Genotoxicity of gardenia yellow and its components

Advanced quality assessment of Sanshishi (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) and Kampo medicines using a monoclonal antibody against geniposide

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, a plant widely used in traditional medicine, is known for its array of biological activities. A key bioactive compound, geniposide (GE), an iridoid glycoside, significantly contributes to the medicinal properties of the plant, with potential side effects. Thus, a reliable and efficient method for GE detection is required to ensure the quality of medicinal-grade G. jasminoides Ellis. This study developed such a method by first synthesizing GE-bovine serum albumin conjugates to function as immunizing agents in mice. This led to the production of a monoclonal antibody (mAb 3A6) against GE from the fusion of splenocytes from immunized mice with myeloma cells (P3U1), resulting in a hybridoma that produces mAb 3A6. Thereafter, we developed a mAb 3A6-based indirect competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (icELISA). The icELISA exhibited satisfactory sensitivity (0.391-12.5 μg/ml) and repeatability (coefficients of variation <10%). The accuracy of this method was validated through a spike-recovery assay (recovery of 101-112%). Furthermore, the icELISA was employed to determine the GE content in plant and Kampo medicine samples. The GE content positively correlated with those determined by high-performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet. The proposed icELISA is rapid, cost-effective, and reliable for high-throughput GE detection in G. jasminoides Ellis, thereby contributing to the improved quality control and standardization of this valuable medicinal plant.

Gardenia yellow pigment: Extraction methods, biological activities, current trends, and future prospects

Food coloring plays a vital role in influencing consumers' food choices, imparting vibrant and appealing colors to various food and beverage products. Synthetic food colorants have been the most commonly used coloring agents in the food industry. However, concerns about potential health issues related to synthetic colorants, coupled with increasing consumer demands for food safety and health, have led food manufacturers to explore natural alternatives. Natural pigments not only offer a wide range of colors to food products but also exhibit beneficial bioactive properties. Gardenia yellow pigment is a water-soluble natural pigment with various biological activities, widely present in gardenia fruits. Therefore, this paper aims to delve into Gardenia Yellow Pigment, highlighting its significance as a food colorant. Firstly, a thorough understanding and exploration of various methods for obtaining gardenia yellow pigment. Subsequently, the potential functionality of gardenia yellow pigment was elaborated, especially its excellent antioxidant and neuroprotective properties. Finally, the widespread application trend of gardenia yellow pigment in the food industry was explored, as well as the challenges faced by the future development of gardenia yellow pigment in the field of food and health. Some feasible solutions were proposed, providing valuable references and insights for researchers, food industry professionals, and policy makers.

Genipin, a natural blue colorant precursor: Source, extraction, properties, and applications

Natural cross-linkers are extensively employed due to their low toxicity and biocompatibility benefits. Genipin acts as a precursor for producing blue colorants. The formation of these colorants involves the cross-linking reaction between genipin and primary amines present in amino acids, peptides, and proteins. Genipin is extracted from Gardenia jasminoides and Genipa americana. This article explains the cross-linking mechanism of genipin with proteins/polysaccharides to provide an overall understanding of its properties. Furthermore, it explores new sources of genipin and innovative methodologies to make the genipin recovery process efficient. Genipin increases food products' texture, gel strength, stability, and shelf life. The antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties of chitosan, gelatin, alginate, and hyaluronic acid increased after genipin cross-linking. Lastly, drawbacks, toxicity, and directions regarding the genipin cross-linking have also been addressed. The review article covers how to recover and cross-link genipin with biopolymers for industrial applications.

Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides Ellis) fruit: a critical review of its functional nutrients, processing methods, health-promoting effects, comprehensive application and future tendencies

Gardenia fruit (GF) is the mature fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, boasting a rich array of nutrients and phytochemicals. Over time, GF has been extensively utilized in both food and medicinal contexts. In recent years, numerous studies have delved into the chemical constituents of GF and their associated pharmacological activities, encompassing its phytochemical composition and health-promoting properties. This review aims to provide a critical and comprehensive summary of GF research, covering nutrient content, extraction technologies, and potential health benefits, offering new avenues for future investigations and highlighting its potential as an innovative food resource. Additionally, the review proposes novel industrial applications for GF, such as utilizing gardenia yellow/red/blue pigments in the food industry and incorporating it with other herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. By addressing current challenges in developing GF-related products, this work provides insights for potential applications in the cosmetics, food, and health products industries. Notably, there is a need for the development of more efficient extraction methods to harness the nutritional components of GF fully. Further research is needed to understand the specific molecular mechanisms underlying its bioactivities. Exploring advanced processing techniques to create innovative GF-derived products will show great promise for the future.

Targeting different phenotypes of macrophages: A potential strategy for natural products to treat inflammatory bone and joint diseases

BACKGROUND

Macrophages, a key class of immune cells, have a dual role in inflammatory responses, switching between anti-inflammatory M2 and pro-inflammatory M1 subtypes depending on the specific environment. Greater numbers of M1 macrophages correlate with increased production of inflammatory chemicals, decreased osteogenic potential, and eventually bone and joint disorders. Therefore, reversing M1 macrophages polarization is advantageous for lowering inflammatory factors. To better treat inflammatory bone disorders in the future, it may be helpful to gain insight into the specific mechanisms and natural products that modulate macrophage polarization.

OBJECTIVE

This review examines the impact of programmed cell death and different cells in the bone microenvironment on macrophage polarization, as well as the effects of natural products on the various phenotypes of macrophages, in order to suggest some possibilities for the treatment of inflammatory osteoarthritic disorders.

METHODS

Using 'macrophage polarization,' 'M1 macrophage' 'M2 macrophage' 'osteoporosis,' 'osteonecrosis of femoral head,' 'osteolysis,' 'gouty arthritis,' 'collagen-induced arthritis,' 'freund's adjuvant-induced arthritis,' 'adjuvant arthritis,' and 'rheumatoid arthritis' as search terms, the relevant literature was searched using the PubMed, the Cochrane Library and Web of Science databases.

RESULTS

Targeting macrophages through different signaling pathways has become a key mechanism for the treatment of inflammatory bone and joint diseases, including HIF-1α, NF-κB, AKT/mTOR, JAK1/2-STAT1, NF-κB, JNK, ERK, p-38α/β, p38/MAPK, PI3K/AKT, AMPK, AMPK/Sirt1, STAT TLR4/NF-κB, TLR4/NLRP3, NAMPT pathway, as well as the programmed cell death autophagy, pyroptosis and ERS.

