Effects of chronic di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate intake on the secretion and removal rate of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins in rats

Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate plasticizer triggers hepatic, brain, and cardiac injury in rats: Mitigating effect of Peganum harmala oil

Di(2-ethylhexyl) adipate (DEHA) is a widely used plasticizer and prevalent environmental contaminant. In this study, DEHA concentrations in the milk, cheese, and butter samples wrapped with food-grade commercial polyethylene films and stored at 4 °C for 30 days were detected using gas chromatographic analysis. Also, the effects of exposure to a high dose of DEHA for a long duration on the liver, brain, and heart of Wistar rats were assessed. Besides, the possible beneficial effect of Peganum harmala oil (PGO), in relieving DEHA induced adverse effects was explored. For this purpose, four groups (8 rats/group) were orally given physiological saline, PGO (320 mg/kg bwt), DEHA (2000 mg/kg bwt), or PGO + DEHA for 60 days. The results revealed that the DEHA concentrations in the tested dairy products were ordered as follows: (butter > cheese > milk). Notably, the detected levels in butter were higher than the specific migration limit in foods. DEHA induced a significant increase in the serum levels of glucose, alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase, acetylcholine esterase, creatine kinase-myocardium bound, malondialdehyde, tumor necrosis factor-α, and interleukin-1β. But, significant hypoproteinemia, hypoalbuminemia, hypoglobulinemia, and hypocholesterolemia were evident following DEHA exposure. A significant reduction in the serum level of superoxide dismutase, reduced glutathione, and brain-derived neurotrophic factor was recorded. Besides, a significant downregulation in hepatic CYP2E1, brain glial fibrillary acidic protein, and cardiac troponin I gene expression was noticed. Moreover, DEHA exposure induced a significant decrease in Bcl-2 immunolabeling, but Caspase-3 immunoexpression was increased. On the contrary, PGO significantly recused DEHA injurious impacts. Therefore, PGO could represent a promising agent for preventing DEHA-induced hepatotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and cardiotoxicity.

Prenatal maternal phthalate exposures and child lipid and adipokine levels at age six: A study from the PROGRESS cohort of Mexico City

BACKGROUND

Prenatal phthalate exposures may affect processes that underlie offspring cardiometabolic health, but findings from studies examining these associations are conflicting. We examined associations between biomarkers of phthalate exposures during pregnancy with child lipid and adipokine levels.

METHODS

Data were from 463 mother-child pairs in the PROGRESS cohort of Mexico City. We quantified 15 phthalate metabolites in 2nd and 3rd trimester maternal urine samples and created an average pregnancy measure using the geometric mean. We evaluated the 15 metabolites as nine biomarkers, including four metabolite molar sums. We measured fasting serum triglycerides, non-HDL cholesterol, leptin, and adiponectin in children at the six-year follow-up visit (mean = 6.8 years). We estimated associations using linear regression, Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR), and weighted quantile sum (WQS) and assessed effect modification by sex.

RESULTS

In BKMR and WQS models, higher concentrations of the total mixture of phthalate biomarkers were associated with lower triglycerides (β = -3.7% [-6.5, -0.78] per 1 unit increase in WQS biomarker index) and non-HDL cholesterol (β = -2.0 [-3.7, -0.25] ng/ml per increase in WQS biomarker index). Associations between individual biomarkers and child outcomes were largely null. We observed some evidence of effect modification by child sex for mono-3-carboxypropyl phthalate (β = 19.4% [1.26, 40.7] per doubling of phthalate) and monobenzyl phthalate (β = -7.6% [-14.4, -0.23]) in girls for adiponectin.

CONCLUSIONS

Individual prenatal phthalate biomarkers were not associated with child lipid or adipokine levels. Contrary to our hypothesis, the total phthalate mixture was associated with lower child triglycerides and non-HDL cholesterol.

Maternal conjugated linoleic acid consumption prevented TAG alterations induced by a high-fat diet in male adult rat offspring

