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Chang Y, Chiang CK. The Impact of Thallium Exposure in Public Health and Molecular Toxicology: A Comprehensive Review. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:4750. [PMID: 38731969 PMCID: PMC11084277 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25094750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2024] [Revised: 04/20/2024] [Accepted: 04/23/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
This review offers a synthesis of the current understanding of the impact of low-dose thallium (Tl) on public health, specifically emphasizing its diverse effects on various populations and organs. The article integrates insights into the cytotoxic effects, genotoxic potential, and molecular mechanisms of thallium in mammalian cells. Thallium, a non-essential heavy metal present in up to 89 different minerals, has garnered attention due to its adverse effects on human health. As technology and metallurgical industries advance, various forms of thallium, including dust, vapor, and wastewater, can contaminate the environment, extending to the surrounding air, water sources, and soil. Moreover, the metal has been identified in beverages, tobacco, and vegetables, highlighting its pervasive presence in a wide array of food sources. Epidemiological findings underscore associations between thallium exposure and critical health aspects such as kidney function, pregnancy outcomes, smoking-related implications, and potential links to autism spectrum disorder. Thallium primarily exerts cellular toxicity on various tissues through mitochondria-mediated oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress. This synthesis aims to shed light on the intricate web of thallium exposure and its potential implications for public health, emphasizing the need for vigilant consideration of its risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yung Chang
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 100233, Taiwan;
| | - Chih-Kang Chiang
- Graduate Institute of Toxicology, College of Medicine, National Taiwan University, Taipei 100233, Taiwan;
- Department of Integrated Diagnostics & Therapeutics, National Taiwan University Hospital, Taipei 100225, Taiwan
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2
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Fujihara J, Nishimoto N. Thallium - poisoner's poison: An overview and review of current knowledge on the toxicological effects and mechanisms. Curr Res Toxicol 2024; 6:100157. [PMID: 38420185 PMCID: PMC10899033 DOI: 10.1016/j.crtox.2024.100157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2023] [Revised: 02/13/2024] [Accepted: 02/15/2024] [Indexed: 03/02/2024] Open
Abstract
Thallium (Tl) is one of the most toxic metals and its historic use in homicides has led it to be known as "the poisoner's poison." This review summarizes the methods for identifying Tl and determining its concentrations in biological samples in recently reported poisoning cases, as well as the toxicokinetics, toxicological effects, toxicity mechanisms, and detoxication methods of Tl. Recent findings regarding Tl neurotoxicological pathways and toxicological effects of Tl during pregnancy are also presented. Confirmation of elevated Tl concentrations in blood, urine, or hair is indispensable for diagnosing Tl poisoning. The kidneys show the highest Tl concentration within 24 h after ingestion, while the brain shows the highest concentration thereafter. Tl has a very slow excretion rate due to its large distribution volume. Following acute exposure, gastrointestinal symptoms are observed at an early stage, and neurological dysfunction is observed later: Tl causes the most severe damage in the central nervous system. Alopecia and Mees' lines in the nails are observed within 1 month after Tl poisoning. The toxicological mechanism of Tl is considered to be interference of vital potassium-dependent processes with Tl+ because its ionic radius is similar to that of K+, as well as inhibition of enzyme reactions by the binding of Tl to -SH groups, which disturbs vital metabolic processes. Tl toxicity is also related to reactive oxygen species generation and mitochondrial dysfunction. Prussian blue is the most effective antidote, and metallothionein alone or in combination with Prussian blue was recently reported to have cytoprotective effects after Tl exposure. Because Tl poisoning cases are still reported, early determination of Tl in biological samples and treatment with an antidote are essential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junko Fujihara
- Department of Legal Medicine, Shimane University Faculty of Medicine, 89-1 Enya, Izumo, Shimane 693-8501, Japan
| | - Naoki Nishimoto
- Shimane Institute for Industrial Technology, 1 Hokuryo, Matsue, Shimane 690-0816, Japan
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3
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Nagel A, Cuss CW, Goss GG, Shotyk W, Glover CN. Effects of Acute and Subchronic Waterborne Thallium Exposure on Ionoregulatory Enzyme Activity and Oxidative Stress in Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2024; 43:87-96. [PMID: 37750573 DOI: 10.1002/etc.5756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 09/04/2023] [Accepted: 09/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/27/2023]