CONCLUSION

As a result of a search of databases, we have summarized the available experimental and clinical evidence supporting herbal products as potential treatment agents for inflammatory osteoarthropathy. In this paper, we outline the various modulatory effects of natural substances targeting macrophages in various diseases, which may provide insight into drug options and directions for future clinical trials. In spite of this, more mechanistic studies on natural substances, as well as pharmacological, toxicological, and clinical studies are required.

Investigation on the potential adverse outcome pathway of the sensitive endpoint for nephrotoxicity induced by gardenia yellow based on an integrated strategy using bioinformatics analysis and in vitro testing validation

To explore the potential the adverse outcome pathway of Gardenia Yellow (GY)-induced sensitive endpoint for nephrotoxicity, an integrated strategy was applied in the present study. Using bioinformatic analysis, based on the constructed Protein-protein interaction networks, Gene Ontology function and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis on the core target network were performed to illustrate the potential gene targets and signal pathways. Then, the most enriched pathway was validated with Cell counting kit-8 assays and Western blot analysis in embryonic kidney epithelial 293 cell models. According to the findings, GY may interact with 321 targets related to the endpoint. The five targets on the top ranking in the PPI network were STAT3, SRC, HRAS, AKT1, EP300. Among them, PI3K/Akt was the most enriched pathway. In vitro testing showed that GY exerted a proliferative effect on the cell variability in a dose-dependent manner. GY at concentration of 1000 μg/ml and stimulation for 30 min can significantly enhance the expression of phosphorylated Akt. Thus, after the quantitative weight of evidence evaluation, Akt phosphorylation induced PI3K/Akt activation was speculated as a molecular initiating event leading to a proliferative and inflammatory response in renal tubular epithelial cells.

Biocolorants in food: Sources, extraction, applications and future prospects

Color of a food is one of the major factors influencing its acceptance by consumers. At presently synthetic dyes are the most commonly used food colorant in food industry by providing more esthetically appearance and as a means to quality control. However, the growing concern about health and environmental due to associated toxicity with synthetic food colorants has accelerated the global efforts to replace them with safer and healthy food colorants obtained from natural resources (plants, microorganisms, and animals). Further, many of these biocolorants not only provide myriad of colors to the food but also exert biological properties, thus they can be used as nutraceuticals in foods and beverages. In order to understand the importance of nature-derived pigments as food colorants, this review provides a thorough discussion on the natural origin of food colorants. Following this, different extraction methods for isolating biocolorants from plants and microbes were also discussed. Many of these biocolorants not only provide color, but also have many health promoting properties, for this reason their physicochemical and biological properties were also reviewed. Finally, current trends on the use of biocolorants in foods, and the challenges faced by the biocolorants in their effective utilization by food industry and possible solutions to these challenges were discussed.

Sustainable fashion: eco-friendly dyeing of wool fiber with novel mixtures of biodegradable natural dyes

Natural materials, especially natural colorants, have achieved global prominence and might be regarded as an environmentally beneficial alternative to hazardous synthetic dyes. The color limitation of natural dyes hinders their application in textiles. The present work aims to prepare more color shades of wool yarns via dyeing with ternary natural dye mixtures without adding mordants. In this study, a sustainable dyeing approach for wool yarn was evaluated with three natural dyes, madder red (MR), gardenia blue (GB), and gardenia yellow (GY), by following an industrial dyeing procedure in the absence of a mordant. In the beginning, a preliminary assessment of dye stabilities was carried out, and it was found that the three natural dyes were sensitive to temperature and acid (degradation tendency). Then, the dyeing behavior was systematically evaluated, including a single natural dye, a binary natural dye mixture, and a ternary natural dye mixture. The results of wool yarn dyeing with a single natural dye show that the dye exhaustion percentage (E%) of MR, GY, and GB was in the ranges of 78.7-94.1%, 13.4-44.1%, and 54.8-68.5%, respectively. The dyeing results of wool yarns dyed with binary and ternary natural dye mixtures (a color triangle framework of dyed wool yarn) were characterized by colorimetric values (L*, a*, b*, C*, h, and K/S), and are presented to enlighten various colorful shades. Finally, color uniformity and colorfastness tests confirmed the vital contribution of natural dyes toward wool yarn coloration. Particularly, colorfastness to washing confirmed the stability of natural dyes with reference to the lower amount of dyes released into the effluent, which is beneficial for the environment. Overall, this study provides a good background for enhancing the industrialization trend of natural dyes by modulating their dyeing scheme.

Crocins for Ischemic Stroke: A Review of Current Evidence

Crocins (CRs) and the related active constituents derived from Crocus sativus L. (Saffron) have demonstrated protective effects against cerebral ischemia and ischemic stroke, with various bioactivities including neuroprotection, anti-neuroinflammation, antioxidant, and cardiovascular protection. Among CRs, crocin (CR) has been shown to act on multiple mechanisms and signaling pathways involved in ischemic stroke, including mitochondrial apoptosis, nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of B cells pathway, S100 calcium-binding protein B, interleukin-6 and vascular endothelial growth factor-A. CR is generally safe and well-tolerated. Pharmacokinetic studies indicate that CR has poor bioavailability and needs to convert to crocetin (CC) in order to cross the blood-brain barrier. Clinical studies have shown the efficacy of saffron and CR in treating various conditions, including metabolic syndrome, depression, Alzheimer’s disease, and coronary artery disease. There is evidence supporting CR as a treatment for ischemic stroke, although further studies are needed to confirm their efficacy and safety in clinical settings.

Genotoxicity test of eight natural color additives in the Korean market

BACKGROUND

Various natural color additives are preferred by many consumers over synthetic color additives because they are perceived to be safer. However, most do not have sufficient toxicity data for safety assurance. Color ingredients in particular have some structures suspected of being toxic. Eight natural color additives, gardenia red, blue, and yellow; lac color; cochineal extract; beet red; Curcuma longa Linne extract (Curcuma extract); and Monascus red, currently permitted for use in Korea, were selected and subjected to genotoxicity tests. Acceptable daily intake values have not been allocated to these color additives (except for cochineal extract) due to the lack of toxicity data. We used genotoxicity testing-the bacterial reverse mutation test (Ames test), in vitro mammalian chromosomal aberration test, and in vivo alkaline comet test-for minimum safety assurance.