Maternal nutritional programming by a high-fat (HF) diet is related to hepatic lipid accumulation and steatosis in offspring. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) might ameliorate impaired hepatic lipid homoeostasis; therefore, the aim was to investigate the potential preventive effect of maternal CLA consumption on TAG metabolism alterations induced by HF diets in adult male rat offspring receiving or not receiving CLA. Female Wistar rats were fed a control (C) diet, HF diet or HF diet supplemented with CLA (HF+CLA) for 4 weeks before mating and throughout pregnancy and lactation. After weaning, for 9 weeks, male offspring of C or HF rats continued with the same diets as their mothers (C/C or HF/HF groups, respectively) and male offspring of HF+CLA rats were fed HF or HF+CLA diets (HF+CLA/HF or HF+CLA/HF+CLA groups, respectively). Nutritional parameters, serum and liver TAG levels, the TAG secretion rate (TAG-SR) and the activities as well as gene expression of key hepatic enzymes involved in TAG regulation were assessed. The most interesting results were that maternal CLA decreased epididymal white adipose tissue weight and prevented serum and liver TAG accumulation induced by a HF diet in adult male offspring receiving or not receiving CLA. The prevention of liver steatosis in HF+CLA/HF+CLA and HF+CLA/HF offspring was associated with an increased hepatic TAG-SR. Overall, this study provides evidence that maternal CLA consumption programmes TAG regulation and in this way contributes to lowering lipid levels in tissues and preventing liver steatosis in particular.

Di-(2-Ethylhexyl)-Phthalate (DEHP) Causes Impaired Adipocyte Function and Alters Serum Metabolites

Di-(2-ethylhexyl)-phthalate (DEHP), an ubiquitous environmental contaminant, has been shown to cause adverse effects on glucose homeostasis and insulin sensitivity in epidemiological studies, but the underlying mechanisms are still unknown. We therefore tested the hypothesis that chronic DEHP exposure causes impaired insulin sensitivity, affects body weight, adipose tissue (AT) function and circulating metabolic parameters of obesity resistant 129S6 mice in vivo. An obesity-resistant mouse model was chosen to reduce a potential obesity bias of DEHP effects on metabolic parameters and AT function. The metabolic effects of 10-weeks exposure to DEHP were tested by insulin tolerance tests and quantitative assessment of 183 metabolites in mice. Furthermore, 3T3-L1 cells were cultured with DEHP for two days, differentiated into mature adipocytes in which the effects on insulin stimulated glucose and palmitate uptake, lipid content as well as on mRNA/protein expression of key adipocyte genes were investigated. We observed in female mice that DEHP treatment causes enhanced weight gain, fat mass, impaired insulin tolerance, changes in circulating adiponectin and adipose tissue Pparg, adiponectin and estrogen expression. Serum metabolomics indicated a general increase in phospholipid and carnitine concentrations. In vitro, DEHP treatment increases the proliferation rate and alters glucose uptake in adipocytes. Taken together, DEHP has significant effects on adipose tissue (AT) function and alters specific serum metabolites. Although, DEHP treatment led to significantly impaired insulin tolerance, it did not affect glucose tolerance, HOMA-IR, fasting glucose, insulin or triglyceride serum concentrations. This may suggest that DEHP treatment does not cause impaired glucose metabolism at the whole body level.

The combined effects of DEHP and PCBs on phospholipase in the livers of mice

Di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are two widely distributed pollutants that are of great concern due to their adverse health effects. However, few studies have investigated the combined effects of DEHP and PCBs. In this study, adult mice were continuously exposed to mixtures of DEHP (15 mg/kg bodyweight/day) and Aroclor 1254 (7.5 mg/kg bodyweight/day) for 12 days to investigate the combined effects of these compounds. The results showed that the ratio of the liver weight to the body weight was higher in the treated group than that in the control group. The effects of combined exposure on three important receptors, the proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), estrogen receptor (ER), and aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AHR), were investigated. The mRNA level of PPARγ was significantly up-regulated after exposure. The expression level of ERα was decreased in the male treated group. In contrast, the expression levels of AHR and related genes (cyp1a1 and cyp1b1) were not markedly affected. The expression level of phospholipase A (PLA) was significantly down-regulated at both the mRNA and protein levels in male mice after combined treatment. In all, our study demonstrated the combined effects of DEHP and PCBs on the expression levels of key receptors in mice. The combined exposure led to a decrease in phospholipase in male mice.

