency are critical to temperament research. Latent State-Trait (LST) analyses address these directly, and were utilized in this study. Thus, our primary objective was to apply LST analyses in a temperament context, using longitudinal and multi-method data to determine the amount of trait vs. state variance, as well as convergence for measures of Distress to Limitations (DL) facets. Mothers' ratings and independent observations of DL behaviors collected on two occasions (8 months old and 12 months old) for 148 infants (49.2% female) were utilized. Single source latent state-trait (LST) analyses indicated that parent ratings of DL behavior (PDL) contained more trait (M = 61%) than state residual (M = 39%) variance, whereas independent observations (IO) of DL behavior contained substantially more state residual (75%) than trait (25%) variance. A multiple source LST analysis indicated virtually zero convergence for either trait or state residual variance between PDL and IO ratings (M = 2%). In conclusion, PDL ratings were more trait-like across the four-month interval, whereas IO ratings of DL were more state-like in nature. Also, no convergence was found between the two methods of measurement. Results are discussed with an emphasis on implications for the utility of LST analyses in temperament research.

Developmental cascade effects of interpersonal psychotherapy for depressed mothers: Longitudinal associations with toddler attachment, temperament, and maternal parenting efficacy

Using a developmental cascades framework, the current study investigated whether treating maternal depression via interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) may lead to more widespread positive adaptation for offspring and mothers including benefits to toddler attachment and temperament, and maternal parenting self-efficacy. The participants (N = 125 mother-child dyads; mean mother age at baseline = 25.43 years; 54.4% of mothers were African American; mean offspring age at baseline = 13.23 months) were from a randomized controlled trial of IPT for a sample of racially and ethnically diverse, socioeconomically disadvantaged mothers of infants. Mothers were randomized to IPT (n = 97) or an enhanced community standard control group (n = 28). The results of complier average causal effect modeling showed that engagement with IPT led to significant decreases in maternal depressive symptoms at posttreatment. Moreover, reductions in maternal depression posttreatment were associated with less toddler disorganized attachment characteristics, more adaptive maternal perceptions of toddler temperament, and improved maternal parenting efficacy 8 months following the completion of treatment. Our findings contribute to the emerging literature documenting the potential benefits to children of successfully treating maternal depression. Alleviating maternal depression appears to initiate a cascade of positive adaptation among both mothers and offspring, which may alter the well-documented risk trajectory for offspring of depressed mothers.

Mindful with Your Baby: Feasibility, Acceptability, and Effects of a Mindful Parenting Group Training for Mothers and Their Babies in a Mental Health Context

Many mothers experience difficulties after the birth of a baby. Mindful parenting may have benefits for mothers and babies, because it can help mothers regulate stress, and be more attentive towards themselves and their babies, which may have positive effects on their responsivity. This study examined the effectiveness of Mindful with your baby, an 8-week mindful parenting group training for mothers with their babies. The presence of the babies provides on-the-spot practicing opportunities and facilitates generalization of what is learned. Forty-four mothers with their babies (0-18 months), who were referred to a mental health clinic because of elevated stress or mental health problems of the mother, infant (regulation) problems, or mother-infant interaction problems, participated in 10 groups, each comprising of three to six mother-baby dyads. Questionnaires were administered at pretest, posttest, 8-week follow-up, and 1-year follow-up. Dropout rate was 7%. At posttest, 8-week follow-up, and 1-year follow-up, a significant improvement was seen in mindfulness, self-compassion, mindful parenting, (medium to large effects), as well as in well-being, psychopathology, parental confidence, responsivity, and hostility (small to large effects). Parental stress and parental affection only improved at the first and second follow-ups, respectively (small to medium effects), and maternal attention and rejection did not change. The infants improved in their positive affectivity (medium effect) but not in other aspects of their temperament. Mindful with your baby is a promising intervention for mothers with babies who are referred to mental health care because of elevated stress or mental health problems, infant (regulation) problems, or mother-infant interaction problems.