RESULTS

Gardenia red and blue, cochineal extract, lac color, and beet red did not induce mutagenicity or chromosomal abnormalities. Gardenia yellow was mutagenic in the Ames test, but was not positive in the in vitro chromosomal aberration test or in vivo alkaline comet assay. Curcuma extract and Monascus red induced cytotoxicity in the Ames test at high concentrations in Salmonella typhimurium TA1537 and TA100, without showing mutagenicity. On cytotoxicity testing, Curcuma extract and Monascus red showed cytotoxicity at concentrations higher than 313 μg/ml in Chinese hamster ovary CHO-K1 cells and showed equivocal results in chromosomal aberration assay of the same cells. Curcuma extract and Monascus red produced significant increases in DNA damage at a dose of 2000 mg/kg b.w./day, and induced dose-dependent increases in % DNA in the tail and tail moment on in vivo comet assay.

CONCLUSIONS

Six out of eight food colorants did not cause genotoxicity and cytotoxicity. However, Monascus red and Curcuma extract showed definite cytotoxicity and probable genotoxicity.

Efficacy and safety of scleral crosslinking using poly(ethylene glycol)ether tetrasuccinimidyl glutarate for form-deprivation myopia progression in rabbits

Myopia is becoming increasingly prevalent worldwide at an alarming rate. However, no effective treatment is available for inhibiting myopia progression. Materials chemistry advancements have made it possible to regulate mechanical properties and rate of degradation with good compatibility by developing newly crosslinking systems such as the branched polyethylene glycol (PEG) systems. Herein, we presented a PEG molecule with N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) ester functional groups at the chain ends as a macromolecular crosslinking agent for the treatment of myopia. We found that the scleral collagen crosslinked with the four-armed star-shaped PEG molecule with NHS ester functional group (4S-PEG) showed better biomechanical properties, increased thermal stability and higher resistance to degradation. 4S-PEG exhibited relatively low cytotoxicity for human fetal scleral fibroblasts. The retrobulbar injection of 4S-PEG at a relatively low concentration (2.5 mM) showed good effective control of the progression of form-deprivation myopia in rabbits. There were no signs of adverse effect or damage by repeated injections with 4S-PEG in rabbits. The results of this work demonstrate that 4S-PEG can serve as a robust macromolecular crosslinking agent and is expected to have promise for application in the treatment of the progression of myopia.

Crocins: A comprehensive review of structural characteristics, pharmacokinetics and therapeutic effects

Crocins, as a kind of water-soluble carotenoid pigment, are a series of ester compounds formed from crocetin and gentibiose or glucose, and mainly distributed among Crocus sativus L. (CSL), Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. (GJE). Crocins exhibit a wide range of pharmacological effects on neurodegeneration, cardiovascular disease, cerebrovascular disease, depression, liver disease, arthritis, tumor, diabetes, etc. This review systematically discussed the pharmacologic study of crocins in the aspect of structural characteristic and pharmacokinetics, and summarized the mechanism of treating disease. It summarized the abundant research of crocins from 1984 to 2020 based on the above aspects, which provide a reference for the deeply development and application of crocins.

Genipin induces developmental toxicity through oxidative stress and apoptosis in zebrafish

Genipin, an iridoid substance, is mainly derived from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis of the traditional Chinese medicine and is widely used in raw materials for the food additive gardenia blue and biological materials. The developmental toxicity of genipin has not been investigated, and its underlying mechanism is unclear. Therefore, in this study we attempt to investigate the potential developmental toxicity of genipin in zebrafish embryos/larvae. The results showed zebrafish embryos treated with 50 μg/ml dose of genipin display inhibited hatching rates and body length. The pericardial edema was observed. It was also found that genipin could induce cardio-toxicity, hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in zebrafish larvae. After genipin treatment, the suppression of antioxidant capacity and increase of oxidative stress were showed for the triggered generation of ROS and MDA, and decreased activity of SOD. Compared with the 0.5% DMSO group, a number of apoptotic cells in zebrafish were increased after genipin exposure. By measuring marker gene expression with the using of qRT-PCR, we proposed that developmental toxicity after genipin treatment might be associated with oxidative stress and apoptosis increase. Our research offers a better understanding for developmental toxicity of genipin.

Saffron bioactives crocin, crocetin and safranal: effect on oxidative stress and mechanisms of action

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is used as a spice for its organoleptic characteristics related to its coloring and flavoring properties, and it has been also used in traditional medicine to treat various diseases. The main chemical components responsible for these properties are crocin, crocetin and safranal. These compounds have been shown to have a wide spectrum of biological activities, including several properties as antigenotoxic, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerotic, antidiabetic, hypotensive, hypoglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, antidegenerative and antidepressant, among others. This review article highlights the antioxidant effects of these bioactive compounds to reduce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and the mechanisms of action involved, since there are a multitude of diseases related to oxidative stress and the generation of free radicals (FRs). Recent studies have shown that the effects of crocin, crocetin and safranal against oxidative stress include the reduction in lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde [MDA] levels) and nitric oxide (NO) levels, and the increase in the levels of glutathione, antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase [SOD], catalase (CAT) and glutathione peroxidase [GPx]) and thiol content. Therefore, due to the great antioxidant effects of these saffron compounds, it makes saffron a potential source of bioactive extracts for the development of bioactive ingredients, which can be used to produce functional foods.

Therapeutic potential of genipin in various acute liver injury, fulminant hepatitis, NAFLD and other non-cancer liver diseases: More friend than foe