Abstract
The mechanisms of acute (96-hour) and subchronic (28-day) toxicity of the waterborne trace metal thallium (Tl) to rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) were investigated. Specifically, effects on branchial and renal ionoregulatory enzymes (sodium/potassium adenosine triphosphatase [ATPase; NKA] and proton ATPase) and hepatic oxidative stress endpoints (protein carbonylation, glutathione content, and activities of catalase and glutathione peroxidase) were examined. Fish (19-55 g) were acutely exposed to 0 (control), 0.9 (regulatory limit), 2004 (half the acute median lethal concentration), or 4200 (acute median lethal concentration) µg Tl L-1 or subchronically exposed to 0, 0.9, or 141 (an elevated environmental concentration) µg Tl L-1 . The only effect following acute exposure was a stimulation of renal H+ -ATPase activity at the highest Tl exposure concentration. Similarly, the only significant effect of subchronic Tl exposure was an inhibition of branchial NKA activity at 141 µg Tl L-1 , an effect that may reflect the interaction of Tl with potassium ion handling. Despite significant literature evidence for effects of Tl on oxidative stress, there were no effects of Tl on any such endpoint in rainbow trout, regardless of exposure duration or exposure concentration. Elevated basal levels of antioxidant defenses may explain this finding. These data suggest that ionoregulatory perturbance is a more likely mechanism of Tl toxicity than oxidative stress in rainbow trout but is an endpoint of relevance only at elevated environmental Tl concentrations. Environ Toxicol Chem 2024;43:87-96. © 2023 SETAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Nagel
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Chad W Cuss
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- School of Science and the Environment, Memorial University Newfoundland-Grenfell Campus, Corner Brook, Newfoundland, Canada
| | - Greg G Goss
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - William Shotyk
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
| | - Chris N Glover
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada
- Faculty of Science and Technology and Athabasca River Basin Research Institute, Athabasca University, Athabasca, Alberta, Canada
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Lei JY, Wang PP, Wang HL, Wang Y, Sun L, Hu B, Wang SF, Zhang DM, Chen GM, Liang CM, Tao FB, Yang LS, Wu QS. The associations of non-essential metal mixture with fasting plasma glucose among Chinese older adults without diabetes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:100613-100625. [PMID: 37639099 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-023-29503-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
The evidence about the effect of non-essential metal mixture on fasting plasma glucose (FPG) levels among older adults without diabetes is limited. This study aims to estimate the individual and joint relationship between five non-essential metals and FPG levels in Chinese older adults without diabetes. This study included 2362 older adults without diabetes. Urinary concentrations of five non-essential metals, i.e., cesium (Cs), aluminum (Al), thallium (Tl), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As), were detected by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The associations of single metals and the metal mixture with FPG levels were assessed using linear regression and Bayesian kernel machine regression (BKMR) models, respectively. Adjusted single-metal linear regression models showed positive associations of urinary Al (β = 0.016, 95%CI: 0.001-0.030) and Cs (β = 0.018, 95%CI: 0.006-0.031) with FPG levels. When comparing the 2th, 3th, and 4th quartiles of urine Cs to its 1th quartile, the significant associations between Cs and FPG levels were found and presented as an "inverted U" trend (βQ2 vs. Q1: 0.034; βQ3 vs. Q1:0.054; βQ4 vs. Q1: 0.040; all P<0.05). BKMR analyses showed urinary level of Cs exhibited an "inverted U" shape association with FPG levels. Moreover, the FPG levels increased linearly with the raised levels of the non-essential metal mixture, and the posterior inclusion probability (PIP) of Cs was the highest (0.92). Potential positive interaction of As and Cs on FPG levels was found in BKMR model. Stratified analysis displayed significant interactions of hyperlipidemia and urine Cs or Tl on FPG levels. An inverse U-shaped association between Cs and FPG was found, individually and as mixture. The FPG levels increased with the raised levels of the non-essential metal mixture, and Cs was the most contributor to FPG levels. Further research is required to confirm the correlation between non-essential metals and FPG levels and to clarify the underlying mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing-Yuan Lei
- School of Public Health, Department of Hygiene Inspection and Quarantine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Pan-Pan Wang