Cross-Cultural Comparisons of Infant Fear

Cross-cultural investigations addressing the development of individual differences are important because these speak to the generalizability of results and the extent to which the development of temperament and personality differs by culture. The present study was aimed at comparing manifestations of fear, defined in infancy as startle or distress to sudden changes in stimulation (e.g., facial/bodily expressions of fear), and inhibited approach to novelty (e.g., escape/avoidance), for samples from Spain ( n = 51) and the United States ( n = 102). We obtained data from mothers of U.S. and Spanish infants at 12 months of age, also observing these babies in the context of a structured laboratory procedure designed to elicit fearful reactivity. Data reduction efforts produced coherent observation-based fearfulness constructs for both groups, and individual indicators were also examined. Significant differences between U.S. and Spanish infants for the observation-based fear composite and component indices of distress vocalizations, bodily fear, and escape intensity, but not for the parent-report of this attribute, were demonstrated. A significant culture-by-gender interaction emerged for the laboratory-based fear composite and the intensity of facial fear indicator, wherein Spanish female infants exhibited higher intensity of expression, relative to the U.S. counterparts.

Temperament and ecological context among Yucatec Mayan children

This study examined the relationships between temperament and ecological context among Yucatec Mayan children based on the assumption that maternal ethnotheories act as mediators and are related to world view. Since the latter is related to ecological context, its transformation may result in variations in ethnotheories and, therefore, temperament characteristics. Using standard questionnaires and ethnographic data, we evaluated 178 children aged 4 to 36 months from two villages representing the most contrasting ecological contexts in Yucatan, Mexico. Mothers described temperament-like behaviours as modos (ways) and related them to their concepts of development and children’s vulnerability, and to child-care and rearing practices. Age predicted threshold, approach, and intensity. Ecological context independently contributed to variations in approach, intensity, mood, and distractibility. Parental characteristics did not independently contribute but appeared to influence the relation between ecological context and mood, intensity, and distractibility. The findings suggest that temperament variations associated with ecological context may result from differences in maternal ethnotheories about rate of development and vulnerability of children and that knowledge of the national language and increased education without transformation of ecological context may have influenced ethnotheories on rate of development rather than on vulnerability.

Infant temperament: stability by age, gender, birth order, term status, and socioeconomic status

Two complementary studies focused on stability of infant temperament across the 1st year and considered infant age, gender, birth order, term status, and socioeconomic status (SES) as moderators. Study 1 consisted of 73 mothers of firstborn term girls and boys queried at 2, 5, and 13 months of age. Study 2 consisted of 335 mothers of infants of different gender, birth order, term status, and SES queried at 6 and 12 months. Consistent positive and negative affectivity factors emerged at all time points across both studies. Infant temperament proved stable and robust across gender, birth order, term status, and SES. Stability coefficients for temperament factors and scales were medium to large for shorter (< 9 months) interassessment intervals and small to medium for longer (> 10 months) intervals.

Structure of observed temperament in middle childhood

Although much is known about the structure of adult temperament and personality, significantly less is known about the structure of child temperament. We examined the structure of child temperament in 205 seven-year-olds using observational measures. Exploratory factor analysis identified factors representing positive emotionality/sociability, disinhibition/anger, fear/behavioral inhibition, and sadness. The predictive validity of these dimensions was evaluated by examining their associations with children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms: positive emotionality/sociability showed positive associations with ADHD symptoms, disinhibition/anger showed positive associations with externalizing symptoms, fear/behavioral inhibition showed negative associations with ADHD and CD symptoms, and sadness showed positive associations with both internalizing and externalizing problems. These associations were consistent with extant literature on temperament and psychopathology, supporting the validity of the structure obtained.

Competence and responsiveness in mothers of late preterm infants versus term infants

OBJECTIVE

To compare maternal competence and responsiveness in mothers of late preterm infants (LPIs) with mothers of full-term infants.

DESIGN

A nonexperimental repeated-measures design was used to compare maternal competence and responsiveness in two groups of postpartum mothers and the relationship of the theoretical antecedents to these outcomes.