Genipin is an aglycone derived from the geniposide, the most abundant iridoid glucoside constituent of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. For decades, genipin is the focus of studies as a versatile compound in the treatment of various pathogenic conditions. In particularly, Gardenia jasminoides Ellis has long been used in traditional Chinese medicine for the prevention and treatment of liver disease. Mounting experimental data has proved genipin possesses therapeutic potential for cholestatic, septic, ischemia/reperfusion-triggered acute liver injury, fulminant hepatitis and NAFLD. This critical review is a reflection on the valuable lessons from decades of research regarding pharmacological activities of genipin. Of note, genipin represents choleretic effect by potentiating bilirubin disposal and enhancement of genes in charge of the efflux of a number of organic anions. The anti-inflammatory capability of genipin is mediated by suppression of the production and function of pro-inflammatory cytokines and inflammasome. Moreover, genipin modulates various transcription factor and signal transduction pathway. Genipin appears to trigger the upregulation of several key genes encoding antioxidant and xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. Furthermore, the medicinal impact of genipin extends to modulation of regulated cell death, including autophagic cell death, apoptosis, necroptosis and pyroptosis, and modulation of quality of cellular organelle. Another crucial effect of genipin appears to be linked to dual role in targeting uncoupling protein 2 (UCP2). As a typical UCP2-inhibiting compound, genipin could inhibit AMP-activated protein kinase or NF-κB in circumstance. On the contrary, reactive oxygen species production and cellular lipid deposits mediated by genipin through the upregulation of UCP2 is observed in liver steatosis, suggesting the precise role of genipin is disease-specific. Collectively, we comprehensively summarize the mechanisms and pathways associated with the hepatoprotective activity of genipin and discuss potential toxic impact. Notably, our focus is the direct medicinal effect of genipin itself, whereas its utility as a crosslinking agent in tissue engineering is out of scope for the current review. Further studies are therefore required to disentangle these complicated pharmacological properties to confer this natural agent a far greater potency.

Acute and Subchronic Oral Toxicity Study of Gardenia Yellow E500 in Sprague-Dawley Rats

Objective: This study was conducted to evaluate the acute and subchronic toxicity of gardenia yellow, a natural colorant widely used in China and other Asian countries. An acute toxicity test was performed in S-D rats of both genders and the lethal dose (LD₅₀) of per oral gardenia yellow was estimated to be more than 15.0 g/kg·bw. In the subchronic study, gardenia yellow was orally administered to rats by gavage at doses of 0, 0.50, 1.50 and 4.50 g/kg·bw/day for 90 days followed by a recovery period of 28 days. No appreciable toxic-related changes were observed in the 0.50 g/kg·bw/day group. When the animals received gardenia yellow at 1.50 g/kg·bw/day or more, body weight loss was observed, and pigments began to deposit in several vital organs, resulting in significant changes of several hematological and biochemical indicators related to the nutritional status of the body, liver and kidney function, more severe in the high dose group. In the recovery period, the alterations of the clinical symptoms and parameters were relieved a lot. Based on the results of the current study, the no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of gardenia yellow E500 in rats was set to be 0.50 g/kg·bw/day.

A comprehensive review on biological activities and toxicology of crocetin

Natural products with high pharmacological potential and low toxicity have been considered as the novel therapeutic agents. Crocetin is an active constituent of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) stigma, which in its free-acid form is insoluble in water and most organic solvents. Crocetin exhibits various health-promoting properties including anti-tumor, neuroprotective effects, anti-diabetics, anti-inflammatory, anti-hyperlipidemia, etc. These therapeutic effects can be achieved with different mechanisms such as improvement of oxygenation in hypoxic tissues, antioxidant effects, inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediators, anti-proliferative activity and stimulation of apoptosis in cancer cells. It is also worth considering that crocetin could be tolerated without major toxicity at therapeutic dosage in experimental models. In the present review, we discuss the biosynthesis, pharmacokinetic properties of crocetin and provide a comprehensive study on the biological activities and toxicity along with the mechanism of actions and clinical trials data of crocetin.

Influence of the long-term exposure to tartrazine and chlorophyll on the fibrogenic signalling pathway in liver and kidney of rats: the expression patterns of collagen 1-α, TGFβ-1, fibronectin, and caspase-3 genes

Colouring agents are highly present in diverse products in the human environment. We aimed to elucidate the fibrogenic cascade triggered by the food dyes tartrazine and chlorophyll. Rats were orally given distilled water, tenfold of the acceptable daily intake of tartrazine, or chlorophyll for 90 consecutive days. Tartrazine-treated rats displayed a significant rise (p < 0.05) in the mRNA levels and immunohistochemical localization of the renal and hepatic fibrotic markers collagen 1-α, TGFβ-1, and fibronectin and the apoptotic marker caspase-3. Moreover, a significant increment (p < 0.05) in the levels of AST, ALP, creatinine, and urea was evident in both experimental groups but more significant differences were noticed in the tartrazine group. Furthermore, we found a marked increment in the MDA level and significant declines (p < 0.05) in the levels of the SOD, CAT, and GSH enzymes in the kidney and liver from tartrazine-treated rats. The histological investigation reinforced the aforementioned data, revealing hepatocytes with fibrous connective tissue proliferation, apoptotic hepatocytes and periportal fibrosis with tubular necrosis, and shrunken glomeruli and interstitial fibrous tissue proliferation. We concluded that, even at the exposure to high concentrations for long durations, chlorophyll exhibited a lower propensity to induce fibrosis, apoptosis, and histopathological perturbations than tartrazine.

Targeting Ubiquitin Proteasome Pathway with Traditional Chinese Medicine for Treatment of Spinocerebellar Ataxia Type 3

Nine autosomal dominant spinocerebellar ataxias (SCAs) are caused by an abnormal expansion of CAG trinucleotide repeats that encodes a polyglutamine (polyQ) tract within different genes. Accumulation of aggregated mutant proteins is a common feature of polyQ diseases, leading to progressive neuronal dysfunction and degeneration. SCA type 3 (SCA3), the most common form of SCA worldwide, is characterized by a CAG triplet expansion in chromosome 14q32.1 ATXN3 gene. As accumulation of the mutated polyQ protein is a possible initial event in the pathogenic cascade, clearance of aggregated protein by ubiquitin proteasome system (UPS) has been proposed to inhibit downstream detrimental events and suppress neuronal cell death. In this study, Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) extracts were studied for their proteasome-activating, polyQ aggregation-inhibitory and neuroprotective effects in GFP^u and ATXN3/Q 75 -GFP 293/SH-SY5Y cells. Among the 14 tested extracts, 8 displayed increased proteasome activity, which was confirmed by 20S proteasome activity assay and analysis of ubiquitinated and fused GFP proteins in GFP^u cells. All the eight extracts displayed good aggregation-inhibitory potential when tested in ATXN3/Q 75 -GFP 293 cells. Among them, neuroprotective effects of five selected extracts were shown by analyses of polyQ aggregation, neurite outgrowth, caspase 3 and proteasome activities, and ATXN3-GFP, ubiquitin, BCL2 and BAX protein levels in neuronal differentiated ATXN3/Q 75 -GFP SH-SY5Y cells. Finally, enhanced proteasome function, anti-oxidative activity and neuroprotection of catalpol, puerarin and daidzein (active constituents of Rehmannia glutinosa and Pueraria lobata) were demonstrated in GFP^u and/or ATXN3/Q 75 -GFP 293/SH-SY5Y cells. This study may have therapeutic implication in polyQ-mediated disorders.