- School of Public Health, Department of Hygiene Inspection and Quarantine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Hong-Li Wang
- School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Yuan Wang
- School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Liang Sun
- Fuyang Center for Diseases Prevention and Control, Fuyang, 236069, Anhui, China
| | - Bing Hu
- Fuyang Center for Diseases Prevention and Control, Fuyang, 236069, Anhui, China
| | - Su-Fang Wang
- School of Public Health, Department of Nutrition and Food Hygiene, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Dong-Mei Zhang
- School of Health Services Management, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Gui-Mei Chen
- School of Health Services Management, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Chun-Mei Liang
- School of Public Health, Department of Hygiene Inspection and Quarantine, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Fang-Biao Tao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Population Health Across Life Cycle (Anhui Medical University), No. 81 Meishan Road, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Lin-Sheng Yang
- School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology and Health Statistics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230032, Anhui, China
| | - Qing-Si Wu
- Department of Blood Transfusion, the Second Affiliated Hospital of Anhui Medical University, Hefei, 230601, Anhui, China.
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Wei X, Li X, Liu P, Li L, Chen H, Li D, Liu J, Xie L. Integrated physiological, biochemical, and transcriptomic analysis of thallium toxicity in zebrafish (Danio rerio) larvae. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 859:160265. [PMID: 36403832 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160265] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Although several studies have evaluated the effects of Thallium (Tl) in adult species of fish, the developmental toxicity of Tl has not been previously explored. In this study, zebrafish embryos (<4 h post fertilization (hpf)) were exposed to Tl at concentrations from 0.8 to 400 μg L-1 for 7 d. The results showed that the decreased hatching rate and increased malformation rate were observed in the larvae. The swimming velocity of larvae from 200 and 400 μg L-1 treatments was respectively reduced by ~26 % and 15 %. Histopathological analysis of liver indicated the number of cells of karyolysis (143 % and 202 %) and pyknosis (170 % and 131 %) were respectively increased in 200 and 400 μg L-1 Tl treatments. Meanwhile, the Tl body burden and metallothionein (MT) levels in the larvae were increased with elevated Tl concentrations. The level of malondialdehyde (MDA) was increased by ~20 to 51 % in all Tl treatments and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) was decreased by ~12 % at 200 μg L-1. The activities of Na+/K+-ATPase and protease were inhibited in 200 and 400 μg L-1 Tl treatments. Moreover, the transcripts of genes (Nrf2, HO-1, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-8, IL-10, TGF) were significantly altered. In addition, a total of 930 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 1549 DEGs were found in the 200 and 400 μg L-1 treatments with 458 overlapped DEGs by transcriptomic analysis. The protein digestion and absorption, ECM-receptor interaction, and complement and coagulation cascades pathways were shown to be the most significantly enriched pathways. This study helps better understand the molecular mechanisms of Tl toxicity in fish.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinrong Wei
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, University Town, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xiao Li
- Xiamen Key Laboratory for Feed Quality Testing and Safety Evaluation, Fisheries College, Jimei University, Xiamen 361021, China
| | - Ping Liu
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, University Town, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Lixia Li
- 810 Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering Geology, Shandong Provincial Bureau of Geology & Mineral Resources, Jinan 250014, China; Shandong Engineering Research Center for Environmental Protection and Remediation on Groundwater, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Hongxing Chen
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, University Town, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Dan Li
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, University Town, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Juan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Water Quality and Conservation in the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Institute of Environmental Research at Greater Bay, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Lingtian Xie
- SCNU Environmental Research Institute, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; School of Environment, South China Normal University, University Town, Guangzhou 510006, China.