SETTING

Urban academic medical center.

PARTICIPANTS

Mothers of late preterm infants (34-36, 6/7-weeks gestation) and mothers of term infants (≥37-weeks gestation), including primiparas and multiparas. Data were collected after delivery during the postpartum hospital stay and again at 6-weeks postpartum.

METHODS

Descriptive and inferential analysis.

RESULTS

A total of 70 mothers completed both data collection periods: 49 term mothers and 21 LPI mothers. There were no differences between the two groups related to their perception of competence or responsiveness at delivery or 6-weeks postpartum. At 6-weeks postpartum, none of the assessed factors in the model was significantly related to competence or responsiveness.

CONCLUSIONS

The results, which may have been limited by small sample size, demonstrated no difference in the perceptions of LPI and term mothers related to competence or responsiveness. Maternal stress and support were significantly related to other factors in the model of maternal competence and responsiveness.

Early Temperament in Japan, the United States, and Russia

The present study addressed differences in infant and toddler temperament, utilizing translations of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire–Revised (IBQ-R) and the Early Childhood Behavior Questionnaire (ECBQ), for children growing up in the United States, Russia, and Japan. Results indicated a number of significant differences in higher-order dimensions and fine-grained components of early temperament between the three cultural groups. U.S. children scored higher for Surgency and related traits, compared to Japanese and Russian children; Negative Affectivity showed the opposite pattern of cross-cultural differences, wherein Japanese children received the highest scores from their caregivers. In addition, Japanese infants and toddlers scored lower for Effortful Control. Significant Culture × Age interactions indicated that patterns of cross-cultural differences in different age groups varied across and within the three higher-order dimensions. Surgency, as well as positive affect to both low and high levels of intensity, showed a consistent pattern of decreasing cultural differences with age.

Postpartum maternal sleep and mothers’ perceptions of their attachment relationship with the infant among women with a history of depression during pregnancy

This study assessed the links between maternal sleep and mothers’ perceptions of their attachment relationship with their infant among women at risk for postpartum depression by virtue of having been depressed during pregnancy. Sixty-two mothers completed sleep diaries and questionnaires at 3 and 6 months postpartum. Regression analyses, controlling for depression severity and infant temperament, revealed significant prospective correlation between maternal shorter total sleep time at 3 months and lower scores on a mother–infant attachment questionnaire at 6 months. At 6 months, the longer time mothers were awake tending to their infants the lower were their attachment scores. The findings suggest that improving sleep of mothers who suffered from prenatal depression may have a positive effect on mothers’ self-reported relationship with their infants.

Perceived partner support in pregnancy predicts lower maternal and infant distress

Maternal postpartum emotional distress is quite common and can pose significant risk to mothers and infants. The current study investigated mothers' relationships with their partners during pregnancy and tested the hypotheses that perception of prenatal partner support is a significant predictor of changes in maternal emotional distress from midpregnancy to postpartum, and contributes to maternal ratings of infant distress to novelty. Using a prospective longitudinal design, 272 adult pregnant women were interviewed regarding their partner support, relationship satisfaction, and interpersonal security (attachment style and willingness to seek out support), and they completed standardized measures of prenatal symptoms of depression and anxiety (distress). At 6 to 8 weeks' postpartum, mothers reported these symptoms again and completed measures of their infants' temperament. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was used to test direct and indirect contributions of partner support, relationship satisfaction, and interpersonal security to maternal and infant postpartum distress. Mothers who perceived stronger social support from their partners midpregnancy had lower emotional distress postpartum after controlling for their distress in early pregnancy, and their infants were reported to be less distressed in response to novelty. Partner support mediated the effects of mothers' interpersonal security and relationship satisfaction on maternal and infant outcomes. A high-quality, supportive partner relationship during pregnancy may contribute to improved maternal and infant well-being postpartum, indicating a potential role for partner relationships in mental health interventions, with possible benefits for infants as well.