Computational simulations of the mass transfer zone in GS adsorption column packed with Fe3+ type ion exchanger

In this work, a mesoporous Fe³⁺ type ion exchanger (DOW-3) was used to adsorb the geniposide (GS) involved in gardenia yellow pigment waste water. To test its viability, the mass transfer zone (MTZ) in dynamic adsorption column that plays an important role in the future scale-up of the GS adsorption process was studied systematically. Simulation of the MTZ behavior under various operation conditions in a packed adsorption column enabled the predictions of breakthrough curves of GS for the mesoporous adsorbent. Several modes of mass transport and processes taking place simultaneously, such as permeation, convection, dispersion and adsorption equilibrium were incorporated in the proposed model. Modeling process firstly affected the behavior of MTZ when it formed and moved throughout the column, and then had a much greater impact on the shape of breakthrough curve in the simulation. The dynamics of MTZ were studied under different adsorption conditions such as various column heights, flow rates and inlet concentrations. Moreover, the post-processing technique and 3D visualization of MTZ simulation results were capable of demonstrating the expanding and progressing of the MTZ related to the adsorption isotherm. The basic findings of MTZ dynamics will be very useful for process scale up. Additionally, the effective molecule docking results obtained from this study, help us fully understand the contribution of various molecular forces in the adsorption mechanism.

Interpenetrating polymer network hydrogels composed of chitosan and photocrosslinkable gelatin with enhanced mechanical properties for tissue engineering

Gelatin and chitosan (CS) are widely used natural biomaterials for tissue engineering scaffolds, but the poor mechanical properties of pure gelatin or CS hydrogels become a big obstacle that limits their use as scaffolds, especially in load-bearing tissues. This study provided a novel mechanism of forming interpenetrating network (IPN) of gelatin methacryloyl (GelMA) and CS hydrogels by covalent bonds and hydrophobic interactions through photocrosslinking and basification, respectively. By characterization of the compressive and tensile moduli, ultimate tensile stress and strain, it was found that semi-IPN and IPN structure can greatly enhance the mechanical properties of GelMA-CS hydrogels compared to the single network CS or GelMA. Moreover, the increase of either GelMA or CS concentration can strengthen the hydrogel network. Then, the swelling, enzymatic degradation, and morphology of GelMA-CS hydrogels were also systematically investigated. The excellent biocompatibility of GelMA-CS hydrogels was demonstrated by large spreading area of bone mesenchymal stem cells on hydrogel surfaces when CS concentration was <2% (w/v). According to this study, the multiple requirements of properties can be fulfilled by carefully selecting the GelMA and CS compositions for IPN hydrogels.

Anti-tumor effects of crocetin and related molecular targets

Natural products have gained a wide popularity as chemopreventive and anti-cancer agents owing to their multi-mechanistic mode of action, availability and synergism with several conventional chemotherapeutic agents. Crocetin is a carotenoid compound isolated from the stigma of Crocus sativus L. (saffron). Crocetin has shown promising effects as an anti-tumor agent in animal models and cell culture systems. Crocetin retards the growth of cancer cells via inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis, enhancing anti-oxidative system, and inducing apoptosis and differentiation pathways. The present review outlines natural sources of crocetin, and its pharmacokinetic and pharmacological properties relevant to the prevention and treatment of cancer. Also, we discuss molecular targets underlying the putative anti-tumor effects of crocetin.

Genotoxicity evaluation of Hwanglyeonhaedok-tang, an herbal formula

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hwanglyeonhaedok-tang (Huanglianjiedu-tang, Orengedoku-to), a traditional herbal formula, is used for the treatment of inflammatory, gastrointestinal and cardiovascular diseases.

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the genotoxic potential of Hwanglyeonhaedok-tang water extract (HLHDT).

METHODS

A genotoxicity test was conducted using a bacterial reverse mutation test (Ames test), an in vitro chromosome aberration test using Chinese hamster lung cells, and an in vivo micronucleus test using ICR mouse bone marrow.

RESULTS

In the Ames test, which used different Salmonella typhimurium (S. typhimurium) and Escherichia coli (E. coli) strains, HLHDT did not increase the number of revertant colonies of S. typhimurium strains TA98, TA100 and TA1535 as well as E. coli strains with or without S9 mix. However, the number of revertant colonies with the S. typhimurium TA1537 strain and S9 mix increased in a dose-dependent manner. The chromosome aberration test showed that HLHDT did not increase the number of structural or numerical chromosome aberrations in a short-period test (6h) with S9 mix. By contrast, HLHDT significantly increased the number of structural chromosome aberrations in a short-period (6h) or continuous (22h) test without S9 mix. In the micronucleus test, no significant increase was observed in micronucleated polychromatic erythrocytes, and no significant decrease was observed in polychromatic to total erythrocytes.

CONCLUSIONS

These results indicate that HLHDT might be genotoxic, based on both the Ames and chromosome aberration tests. Therefore, further in vivo studies will be needed to define the mechanism of this genotoxicity.

Ascending colon cancer coincident with mesenteric phlebosclerosis associated with the long-term oral intake of Chinese herb containing gardenia fruit: A case report and literature review

Mesenteric phlebosclerosis is a recently discovered rare ischemic colon disease. The relationship between mesenteric phlebosclerosis and the use of herbal medicine containing gardenia fruit was recently reported. Although the relationship between colon cancer and mesenteric phlebosclerosis has not been described, some cases of colorectal cancer coincident with mesenteric phlebosclerosis have been reported. We treated a 63-year-old female who was diagnosed with ascending colon cancer coincident with mesenteric phlebosclerosis. She had been taking a Chinese herb containing gardenia fruit for over 18 years. The ascending colon cancer was clinically diagnosed as T2, N0, and M0 according to Japanese classification of colorectal carcinoma and the mesenteric phlebosclerosis had spread from the cecum to the descending colon. She underwent laparoscopic subtotal colectomy with en bloc removal of the regional lymph nodes, and both the ascending colon cancer and mesenteric phlebosclerosis were completely resected. The microscopic findings show that the tumor was well-differentiated tubular adenocarcinoma invading the muscular propria with no regional lymph node metastasis, and the mesenteric phlebosclerosis lesion was characterized by marked fibrous thickening of the venous walls with calcification, marked transmural fibrosis and deposition of the collagen in the mucosa, accompanied by macrophages within the vessel walls. In literature review, 10 cases with colorectal cancer coincident with mesenteric phlebosclerosis were reported. 9 of 10 cases (90%) had cancer in the right-side colon affected by mesenteric phlebosclerosis, and 5 of 10 cases (50%) were associated with the use of a Chinese herb containing gardenia fruit. It was recently demonstrated that genipin, which is a metabolite bio-transformed from gardenia fruit, possesses carcinogenesis. We speculate that genipin may be associated with not only the development of mesenteric phlebosclerosis but also carcinogenesis in the right-side colon. In conclusion, our findings suggest that the safety of gardenia fruit should be re-evaluated, and gastroenterologists should be aware that gardenia fruit may be risk factor for not only the development of mesenteric phlebosclerosis but also carcinogenesis in the proximal colon.