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Sánchez-Chapul L, Santamaría A, Aschner M, Ke T, Tinkov AA, Túnez I, Osorio-Rico L, Galván-Arzate S, Rangel-López E. Thallium-induced DNA damage, genetic, and epigenetic alterations. Front Genet 2023; 14:1168713. [PMID: 37152998 PMCID: PMC10157259 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2023.1168713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Thallium (Tl) is a toxic heavy metal responsible for noxious effects in living organisms. As a pollutant, Tl can be found in the environment at high concentrations, especially in industrial areas. Systemic toxicity induced by this toxic metal can affect cell metabolism, including redox alterations, mitochondrial dysfunction, and activation of apoptotic signaling pathways. Recent focus on Tl toxicity has been devoted to the characterization of its effects at the nuclear level, with emphasis on DNA, which, in turn, may be responsible for cytogenetic damage, mutations, and epigenetic changes. In this work, we review and discuss past and recent evidence on the toxic effects of Tl at the systemic level and its effects on DNA. We also address Tl's role in cancer and its control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Sánchez-Chapul
- Laboratorio de Enfermedades Neuromusculares, División de Neurociencias Clínicas, Instituto Nacional de Rehabilitación Luis Guillermo Ibarra Ibarra, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Abel Santamaría
- Laboratorio de Aminoácidos Excitadores/Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología Molecular y Nanotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Michael Aschner
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Tao Ke
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY, United States
| | - Alexey A. Tinkov
- Yaroslavl State University, Medical University (Sechenov University), Moscow, Russia
| | - Isaac Túnez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biomédicas Maimonides de Córdoba, Departamento de Bioquímica Y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina Y Enfermería, Red Española de Excelencia en Estimulación Cerebral (REDESTIM), Universidad de, Córdoba, Spain
| | - Laura Osorio-Rico
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Mexico City, Mexico
| | - Sonia Galván-Arzate
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Mexico City, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Edgar Rangel-López, ; Sonia Galván-Arzate,
| | - Edgar Rangel-López
- Laboratorio de Aminoácidos Excitadores/Laboratorio de Neurofarmacología Molecular y Nanotecnología, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Mexico City, Mexico
- *Correspondence: Edgar Rangel-López, ; Sonia Galván-Arzate,
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Li D, Yao H, Du L, Zeng X, Xiao Q. Thallium(I and III) exposure leads to liver damage and disorders of fatty acid metabolism in mice. CHEMOSPHERE 2022; 307:135618. [PMID: 35817190 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.135618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/03/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Thallium (Tl), a highly toxic and priority pollutant heavy metal, exposure can damage mitochondria and disrupt their function. The liver is the central organ that controls lipid homeostasis and contains a large number of mitochondria. So far, there is no study investigating the effects of Tl exposure on hepatic fatty acid metabolism. Here, we showed that 10 ppm of Tl(I) and Tl(III) exposures for two weeks did not significantly affect the body weight and water/food intake in mice. However, it decreased the ratio of liver/weight and induced hepatic sinus congestion and hepatocyte necrosis. Inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) analysis revealed Tl accumulation in the liver. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) results showed that Tl(I) exposure significantly increased hepatic C18:0 concentration, while significantly decreased the concentrations of C16:1n-7, C20:1n-9, C18:3n-6, and C20:2n-9. Tl(III) exposure significantly reduced hepatic concentrations of C20:0, C22:0, C20:1n-9, C18:3n-6, and C20:3n-6. In addition, Tl(I) exposure upregulated the genes related to antioxidation (HO-1, GPX1, and GPX4), fatty acid synthesis (FADS2 and Elovl2), and fatty acid oxidation pathway (PPARα, ACADM, ACADVL, ACAA2, and CPT1A) in the liver. Tl(III) exposure did not significantly affect the transcript levels of liver antioxidative/metabolic enzymes and fatty acid synthesis-related genes, but upregulated fatty acid oxidation pathway-related genes (CYP4A10 and CPT1A). These results suggest that Tl(I) and Tl(III) exposures can cause liver damage and disrupt hepatic fatty acid metabolism, which provide new insights into Tl exposure-induced energy depletion from the perspective of fatty acid metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong Li
- Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, 646000, China; College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, Sichuan, 625014, China
| | - Huan Yao
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, Sichuan, 625014, China
| | - Lei Du
- College of Food Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, Sichuan, 625014, China
| | - Xianyin Zeng
- College of Life Science, Sichuan Agricultural University, Ya'an, Sichuan, 625014, China.
| | - Qihai Xiao
- Laboratory Animal Center, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, Sichuan, 646000, China.