More than just a pretty face. The relationship between infant's temperament, food acceptance, and mothers' perceptions of their enjoyment of food

The goal of the present study was to determine whether mothers' assessment of their infants' temperament is associated with objective measures of the infant's acceptance patterns and their judgments of the infants' liking of a green vegetable. To this end, infants (N=92) were video-recorded as their mothers fed them green beans. From these videos, we determined the frequency of facial distaste expressions made during the first 2 min of the feeding. Other measures included intake, maternal ratings of infants' enjoyment of this vegetable, and temperament. Infants who scored high on the approach dimension of the temperament questionnaire were less likely to express facial expressions of distaste, consumed more food, and were perceived by their mothers as enjoying the food more. Mediation analyses revealed that ratings of enjoyment were not directly related to the child's approach temperament, but rather the relationship between mothers' ratings and temperament was mediated by the amount of time infants spent eating the vegetable. Regression analyses suggested that in addition to the length of time children ate, mothers' ratings of their infants' enjoyment was predicted by the number of squints that the infant expressed during the meal. These findings suggest that although certain aspects of children's temperament are related to their food acceptance, mothers attend to facial expressions and time spent eating independently of these temperamental characteristics when judging their infant's enjoyment of a food. Understanding how mothers use this information to decide which foods to feed their infants is an important area for future research.

The impact of maternal childhood abuse on parenting and infant temperament

The impact of maternal history of maltreatment and psychopathology on mother-child relationship, parenting, and infant temperament was evaluated. Women completed self-report measures addressing childhood trauma, psychopathology, infant-parent relationship, parenting, and infant temperament. Maternal physical abuse was associated with poorer mother-child interactions, increased vigilance, and difficulty recovering from distress among infants, whereas a history of emotional abuse was linked with less interactional dysfunction, lower levels of infant frustration, and more pleasure. Maternal depression was associated with infant temperament and attitudes about parenting. These findings suggest that maternal history of childhood abuse and psychopathology are important determinants of parenting and infant temperament.

Child's positive and negative impacts on parents--a person-oriented approach to understanding temperament in preschool children with intellectual disabilities

BACKGROUND

Despite previous efforts to understand temperament in children with intellectual disability (ID), and how child temperament may affect parents, the approach has so far been unidimensional. Child temperament has been considered in relation to diagnosis, with the inherent risk of overlooking individual variation of children's temperament profiles within diagnostic groups. The aim of the present study was to identify temperamental profiles of children with ID, and investigate how these may affect parents in terms of positive and negative impacts.

METHOD

Parent-rated temperament in children with ID was explored through a person-oriented approach (cluster analysis). Children with ID (N=49) and typically developing (TD) children (N=82) aged between 4 and 6 years were clustered separately.

RESULTS

Variation in temperament profiles was more prominent among children with ID than in TD children. Out of the three clusters found in the ID group, the disruptive, and passive/withdrawn clusters were distinctly different from clusters found in the TD group in terms of temperament, while the cluster active and outgoing was similar in shape and level of temperament ratings of TD children. Children within the disruptive cluster were described to have more negative and less positive impacts on mothers compared to children within the other clusters in the ID group.

CONCLUSIONS

Mothers who describe their children as having disruptive temperament may be at particular risk for experiencing higher parenting stress as they report that the child has higher negative and lower positive impacts than other parents describe. The absence of a relationship between child temperament profile and positive or negative impact on fathers may indicate that fathers are less affected by child temperament. However, this relationship needs to be further explored.

Maternal sleep and depressive symptoms: links with infant Negative Affectivity

This study assessed whether elevated severities of maternal depression and disturbed maternal sleep would be associated with maternal perceptions of higher Negative Affectivity of her infant. Sixty-nine mothers participated in this study. The study was part of a larger randomized controlled study testing the efficacy of acupuncture as a treatment for depression during pregnancy. The present study focused on data collected at 6 months postpartum in a naturalistic follow-up design, using the Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HRSD), maternal sleep diaries (completed daily for 1 week), and the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R). Regression analyses revealed that (a) maternal depression severity was a significant predictor of the IBQ-R Distress and Falling Reactivity scales and (b) poor maternal sleep was a significant predictor of the IBQ-R Sadness scale. Our findings support previous findings of significant links between maternal emotional distress and perceived Negative Affectivity of her infant's temperament and provide a novel insight linking maternal poor sleep with perceived sadness of the infant.