Chemistry and bioactivity of Gardenia jasminoides

Gardenia jasminoides, grown in multiple regions in China, was commonly used as a natural yellow dye but has been one of the popular traditional Chinese medicines since the discovery of its biological property a few decades ago. It has been reported that G. jasminoides possess multiple biological activities, such as antioxidant properties, hypoglycemic effect, inhibition of inflammation, antidepression activity, and improved sleeping quality. In this review, our aim was to have a comprehensive summary of its phytochemistry including the extraction, isolation, and characterization of volatiles and bioactive molecules in G. jasminoides, focusing on the two major phytochemicals, genipin and crocin, which possess potent medicinal properties. Furthermore, this study attempted to establish a structure–activity relationship between the two major series of molecules with two pharmcophores and their biological activities, which would serve further exploration of the properties of phytocompounds in G. jasminoides as potential functional foods and medicines.

Gastrointestinal absorption, antiproliferative and anti-inflammatory effect of the major carotenoids of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis on cancer cells

Crocetin was the carotenoid with the highest gastrointestinal transport efficiency and the most effective in inhibiting cancer cell proliferation. In addition, this carotenoid showed involvement in the downregulation of the inflammatory cytokines.

Design, synthesis and preliminary evaluation of the anti-inflammatory of the specific selective targeting druggable enzymome cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) small molecule

CONTEXT

Development of a reliable and selective anti-inflammatory agent of cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), induced or up-regulated by inflammatory/injury stimulus such as IL-1β, TNF-α and LPS in the various types of organs, tissues and cells, with low side effects is a long-standing medicinal chemistry problem with significant social implications.

OBJECTIVE

To target druggable enzymome COX-2 by exploiting NSAIDs and genipin (GEP) in anti-inflammatory infection.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The compound aspirin GEP ester (AGE) was designed by computer-assisted screening, synthesized in the esterification of the acylate derivative and the methylate derivative with Et₃N, and evaluated with 20, 40 and 60 mg/kg from days 18 to 24 after immunization in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) rats by the sequential enzymatic experiments, western-blot analysis and pathological observation methods.

RESULTS

AGE exhibited higher binding affinity with COX-1 and displayed the lowest estimated free energy with COX-2 than other ligands built by hanging NSAIDs with GEP, and was characterized by ¹H NMR, ¹³C NMR and HRMS. AGE was competed against COX-2 with molecule-dependent potencies and selectivity (IC₅₀: 0.36 mM; selectivity index: 275) in the sequential enzymatic experiments and decreased the expression of COX-2 in peripheral blood lymphocytes of CIA rats. AGE (40 and 60 mg/kg) could significantly relieve the secondary hind paw swelling and arthritis index, along with observing AGE attenuated histopathological changes of fibroblast like synovial tissue (FLST) and mesenteric lymph node lymphocytes (MLNL) in CIA rats.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

AGE pharmacophore reported herein may be an effective strategy to develop a novel anti-inflammatory agent and potential inhibitor of COX-2.

Characterization of picroside II metabolites in rats by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography combined with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry

Picroside II, a bioactive compound isolated from Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Pennell, has been reported to have hepatoprotective, neuroprotective, and antioxidant effects. However, the detailed in vivo biotransformation of this compound has been rarely reported. This study aimed to investigate the metabolic profiles of picroside II in rats by using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry. Metabolite structures were elucidated based on accurate mass measurements of deprotonated molecules and their fragmentation patterns. Thirteen metabolites were structurally identified, and the detailed metabolic pathways were proposed. The findings revealed that after oral administration, picroside II mainly undergoes four metabolic pathways. In the first pathway, picroside II is deglycosylated to generate aglycone, which is isomerized to a dialdehyde-type intermediate. A series of metabolic reactions, including glucuronidation, subsequently occurs. In the second pathway, picroside II is subjected to ester bond hydrolysis to form vanillic acid, which is further subjected to sulfate conjugation, glycine conjugation, glucuronidation, and demethylation. In the third pathway, picroside II is directly conjugated with glucuronic acid to yield a predominant metabolite (M01) in plasma. In the fourth pathway, picroside II is directly conjugated with sulfate. These findings provide insights into the in vivo disposition of picroside II and are useful to understand the mechanism of effectiveness and toxicity of this compound as well as P. scrophulariiflora-related preparations.

Comparative Thermal Degradation Patterns of Natural Yellow Colorants Used in Foods

There is a great interest in natural yellow colorants due to warnings issued about certain yellow food colorings of synthetic origin. However, no comparative studies have been reported of their thermal stability. For this reason, the thermal stabilities of six natural yellow colorants used in foods--lutein, riboflavin, curcumin, ß-carotene, gardenia yellow and Opuntia betaxanthins--were studied in simple solutions over a temperature range 30-90 °C. Spectral properties and visual color were investigated during 6 h of heat treatment. Visual color was monitored from the CIEL*a*b* parameters. The remaining absorbance at maximum wavelength and the total color difference were used to quantify color degradation. The rate of color degradation increased as the temperature rose. The results showed that the thermal degradation of the colorants followed a first-order reaction kinetics. The reaction rate constants and half-life periods were determined as being central to understanding the color degradation kinetics. The temperature-dependent degradation was adequately modeled on the Arrhenius equation. Activation energies ranged from 3.2 kJmol(-1) (lutein) to 43.7 kJmol(-1) (Opuntia betaxanthins). ß-carotene and lutein exhibited high thermal stability, while betaxanthins and riboflavin degraded rapidly as temperature increased. Gardenia yellow and curcumin were in an intermediate position.