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8
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Varão AM, Silva JDS, Amaral LO, Aleixo LLP, Onduras A, Santos CS, Silva LPD, Ribeiro DE, Filho JLL, Bornhorst J, Stiboller M, Schwerdtle T, Alves LC, Soares FAA, Gubert P. Toxic effects of thallium acetate by acute exposure to the nematode C. elegans. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2021; 68:126848. [PMID: 34479099 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2021.126848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 08/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Thallium (Tl) is a toxic metalloid and an emerging pollutant due to electronic devices and dispersal nearby base-metal mining. Therefore, Tl poses a threat to human health and especially the long-term impact on younger individuals exposed is still unknown. This study aimed to evaluate the toxic effects of thallium acetate in C. elegans in early larval stages, considering physiological and behavioral endpoints, as well as the Tl absorption and bioaccumulation. METHODS Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) was exposed to Thallium acetate (50, 100, 150, 200, 250, 500, and 1000 μM) in the L1 larval stage, with the purpose to observe the toxic effects invoked until adulthood. Transgenic worms strains were transported GFP, reporters to DAF-16 and were used to verify the antioxidant response. ICP-MS quantified total Tl+ concentration to evidence Tl uptake and bioaccumulation. RESULTS Thallium acetate caused a significant reduction in the number of living worms (p < 0.0001 in 100-1000 μM), a delay in larval development (p < 0.01; p < 0.001 and p < 0.0001 in 100-1000 μM) through the larval stages, and egg production in the worm's uterus was reduced. Thallium acetate also induced behavioral changes. Additionally, thallium acetate activated antioxidant pathway responses in C. elegans by translocating the DAF-16 transcription factor and activation of SOD-3::GFP expression. The Tl+ quantification in worms showed its absorption in the L1 larval stage and bioaccumulation in the body after development. CONCLUSIONS Thallium acetate reduced survival, delayed development, caused behavioral changes, induced responses inherent to oxidative stress, and serious damage to the worm's reproduction. In addition, C. elegans absorbed and bioaccumulated Tl+. Together, our results highlight the impacts of Tl+ exposure in the early stages of life, even for a short period.
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Affiliation(s)
- A M Varão
- MS(4)Life Laboratory of Mass Spectrometry, Health Sciences Postgraduate Program, São Francisco University, Bragança Paulista, SP, 12916-900, Brazil; Graduate Program in Pure and Applied Chemistry, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil
| | - J D S Silva
- Graduate Program in Pure and Applied Chemistry, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil
| | - L O Amaral
- Graduate Program in Pure and Applied Chemistry, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil
| | - L L P Aleixo
- Immunopathology Laboratory Keizo Asami. The Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - A Onduras
- Immunopathology Laboratory Keizo Asami. The Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - C S Santos
- Immunopathology Laboratory Keizo Asami. The Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - L P D Silva
- Immunopathology Laboratory Keizo Asami. The Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - D E Ribeiro
- Immunopathology Laboratory Keizo Asami. The Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - J L L Filho
- Immunopathology Laboratory Keizo Asami. The Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil
| | - J Bornhorst
- Food Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Wuppertal, Wuppertal, Germany
| | - M Stiboller
- Department of Food Chemistry, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - T Schwerdtle
- Department of Food Chemistry, Institute of Nutritional Science, University of Potsdam, Arthur-Scheunert-Allee 114-116, 14558, Nuthetal, Germany
| | - L C Alves
- Immunopathology Laboratory Keizo Asami. The Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil; Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Aggeu Magalhães Institute, Department of Parasitology, Brazil
| | - F A A Soares
- Federal University of Santa Maria, Center for Natural and Exact Sciences, Department of Chemistry, 97105900, Santa Maria, RS, Brazil
| | - P Gubert
- Graduate Program in Pure and Applied Chemistry, Federal University of Western Bahia, Rua Bertioga, 892, Morada Nobre II, CEP 47810-059, Barreiras, Bahia, Brazil; Immunopathology Laboratory Keizo Asami. The Federal University of Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil.