Celery oil modulates DEHP-induced reproductive toxicity in male rats

The objective of the study was to investigate the protective effect of Apium graveolens (AP) against di-(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP)-induced testes injury in rats. Adult rats were divided into nine groups: (1) control group (no treatment); (2) corn oil (60 μg/kg body weight - bwt); (3) AP (50 μg/kg bwt); (4) 300 mg DEHP/kg bwt; (5) 500 mg DEHP/kg bwt; (6) 1000 mg DEHP/kg bwt; (7) 300 mg DEHP/kg bwt+AP; (8) 500 mg DEHP/kg bwt+AP; and (9) 1000 mg DEHP/kg bwt+AP. Oral administration of treatments was performed daily for 6 weeks. DEHP decreased (p<0.01) body weight, testis weight and serum concentrations of testosterone, cholesterol and total proteins. Moreover, DEHP increased (p<0.001) total antioxidant capacity in the testis and plasma DEHP level. In addition, DEHP decreased mRNA expression of two testicular steroidogenic enzymes: 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase and 17β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. DEHP also caused atrophy, vacuolar degeneration and aspermia of the seminiferous tubules. AP administered concurrently with DEHP effectively alleviated most of the DEHP-induced effects. In conclusion, in male rats, DEHP had adverse effects on the testis including inhibition of androgen production. A concurrent administration of A. graveolens (celery oil) protected the testis against DEHP-induced toxicity.

Effect of di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) on lipolysis and lipoprotein lipase activities in adipose tissue of rats

The di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP) is an ubiquitous environmental chemical with detrimental health effects. The present work was designed to asses some potential mechanisms by which DEHP causes, among others, a reduced body fat retention. Since this effect could be related to an alteration of adipocyte triacylglycerol (TG) metabolism, we evaluated the effects of dietary DEHP in adipose tissues upon (1) the number and size of fat cells; (2) the basal and stimulated lipolysis and (3) the lipoprotein lipase (LPL) activity. Groups of male Wistar rats were fed for 21 days a control diet alone (control group) or the same control diet supplemented with 2% (w/w) of DEHP (DEHP group). The LPL activity of DEHP-fed rats was increased in lumbar and epididymal adipose tissues. These rats had significantly reduced weight in epididymal and lumbar tissues, together with reduced size of epididymal adipocytes. These alterations do not seem to be associated with higher lipid mobility because neither basal lipolysis nor 'in vitro' stimulated lipolysis by noradrenaline (NA) showed to be modified by DEHP. Based on these results, we concluded that the adipose tissue size reduction induced by DEHP intake is not due to changes in lipolysis nor to a decreased LPL activity. More research is needed to achieve a comprehensive understanding of the potential mechanisms by which DEHP causes, among others, a reduced body fat retention.

Reproductive effects of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate in immature male rats and its relation to cholesterol, testosterone, and thyroxin levels

Phthalates are chemicals employed in several industrial products and there is a growing body of evidence demonstrating that they induce numerous adverse effects on the reproductive system. This study was carried out to assess possible alterations induced by the plasticizer di(2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) on cholesterol, testosterone, and thyroxine (total T4) levels, as well as to discuss the significance of these data in global changes observed in the reproductive tract of pubertal animals. Wistar rats aged 21 days received DEHP orally at 0, 250, 500, and 750 mg/kg/day for 30 days and were examined for different reproductive endpoints. At the end of the treatment, significant decreases in relative weight of testosterone-dependent organs, delayed preputial separation, and low serum testosterone were observed at the highest DEHP dose. The plot of the relationship between DEHP dose and serum cholesterol revealed a biphasic effect. The concentration of cholesterol in serum was significantly reduced at 250 mg/kg/day DEHP but returned to control values at 750 mg/kg/day. Cholesterol levels measured in testicular tissue increased with DEHP treatment. Serum T4 levels were not affected by DEHP at any dose, indicating the absence of a link between total thyroxin concentration and phthalate effects on cholesterol levels. Taken together these results indicate that effects observed in serum and testicular cholesterol levels may reflect distinct effects of DEHP on cholesterol synthesis and usage. These results confirm and extend previously reported findings showing that alterations in cholesterol balance may play a role in the suppression of steroidogenesis induced by DEHP in rats.

Concentrations of phthalate metabolites in milk, urine, saliva, and Serum of lactating North Carolina women

BACKGROUND

Phthalates are ubiquitous in the environment, but concentrations in multiple media from breast-feeding U.S. women have not been evaluated.

OBJECTIVES

The objective of this study was to accurately measure and compare the concentrations of oxidative monoester phthalate metabolites in milk and surrogate fluids (serum, saliva, and urine) of 33 lactating North Carolina women.

METHODS

We analyzed serum, saliva, urine, and milk for the oxidative phthalate metabolites mono(3-carboxypropyl) phthalate, mono(2-ethyl-5-carboxypentyl) phthalate (MECPP), mono(2-ethyl-5-hydroxyhexyl) phthalate, and mono(2-ethyl-5-oxohexyl) phthalate using isotope-dilution high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectroscopy. Because only urine lacks esterases, we analyzed it for the hydrolytic phthalate monoesters.