Comprehensive characterization of the in vitro and in vivo metabolites of geniposide in rats using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap-Orbitrap mass spectrometer

1. Geniposide (genipin 1-O-glucose), one of the major bioactive constituents isolated from Fructus Gardeniae, possesses many biological activities. In this study, an efficient strategy was developed using ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled with linear ion trap-Orbitrap mass spectrometer (UPLC-LTQ-Orbitrap) to profile the in vitro and in vivo metabolic patterns of geniposide in rat liver microsomes (RLMs), plasma, urine, and various tissues. And post-acquisition data-mining methods including extracted ion chromatogram (EIC), multiple mass defect filters (MMDF), fragment ion searching (FISh), and isotope pattern filtering (IPF) were adopted to characterize the known and unknown metabolites. 2. A total of 33 metabolites were detected and interpreted according to accurate mass measurement, diagnostic fragment ions, relevant drug biotransformation knowledge, and bibliography data. Among them, 17 metabolites were detected in the plasma, 31 metabolites were identified in the urine, six metabolites could be found in rat heart, 12 in liver, three in spleen, six in lung, 12 in kidney, six in brain, and four in RLMs. 3. A series of corresponding reactions such as hydrolysis, hydroxylation, taurine conjugation, hydrogenation, decarboxylation, demethylation, sulfate conjugation, cysteine S-conjugation, glucosylation, and their composite reactions were all discovered. 4. The results could provide comprehensive insights and guidance for elucidation of side effect mechanism and safety monitoring as well as for rational formulation design in drug delivery system. The newly discovered geniposide metabolites could be targets for future metabolism studies on the important chemical constituents from herbal medicines.

Proteomic investigation of signatures for geniposide-induced hepatotoxicity

Evaluating the safety of traditional medicinal herbs and their major active constituents is critical for their widespread usage. Geniposide, a major active constituent with a defined structure from the traditional medicinal herb Gardenia jasminoides ELLIS fruit, exhibits remarkable anti-inflammatory, antiapoptotic, and antifibrotic properties and has been used in a variety of medical fields, mainly for the treatment of liver diseases. However, geniposide-induced hepatotoxicity and methods for the early detection of hepatotoxicity have yet to be reported. In this study, geniposide-induced hepatotoxicity was investigated. In addition, candidate biomarkers for the earlier detection of geniposide-induced hepatotoxicity were identified using a label-free quantitative proteomics approach on a geniposide overdose-induced liver injury in a rat model. Using an accurate intensity-based, absolute quantification (iBAQ)-based, one-step discovery and verification approach, a candidate biomarker panel was easily obtained from individual samples in response to different conditions. To determine the biomarkers' early detection abilities, five candidate biomarkers were selected and tested using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs). Two biomarkers, glycine N-methyltransferase (GNMT) and glycogen phosphorylase (PYGL), were found to indicate hepatic injuries significantly earlier than the current gold standard liver biomarker. This study provides a first insight into geniposide-induced hepatotoxicity in a rat model and describes a method for the earlier detection of this hepatotoxicity, facilitating the efficient monitoring of drug-induced hepatotoxicity.

Pharmacologic alternatives to riboflavin photochemical corneal cross-linking: a comparison study of cell toxicity thresholds

PURPOSE

The efficacy of therapeutic cross-linking of the cornea using riboflavin photochemistry (commonly abbreviated as CXL) has caused its use to become widespread. Because there are known chemical agents that cross-link collagenous tissues, it may be possible to cross-link tissue pharmacologically. The present study was undertaken to compare the cell toxicity of such agents.

METHODS

Nine topical cross-linking agents (five nitroalcohols, glyceraldehyde [GLYC], genipin [GP], paraformaldehyde [FA], and glutaraldehyde [GLUT]) were tested with four different cell lines (immortalized human corneal epithelial cells, human skin fibroblasts, primary bovine corneal endothelial cells, and immortalized human retinal pigment epithelial cells [ARPE-19]). The cells were grown in planar culture and exposed to each agent in a range of concentrations (0.001 mM to 10 mM) for 24 hours followed by a 48-hour recovery phase. Toxicity thresholds were determined by using the trypan blue exclusion method.

RESULTS

A semiquantitative analysis using five categories of toxicity/fixation was carried out, based on plate attachment, uptake of trypan blue stain, and cellular fixation. The toxicity levels varied by a factor of 10(3) with the least toxic being mononitroalcohols and GLYC, intermediate toxicity for a nitrodiol and nitrotriol, and the most toxic being GLUT, FA, GP, and bronopol, a brominated nitrodiol. When comparing toxicity between different cell lines, the levels were generally in agreement.

CONCLUSIONS

There are significant differences in cell toxicity among potential topical cross-linking compounds. The balance between cross-linking of tissue and cell toxicity should be borne in mind as compounds and strategies to improve mechanical tissue properties through therapeutic tissue cross-linking continue to develop.

Quality control and producing areas differentiation of Gardeniae Fructus for eight bioactive constituents by HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS

Gardeniae Fructus (G.Fructus), the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (Rubiaceae), is a commonly used traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) that has been used for the treatment of hepatitis, jaundice, hypersonic, diabetes and hematuria. Numerous researches have demonstrated that the major active constituents in G.Fructus were responsible for the majority of medical effects of this fruit and their quantification were important for the quality control of G.Fructus. However, in the current quality control standard, only geniposide was used as characteristic marker of G.Fructus, which could not reflect the overall quality of this fruit. In order to identify more chemical makers for improving the quality control standard and evaluate producing areas differentiation of G.Fructus, in the present study, a novel and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatography-diode array detector coupled to an electrospray tandem mass spectrometer (HPLC-DAD-ESI/MS) was developed for the simultaneous determination of 8 major constituents, including geniposidic acid (1), chlorogenic acid (2), genipin-1-β-gentiobioside (3), geniposide (4), genipin (5), rutin (6), crocin-1 (7), crocin-2 (8) in G.Fructus. Moreover, chemometric analysis techniques with principal component constituent analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) involved were introduced in statistical analysis of 8 investigated constituents in the 34 batches samples to discriminate the samples from different producing areas. The results indicated that the contents of the 8 major bioactive constituents in G.Fructus varied significantly among different producing areas. From results of the loading plot from PCA analysis, genipin-1-β-gentiobioside may have more influence in discriminating the sample from different producing areas, and which was found to be the most abundant bioactive component besides geniposide in all the 34 batches samples, suggesting that it should be added as chemical marker for further investigation on the pharmacological actions and the quality control of G.Fructus.