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9
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Reyes-Rodríguez MDLÁ, Santos-Cruz LF, García-Castro C, Durán-Díaz Á, Castañeda-Partida L, Dueñas-García IE, Heres-Pulido ME, Rodríguez-Mercado JJ. Genotoxicity and cytotoxicity evaluation of two thallium compounds using the Drosophila wing somatic mutation and recombination test. Heliyon 2021; 7:e07087. [PMID: 34136682 PMCID: PMC8176319 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2020] [Revised: 01/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Thallium (Tl) is a heavy and toxic metal and a byproduct of several human activities, such as cement production, mining, and coal combustion. Thallium is found in fruits, vegetables, and animal fodder with high Tl contamination; therefore, it is an environmental pollution issue and a toxicological contamination problem for human beings and other organisms when exposed to it. The mutagenic potential of Tl and its compounds is controversial, and there are few in vivo studies on its effects. We conducted the animal bioassay Drosophila wing somatic mutation and recombination test (SMART) to test for genotoxicity and assessed the genotoxic effects of Tl acetate (TlCH3COO) and Tl sulfate (Tl2SO4) on Drosophila melanogaster. Third instar larvae from the SMART standard cross (ST) were fed Tl acetate [0.2, 2, 20, 200, 600 and 1200 μM] and Tl sulfate [0.2, 2, 20, 200, and 600 μM]. Hexavalent chromium [CrO3, 500 μM] served as the positive control, and Milli-Q water served as the negative control. Only the high Tl2SO4 [600 μM] concentration resulted in genotoxicity with 87.6% somatic recombination, and both salts disrupted cell division of wing imaginal disc cells, showing the expected cytotoxic effects. Genotoxic risks due to high metal levels by bioaccumulation of Tl+1 or its compounds require further evaluation with other in vivo and in vitro assays.
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Affiliation(s)
- María de los Ángeles Reyes-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Genética Toxicológica, Matemáticas, Biología, FES Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Los Barrios N° 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, C.P. 54090, Tlalnepantla, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Luis Felipe Santos-Cruz
- Laboratorio de Genética Toxicológica, Matemáticas, Biología, FES Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Los Barrios N° 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, C.P. 54090, Tlalnepantla, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Carlos García-Castro
- Laboratorio de Genética Toxicológica, Matemáticas, Biología, FES Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Los Barrios N° 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, C.P. 54090, Tlalnepantla, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Ángel Durán-Díaz
- Laboratorio de Genética Toxicológica, Matemáticas, Biología, FES Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Los Barrios N° 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, C.P. 54090, Tlalnepantla, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Laura Castañeda-Partida
- Laboratorio de Genética Toxicológica, Matemáticas, Biología, FES Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Los Barrios N° 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, C.P. 54090, Tlalnepantla, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Irma Elena Dueñas-García
- Laboratorio de Genética Toxicológica, Matemáticas, Biología, FES Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Los Barrios N° 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, C.P. 54090, Tlalnepantla, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - María Eugenia Heres-Pulido
- Laboratorio de Genética Toxicológica, Matemáticas, Biología, FES Iztacala, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), Los Barrios N° 1, Los Reyes Iztacala, C.P. 54090, Tlalnepantla, Estado de México, Mexico
| | - Juan José Rodríguez-Mercado
- Unidad de Investigación en Genética y Toxicología Ambiental, Unidad Multidisciplinaria de Investigación Experimental (UMIE-Z), FES Zaragoza, Campus II, UNAM, Iztapalapa, C.P. 15000, CdMx, Mexico
- Corresponding author.