RESULTS

We detected phthalate metabolites in few milk (< 10%) and saliva samples. MECPP was detected in > 80% of serum samples, but other metabolites were less common (3-22%). Seven of the 10 urinary metabolites were detectable in > or = 85% of samples. Monoethyl phthalate had the highest mean concentration in urine. Metabolite concentrations differed by body fluid (urine > serum > milk and saliva). Questionnaire data suggest that frequent nail polish use, immunoglobulin A, and fasting serum glucose and triglyceride levels were increased among women with higher concentrations of urinary and/or serum phthalate metabolites; motor vehicle age was inversely correlated with certain urinary phthalate concentrations.

CONCLUSIONS

Our data suggest that phthalate metabolites are most frequently detected in urine of lactating women and are less often detected in serum, milk, or saliva. Urinary phthalate concentrations reflect maternal exposure and do not represent the concentrations of oxidative metabolites in other body fluids, especially milk.

Effects of CLA at different dietary fat levels on the nutritional status of rats during protein repletion

OBJECTIVE

Protein depletion is associated with decreased body weight gain, low nitrogen balance, intrahepatic lipid accumulation, and hypoalbuminemia. Because conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) can increase lean body mass, enhance feed efficiency, and modulate lipid metabolism, this study investigated the effects of CLA at two levels of dietary fat on energy efficiency, nitrogen retention, and plasmatic and hepatic lipid levels in rats during dietary protein repletion.

METHODS

The animals were subjected to a moderate protein restriction for 14 d. After that, they were fed a protein repletion diet for 30 d, supplemented or not with CLA at recommended and high-fat levels. Energy efficiency, nitrogen balance, and nutritional parameters in serum and tissues were evaluated.

RESULTS

Protein repletion improved most of the nutritional parameters evaluated independently of CLA supplementation at both fat levels. At recommended fat levels, CLA did not have any effect. At high-fat levels, energy efficiency increased more than 20% by fat accumulation in carcasses and epididymal pads, serum cholesterol increased (two-fold), and liver triacylglycerol accumulation remained elevated. However, at high-fat levels, CLA prevented lipid accumulation in liver and adipose tissue.

CONCLUSION

Protein repletion improved the nutritional status of protein-restricted rats with minor effects of CLA at both dietary fat levels. However, when high-fat diets were given, CLA-enriched oil showed preventive effects on liver and adipose tissue lipid accumulation and no deleterious effects were observed. Because there are no studies dealing with CLA effects on protein repletion, this experimental model could improve nutritional interventions to overcome the protein-deficit stage.

Dietary di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate-impaired glucose metabolism in experimental animals

The effects of chronic intake of di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate (DEHP) on the main intermediate glycolytic metabolites in liver and gastrocnemius muscle were investigated in experimental animals. Male Wistar rats (90-100 g) were fed for 21 days either with a standard chow or the same diet supplemented with 2% (w/w) of DEHP. The DEHP-fed rats had an altered in vivo glucose tolerance associated with abnormal glucose intermediate metabolite contents in liver and skeletal muscle. In these rats, the hepatic content of glucose-6-phosphate (G-6-P), fructose-6-phosphate, pyruvate, lactate, glucose-1-phosphate and glycogen decreased. At the same time, the G-6-P content decreased while the pyruvate and lactate levels increased in skeletal muscle. These data, along with the high plasma glucose concentration and the normal lactate blood levels of this group, could indicate that DEHP-fed rats could present a deficiency in muscle glucose and lactate transport, a reduction of the flux through muscle hexokinase and hepatic glucokinase, and a reduction in glycogen synth-

Tryptophan-NAD+ pathway metabolites as putative biomarkers and predictors of peroxisome proliferation