Changes in total and individual crocetin esters upon in vitro gastrointestinal digestion of saffron aqueous extracts

Changes that may be expected in crocetin esters (crocins) upon digestion were examined in saffron aqueous extracts for the first time. Chemical characterization of total and individual crocins and other bioactive compounds was achieved by UV-vis spectrophotometry, RP-HPLC-DAD, and LC-ESI-MS. Antioxidant activity was evaluated using in vitro assays and the comet assay. The observed loss for both total and trans-crocins was higher in saffron (∼50%) than in gardenia extracts (∼30%), which were also examined for comparison. Loss was lower than that reported for hydrophobic carotenoids. cis-Isomers were less affected, leading to the hypothesis that trans/cis isomerization may occur in parallel to degradation reactions. Monitoring changes in the extracts at oral, gastric, or intestinal phases, separately, verified this view pointing out the critical effect of pH, temperature, and duration of process but not of digestive enzymes. No isomerization and less degradation (<20% loss) was evidenced when pure trans-crocetin (di-β-D-gentiobiosyl) ester was subjected to gastric or intestinal conditions.

Geniposidic acid protects against D-galactosamine and lipopolysaccharide-induced hepatic failure in mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Geniposidic acid (GA) is an iridoid glucoside isolated from Gardeniae jasminoides Ellis (Rubiaceae) that has long been used to treat inflammation, jaundice and hepatic disorders.

AIMS OF THE STUDY

This study examined the cytoprotective properties of GA against D-galactosamine (GalN)/lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced fulminant hepatic failure.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice were given an intraperitoneal injection of GA (12.5, 25, 50 mg/kg) 1h before receiving GalN (800 mg/kg)/LPS (40 μg/kg). Liver and blood samples were collected 1 and 8 h after GalN/LPS injection.

RESULTS

The survival rate of the GA group was significantly higher than the control. GalN/LPS increased serum aminotransferase activity, serum tumor necrosis factor-α level and hepatic lipid peroxidation and decreased hepatic glutathione content. These changes were attenuated by GA. GA augmented increases in serum interleukin-6 level, heme oxygenase-1 and NF-E2-related factor 2 protein expression. Mice treated with GA decreased cleaved caspase-8 and caspase-3 protein expression and showed significantly fewer apoptotic cells. GA increased Bcl-xL protein expression and decreased Bax protein expression. Moreover, GA treatment enhanced phosphorylation of signal transducer and activator of transcription 3.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggest that geniposidic acid alleviates GalN/LPS-induced liver injury by enhancing antioxidative defense system and reducing apoptotic signaling pathways.

Fructus Gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis) phytochemistry, pharmacology of cardiovascular, and safety with the perspective of new drugs development

The phytochemistry, cardiovascular pharmacology, toxicology, side effect, and further development prospects of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis (GJE) and its main constituents crocins and iridoid glycosides were studied. Numerous studies have confirmed that crocins and iridoid glycosides had effects of antioxidation, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherosclerosis, anti-ischemic brain injuries, anti-platelet aggregation, anti-hyperglycemia, anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-hypertension, and so on. Some of them might be related to several attractive pharmacodynamic actions of GJE such as promoting endothelium growth, protecting neurons, and inducing their differentiation. Both of them make it possible for GJE to prevent and cure thromboembolism and cardiovascular diseases well. From our own basic pharmacological research of GJE extract on several rat models, it has been known that GJE extract markedly prolonged bleeding time and inhibited platelet aggregation and thrombosis. It has significant proliferation effect on both endothelial cells and endothelial progenitor cells as well. As the mechanisms of GJE on those diseases were discussed and summarized, questions about its genetoxicity and hepatotoxicity were also discussed during its safety study to make the foundation for long-term medication and clinical research in the near future.

Enrichment and purification of gardenia yellow from Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans Makino by column chromatography technique

In present study, the performance and separation characteristics of nine macroporous resins for the enrichment and purification of gardenia yellow from Gardenia jasminoides var. radicans Makino have been evaluated. The adsorption and desorption properties of crude gardenia yellow solution on macroporous resins including HPD722, HPD100, HPD100A, HPD400, HPD400A, D101, AB-8, XAD-16, and NKA-9 have been compared. Then, HPD722 was chosen to purify gardenia yellow because of its strong adsorption and desorption abilities as well as high selectivity. Column packed with HPD722 resin was used to perform dynamic adsorption and desorption tests to optimize the separation process of gardenia yellow. The optimal conditions were as follows: The crude gardenia yellow solution with concentration of 15 mg/mL was loaded in column packed with HPD722 resin at the flow rate of 1.0 mL/min, and the adsorbate-laden column was washed with 800 mL water, 600 mL 15% ethanol water solution respectively at the speed of 2.5 mL/min, then desorbed with 200 mL 80% ethanol water solution at the speed of 3.5 mL/min. The colority of the product obtained were up to 300. The method developed in this study provides a new approach for scale-up separation and purification of gardenia yellow from G. jasminoides var. radicans Makino.

Identification of metabolites of geniposide in rat urine using ultra-performance liquid chromatography combined with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry

Geniposide, an iridoid glycoside, is an important and characteristic compound in the fruits of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, a commonly used medicinal herb in Chinese traditional and folk medicine for the treatment of inflammation and jaundice. However, few studies have been carried out on the metabolism of geniposide. In this study, we have established a rapid and sensitive method using ultra-performance liquid chromatography coupled with electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI-QTOF-MS) for analysis of the metabolic profile of geniposide in rat urine after oral administration. A total of ten metabolites were detected and identified by comparing their fragmentation patterns with that of geniposide using Metabolynx™ and MassFragment™ software tools. The results revealed that the principal metabolism pathways of geniposide in rat occurred after deglycosylation of the irdoid glycoside take place and this is followed by glucuronidation and the pyran-ring cleavages. The major metabolite, the glucuronic acid conjugate of genipin as observed in vivo, was further confirmed by the in vitro enzymatic study. The results of this work have demonstrated the feasibility of the UPLC/ESI-QTOF-MS approach for rapid and reliable characterization of metabolites from iridoid compounds.