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Di Candia D, Biehler-Gomez L, Giordano G, Cattaneo C. A case of thallium intoxication by walking in a field. FORENSIC SCIENCE INTERNATIONAL: REPORTS 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fsir.2020.100102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
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Doulgeridou A, Amlund H, Sloth JJ, Hansen M. Review of Potentially Toxic Rare Earth Elements, Thallium and Tellurium in Plant-based Foods. EFSA J 2020; 18:e181101. [PMID: 33294040 PMCID: PMC7691615 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2020.e181101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
In the last decades, there is an increasing inclusion of various trace metals and metalloids such as thallium, tellurium and rare earth elements (REEs; lanthanides, scandium, and yttrium) in the composition and production of alloys, in agricultural and medicinal applications, as well as in the manufacturing of hi-tech products. All these activities have led to an accumulation of the aforementioned elements both in soil and water bodies and consequently in the food chain, through discharges from mining and mineral processing, liquid industrial waste or disposal of urban and industrial products. It has been demonstrated that chronic exposure to some of these elements, even at low doses, might lead to a wide range of adverse health effects, even from the early stages of life, such as neurotoxicity, neurodevelopmental toxicity and hepatic alterations. Particularly in children, there have been studies suggesting that some of these elements might negatively affect the children's spatial learning and memory ability indirectly. Such effects are triggered by processes like the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), lipid peroxidation and modulation of antioxidant activities. Nevertheless, the limited data from toxicological studies and their so-far naturally low occurrence levels in the environment acted as a deterrent in measuring their concentrations during routine analyses of metals in foodstuff. Thus, it is important to collect information on their occurrence data both in adults and in children's daily diet. This review sumrises the current knowledge on the concentration of these elements, in plant-based food products to identify whether a potential health risk occurs. As side projects, this Fellowship provided hands-on training on the evaluation of new biocides application and participation in the given advice to the Danish Food and Veterinary Administration, Danish Environmental Protection Agency, the Danish Medical Agency and the European Chemicals Agency.
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Lin G, Sun Y, Long J, Sui X, Yang J, Wang Q, Wang S, He H, Luo Y, Qiu Z, Wang Y. Involvement of the Nrf2-Keap1 signaling pathway in protection against thallium-induced oxidative stress and mitochondrial dysfunction in primary hippocampal neurons. Toxicol Lett 2020; 319:66-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.11.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2019] [Revised: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Zhu B, Liang C, Yan S, Li Z, Huang K, Xia X, Hao J, Zhu P, Tao F. Association between serum thallium in early pregnancy and risk of gestational diabetes mellitus: The Ma'anshan birth cohort study. J Trace Elem Med Biol 2019; 52:151-156. [PMID: 30732876 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2018.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2018] [Revised: 12/18/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND High blood glucose has been noted in case reports of acute thallium poisoning, however, effects of low-level exposure of thallium on risk of gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) has not been explored yet. OBJECTIVES We aimed to explore the association of serum thallium concentration (STC) in early pregnancy and risk of GDM. METHODS Data of 3013 women from the Ma'anshan birth cohort study (MABC), China was used. STC was measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Multivariate logistic regression was performed to the association of STC and risk of GDM. Stratified analysis was carried out according to maternal age and pre-pregnancy BMI. RESULTS We documented 383 incident GDM (12.7%). The STC ranged from 0.011 to 0.232 μg/L with a median of 0.062 μg/L. Women with advanced age and higher pre-pregnancy BMI tended to have higher level of STC. Individuals in GDM-group have higher level of STC than that in non-GDM group (P = 0.007). Maternal STC in early pregnancy was associated with risk of GDM, but the association attenuated to non-significance after adjusted for pre-pregnancy BMI. In the advanced age (>30 years) group, STC was significantly associated with risk of GDM in a dose-response manner (P for trend <0.05). Compared with the Quintile 1, the odds ratios (ORs) (95% confidence interval, CI) of Quintile 2, Quintile 3, Quintile 4, and Quintile 5 were 1.48 (0.62-3.53), 2.70 (1.21-6.03), 2.85 (1.29-6.31), 2.30 (1.05-5.05) in the most adjusted model (including pre-pregnancy BMI). CONCLUSIONS Our study was the first study to demonstrate an association of maternal STC in early pregnancy and risk of GDM, and the association was partly mediated by pre-pregnancy BMI. This association exhibited as an age-dependent manner. Our study highlights even very low-level of thallium exposure could already pose a threat to human's health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beibei Zhu
- Department of Maternal, Child & Adolescent Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health & Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Chunmei Liang
- Department of Maternal, Child & Adolescent Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health & Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Shuangqin Yan
- Ma'anshan Maternal and Child Health Care Center, Ma'anshan, China
| | - Zhijuan Li
- Department of Maternal, Child & Adolescent Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health & Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Kun Huang
- Department of Maternal, Child & Adolescent Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health & Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Xun Xia
- Department of Maternal, Child & Adolescent Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health & Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Jiahu Hao
- Department of Maternal, Child & Adolescent Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health & Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Peng Zhu
- Department of Maternal, Child & Adolescent Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health & Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China
| | - Fangbiao Tao
- Department of Maternal, Child & Adolescent Health, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China; Anhui Provincial Key Laboratory of Population Health & Aristogenics, Anhui Medical University, Hefei, China.