Studying cross-cultural differences in temperament in the first year of life: United States and Italy

An Italian translation of the Infant Behavior Questionnaire-Revised (IBQ-R) was developed and evaluated with 110 infants, demonstrating satisfactory internal consistency, discriminant validity, and construct validity in the form of gender and age differences, as well as factorial integrity. Cross-cultural differences were subsequently evaluated for matched samples of Italian and United States (US) (N = 110) 3—12-month-olds. Across infancy, parents of US infants reported higher levels of activity, high and low intensity pleasure, and vocal reactivity, whereas Italian infants, particularly males, were rated higher on cuddliness. In early infancy only, US infants were viewed as higher on high intensity pleasure and perceptual sensitivity.

Maternal Accuracy and Behavior in Anticipating Children's Responses to Novelty: Relations to Fearful Temperament and Implications for Anxiety Development

Previous research has suggested that mothers' behaviors may serve as a mechanism in the development from toddler fearful temperament to childhood anxiety. The current study examined the maternal characteristic of accuracy in predicting toddlers' distress reactions to novelty in relation to temperament, parenting, and anxiety development. Ninety-three two-year-old toddlers and their mothers participated in the study. Maternal accuracy moderated the relation between fearful temperament and protective behavior, suggesting this bidirectional link may be more likely to occur when mothers are particularly attuned to their children's fear responses. An exploratory moderated mediation analysis supported the mechanistic role of protective parenting in the relation between early fearful temperament and later anxiety. Mediation only occurred, however, when mothers displayed high accuracy. Results are discussed within the broader literature of parental influence on fearful children's development.

Affect expression in mother-infant interaction and subsequent attachment development

Study results diverge considerably in respect of the range of emotions expressed and control of negative affect by mothers in subsequently securely and insecurely attached dyads. The present study thus analyzes whether attachment security can be predicted by preceding maternal style of affect expression and control. Participants were 89 healthy firstborn infants and their primary caregivers. Infants' and mothers' positive and negative affect expression and maternal lack of openness (i.e. attempts to mask negative emotion) were assessed at 4, 8, and 12 months. Attachment security was assessed at 18 months using Ainsworth's Strange Situation Procedure. At 4 months, a pattern consisting of positive maternal affect expression accompanied by neutral or negative expression in the infant was associated with later insecurity. At 12 months, low maternal openness, low amount of negative affect expression and the coincidence of mother and infant's positive affect expression were linked to insecurity. Thus, in the infant's first months mothers in subsequently insecurely attached dyads show a high amount of positive emotion which is often not shared with the infant. At the end of the infant's first year these mothers show a less open emotion communication style, including attempts to hide negative affect and heightening of positive mood.

Postnatal maternal cortisol levels predict temperament in healthy breastfed infants

BACKGROUND

The implications of the biologically active elements in breast milk for the breastfed infant are largely unknown. Animal models suggest that ingestion of glucocorticoids during the neonatal period influences fear behavior and modifies brain development.

AIMS

To determine the association between postnatal maternal cortisol levels and temperament in breastfed infants.

STUDY DESIGN

The relation between maternal cortisol and infant temperament was examined in breastfed and formula-fed infants. Plasma cortisol was used as a surrogate measure for breast milk cortisol levels (plasma and milk levels are correlated in the 0.6 to 0.7 range; [Patacchioli FR, Cigliana G, Cilumbriello A, Perrone G, Capri O, Alemà GS, et al. Maternal plasma and milk free cortisol during the first 3 days of breast-feeding following spontaneous delivery or elective cesarean section. Gynecologic and Obstetric Investigations 1992;34:159-163.]. If exposure to elevated cortisol levels during infancy influences temperament, then a relation between the two should be found among the breastfed infants, but not among the formula-fed infants.