The present study was designed to provide further information about the relevance of raised urinary levels of N-methylnicotinamide (NMN), and/or its metabolites N-methyl-4-pyridone-3-carboxamide (4PY) and N-methyl-2-pyridone-3-carboxamide (2PY), to peroxisome proliferation by dosing rats with known peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) ligands [fenofibrate, diethylhexylphthalate (DEHP) and long-chain fatty acids (LCFA)] and other compounds believed to modulate lipid metabolism via PPARalpha-independent mechanisms (simvastatin, hydrazine and chlorpromazine). Urinary NMN was correlated with standard markers of peroxisome proliferation and serum lipid parameters with the aim of establishing whether urinary NMN could be used as a biomarker for peroxisome proliferation in the rat. Data from this study were also used to validate a previously constructed multivariate statistical model of peroxisome proliferation (PP) in the rat. The predictive model, based on 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy of urine, uses spectral patterns of NMN, 4PY and other endogenous metabolites to predict hepatocellular peroxisome count. Each treatment induced pharmacological (serum lipid) effects characteristic of their class, but only fenofibrate, DEHP and simvastatin increased peroxisome number and raised urinary NMN, 2PY and 4PY, with simvastatin having only a transient effect on the latter. These compounds also reduced mRNA expression for aminocarboxymuconate-semialdehyde decarboxylase (ACMSDase, EC 4.1.1.45), the enzyme believed to be involved in modulating the flux of tryptophan through this pathway, with decreasing order of potency, fenofibrate (-10.39-fold) >DEHP (-3.09-fold) >simvastatin (-1.84-fold). Of the other treatments, only LCFA influenced mRNA expression of ACMSDase (-3.62-fold reduction) and quinolinate phosphoribosyltransferase (QAPRTase, EC 2.4.2.19) (-2.42-fold) without any change in urinary NMN excretion. Although there were no correlations between urinary NMN concentration and serum lipid parameters, NMN did correlate with peroxisome count (r2=0.63) and acyl-CoA oxidase activity (r2=0.61). These correlations were biased by the large response to fenofibrate compared to the other treatments; nevertheless the data do indicate a relationship between the tryptophan-NAD+ pathway and PPARalpha-dependent pathways, making this metabolite a potentially useful biomarker to detect PP. In order to strengthen the observed link between the metabolites associated with the tryptophan-NAD+ pathway and more accurately predict PP, other urinary metabolites were included in a predictive statistical model. This statistical model was found to predict the observed PP in 26/27 instances using a pre-determined threshold of 2-fold mean control peroxisome count. The model also predicted a time-dependent increase in peroxisome count for the fenofibrate group, which is important when considering the use of such modelling to predict the onset and progression of PP prior to its observation in samples taken at autopsy.

Metabolic effects of trans fatty acids on an experimental dietary model

The aim of the present study was to investigate the potential nutritional and metabolic impact of trans (t) fatty acids (FA) on an appropriate experimental dietary model. Since previously reported experimental designs have been matter of concern, we developed a dietary model to compare the effect of t isomers and/or the saturation of FA independently of other variables. Wistar rats were fed diets containing identical amounts of nutrients and high levels of dietary fats (200 g/kg) for 30 d. Dietary fat rich in t-FA was compared with fat rich in saturated (s) FA or rich in cis (c) FA, maintaining the same length of C chain of the FA. The fats were obtained through isomerization or hydrogenation of the c-FA present in the control fat. Apparent fat absorption, energy efficiency and triacylglycerol levels in serum and liver were different in rats fed t-FA or s-FA than c-FA. The apparent fat absorption was (%): s-FA 85.7 (sd 3.4)<t-FA 93.1 (sd 0.4)<c-FA 96.7 (sd 1.1) (P<0.05). The efficiency of energy utilization was lower in t-FA (11.7 %) and s-FA (18.5 %) diets, reaching statistical significance only between s-FA and c-FA. A striking finding was the change in the lipid profile in serum and liver. Serum and hepatic triacylglycerol levels were greater for t-FA and s-FA diets than in c-FA; however, the increases on serum triacylglycerol concentrations were greater with the s-FA diet and the increases on hepatic triacylglycerol content were greater with t-FA. Knowledge of the t-FA effects on this kind of experimental dietary model could contribute to determine the potential risk of t-FA intake for man.

Effect of the dietary exposure of rat to di(2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate on their metabolic efficiency

The nutritional impact of di(2-ethyl hexyl) phthalate (DEHP), specifically its energy efficiency and nitrogen utilization, was studied in the experimental rat. Groups of male Wistar rats were fed over 21 days with a standard diet alone or a standard diet supplemented with 2% (w/w) DEHP. Food intake, body weight and nitrogen compounds excretion were measured daily. The composition and energetic content of the carcass were determined in animals of both dietary groups after the feeding period, as well as in a separate group on day 0. The food and energy intakes were similar in both groups, however, the efficiencies of energy and nitrogen use were significantly reduced in the DEHP-fed rat. These alterations were reflected by a reduction of 31% on carcass energy retention and a decrease of 26% on cumulative nitrogen balance, without changes in the body composition. The increase of urinary nitrogen excretion, mainly as urea compound, is the major contributing factor to the lower nitrogen retention. These results indicate that DEHP decreases energy efficiency and nitrogen utilization, leading to a pronounced reduction in body weight gain. In addition, this study provides a possible conceptual framework that could explain the metabolic changes induced by DEHP and related compounds in experimental animals.