SUBJECTS

Two hundred fifty-three two-month-old infants and their mothers.

OUTCOME MEASURES

Fearful temperament assessed with the Infant Behavior Questionnaire [Garstein MR, Rothbart MK. Studying infant temperament via the revised infant behavior questionnaire. Infant Behavior and Development 2003;26:64-86].

RESULTS

Among the breastfed infants, higher maternal cortisol levels were associated with reports of increased infant fear behavior (partial r=0.2; p<0.01). This relation did not exist among the formula-fed infants. Negative maternal affect at the time of assessment did not account for the positive association in the breastfed group.

CONCLUSIONS

The findings are consistent with our proposal that exposure to cortisol in breast milk influences infant temperament. Biologically active components in breast milk may represent one avenue through which the mother shapes the development of the human infant during the postnatal period.

Maternal depression and infant temperament characteristics

One hundred-thirty-nine women participated in this longitudinal study from the third trimester of pregnancy through 8-months postpartum. Women completed depression scales at several time points and rated their infant's characteristics and childcare stress at 2- and 6-months postpartum. Mothers' reports of infant temperament were significantly different for depressed and non-depressed mothers, with depressed mothers reporting more difficult infants at both measurement points. These differences remained after controlling for histories of maternal abuse or prenatal anxiety, which occurred more often in the depressed mothers. There were no significant differences in childcare stress or perceived support between the groups. Infant temperament and childcare stress did not change over time. Recommendations for practice include consistent ongoing evaluations of the "goodness of fit" within the dyad and exploring interventions for depressed mothers that provide guidance about interactions with their infants and the appropriateness of the infant behaviors.

Prenatal exposure to maternal depression and cortisol influences infant temperament

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence indicates that prenatal maternal and fetal processes can have a lasting influence on infant and child development. Results from animal models indicate that prenatal exposure to maternal stress and stress hormones has lasting consequences for development of the offspring. Few prospective studies of human pregnancy have examined the consequences of prenatal exposure to stress and stress hormones.

METHOD

In this study the effects of prenatal maternal psychosocial (anxiety, depression, and perceived stress) and endocrine (cortisol) indicators of stress on infant temperament were examined in a sample of 247 full-term infants. Maternal salivary cortisol and psychological state were evaluated at 18-20, 24-26, and 30-32 weeks of gestation and at 2 months postpartum. Infant temperament was assessed with a measure of negative reactivity (the fear subscale of the Infant Temperament Questionnaire) at 2 months of age.

RESULTS

Elevated maternal cortisol at 30-32 weeks of gestation, but not earlier in pregnancy, was significantly associated with greater maternal report of infant negative reactivity. Prenatal maternal anxiety and depression additionally predicted infant temperament. The associations between maternal cortisol and maternal depression remained after controlling for postnatal maternal psychological state.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that prenatal exposure to maternal stress has consequences for the development of infant temperament.

Multimethod Longitudinal Assessment of Temperament in Early Childhood

The present study examined consistency of temperament across situations and time in early childhood. On two occasions, 7 months apart, we observed the responses of 94 four-year-olds to multiple standard laboratory procedures eliciting exuberance, fear, anger, sadness, or interest. In addition, fathers' and mothers' reports on children's temperament were obtained. Observed temperament showed substantial context specificity, varying across situations within dimensions. Structural equation models revealed separate observation and parental perception factors and factorial invariance and high stability for most dimensions. Stability coefficients based on correlations varied according to level of aggregation. Measurement convergence was generally moderate and was lowest for negative emotionality. Implications for the assessment of temperament are discussed in relation to differences in consistency across dimensions and convergence between measures.

Continuity of temperament from infancy to middle childhood

Continuity of temperament from 6 months (the IBQ) to 5.5 years (the CBQ) was explored in Finnish children (n=231) within the theoretical framework deviced by Rothbart. Activity level, smiling and laughter, distress to limitations and fear showed significant differential homotypic and heterotypic continuity, while soothability and duration of orienting showed significant differential heterotypic continuity. On the level of latent superconstructs, infant positive and negative affectivity accounted for 4.6, 22.3, and 6.0% of the variance in childhood extraversion, effortful control and negative affectivity, respectively. Infant and childhood temperament clustered into profile types named "resilient", "undercontrolled", and "overcontrolled" mirroring ipsative continuity. These findings give empirical credence to Rothbart's theory by replicating and extending previous findings in significant ways.

Measurement of fine-grained aspects of toddler temperament: the early childhood behavior questionnaire

This article describes the development, reliability, and factor structure of a finely differentiated (18 dimensions) parent-report measure of temperament in 1.5- to 3-year-old children, using a cross-sectional sample (N=317) and a longitudinal sample of primary (N=104) and secondary (N=61) caregivers. Adequate internal consistency was demonstrated for all scales and moderate inter-rater reliability was evident for most scales. Longitudinal stability correlations were primarily large over 6- and 12-month spans and moderate to large from 18 to 36 months. Factor analysis revealed a three-factor structure of Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, and Effortful Control. In both samples and for both primary and secondary caregivers, older children received higher scores for Attention Focusing, Discomfort, Inhibitory Control, and Positive Anticipation. Primary caregivers rated females higher in Fear, and lower in High-intensity Pleasure, than males; secondary caregivers rated females higher than males in several aspects of Effortful Control.

Mother's early perception of her infant's difficult temperament, parenting stress and early mother-infant interaction

The current study investigated factors contributing to mother's early perception of her infant's difficult temperament. One hundred and twenty-four mother-infant dyads participated in the study. Mother's perception of the infant's temperament was assessed with the Infant Characteristics Questionnaire (ICQ). The influence of mother-infant interaction, mother's mental health and parenting stress were investigated. Mother-infant interaction was videotaped during a face-to-face interaction and analysed using the Global Rating Scale. Mother's mental health was assessed through a structured interview (Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-IV, SCID) and parenting stress was examined by a questionnaire (Parenting Stress Index). First, the difficulty scale of the ICQ was used as a continuous variable and factors contributing to mother's perception of her infant's temperament as more or less difficult were examined. Secondly, infants were categorized into difficult and non-difficult, and factors increasing the infant's risk of being perceived as difficult were examined. The model including mother's mental health and parental distress accounted for 24% of the variance in perceived infant difficulty, with parental distress in particular being an influential contributor. When infants categorized as difficult were examined, mother's intrusiveness and infant's poor interactive behaviour in early mother-infant interaction as well as parental distress significantly increased the infant's risk of being perceived as difficult.

[Comparing assessment methods of infant emotionality]

OBJECTIVES

The concept of infant emotionality (temperament) is frequently used in the fields of developmental psychopathology, developmental psychology, and child and adolescent psychiatry. However, a valid assessment of the construct has to deal with some difficulties. Parent reports and behaviour observations of the interaction between caregiver and infant may be biased by parental characteristics, while laboratory assessment procedures often have not been sufficiently validated.

METHODS

In the present study, three dimensions of temperament were assessed at three ages during the first year of life using three different measurement approaches. Convergent validity, discriminant validity and the associations of the temperament measures with maternal characteristics, i.e. depression, anxiety and educational status were analyzed. The study group consisted of 101 healthy first-born infants and their primary caregivers. At the ages of 4, 8 and 12 months, positive emotionality, negative emotionality and withdrawal/anxiety were assessed by means of a parent questionnaire, naturalistic behavioural observations of the caregiver-infant interaction, and by means of laboratory routines.

RESULTS

Aside from just two exceptions, there were significant convergent correlations between the different measures at each age. Particularly the laboratory routines revealed a good degree of discriminant validity. Questionnaire scores often correlated with the mothers' characteristics. These correlations were independent of the associations with the observational data.

CONCLUSIONS

Therewith, parent reports include an objective as well as a subjective component.