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Bramanti E, Onor M, Colombaioni L. Neurotoxicity Induced by Low Thallium Doses in Living Hippocampal Neurons: Evidence of Early Onset Mitochondrial Dysfunction and Correlation with Ethanol Production. ACS Chem Neurosci 2019; 10:451-459. [PMID: 30346713 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.8b00343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The heavy metal thallium is an emerging pollutant among the most potentially toxic species to which human populations are exposed. Its harmful effects on living organisms are well-known at high doses, typical of acute intoxication. Its harmful effects at low doses are by far less known. In a previous paper, we reported a TlCl-induced metabolic shift to lactate and ethanol production in living hippocampal HN9.10e neurons that appeared after a single short exposure (48 h) at low doses (1-100 μg/L). This metabolic shift to lactate and ethanol suggests a marked impairment of cell bioenergetics. In this work, we provide detailed evidence for TlCl-induced changes of neuronal morphology and mitochondrial activity. Confocal microscopy and fluorescent probes were used to qualitatively and quantitatively analyze, at the subcellular level, living HN9.10e neurons during and after TlCl exposure. An early onset mitochondrial dysfunction appeared, associated with signs of cellular deregulation such as neurite shortening, loss of substrate adhesion, and increase of cytoplasmic calcium. The dose-dependent alteration of mitochondrial ROS (mtROS) level and of transmembrane mitochondrial potential (ΔΨm) has been observed also for very low TlCl doses (1 μg/L). The treatment with the ATP synthase inhibitor oligomycin revealed a severe impairment of the mitochondrial function, more significant than that measured by the simple quantification of the tetramethylrhodamine methyl ester (TMRM) fluorescence. These results highlight that mitochondria are a key subcellular target of TlCl neurotoxicity. The transmembrane mitochondrial potential was significantly correlated with the ethanol concentration in cell culture medium ( P < 0.001, r = -0.817), suggesting that ethanol could be potentially used as a biomarker of mitochondrial impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emilia Bramanti
- Institute of Chemsitry of Organo Metallic Compounds-ICCOM, National Research Council of Italy, C.N.R., Pisa 56124, Italy
| | - Massimo Onor
- Institute of Chemsitry of Organo Metallic Compounds-ICCOM, National Research Council of Italy, C.N.R., Pisa 56124, Italy
| | - Laura Colombaioni
- CNR Neuroscience
Institute, Area della Ricerca CNR, Pisa 56124, Italy
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Early response of glutathione- and thioredoxin-dependent antioxidant defense systems to Tl(I)- and Tl(III)-mediated oxidative stress in adherent pheochromocytoma (PC12adh) cells. Arch Toxicol 2017; 92:195-211. [PMID: 28866748 DOI: 10.1007/s00204-017-2056-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/28/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Thallium (Tl) is a toxic heavy metal that causes oxidative stress both in vitro and in vivo. In this work, we evaluated the production of oxygen (ROS)- and nitrogen (RNS)-reactive species in adherent PC12 (PC12adh) cells exposed for 0.5-6 h to Tl(I) or Tl(III) (10-100 µM). In this system, Tl(I) induced mostly H2O2 generation while Tl(III) induced H2O2 and ONOO·- generation. Both cations enhanced iNOS expression and activity, and decreased CuZnSOD expression but without affecting its activity. Tl(I) increased MnSOD expression and activity but Tl(III) decreased them. NADPH oxidase (NOX) activity remained unaffected throughout the period assessed. Oxidant levels returned to baseline values after 6 h of incubation, suggesting a response of the antioxidant defense system to the oxidative insult imposed by the cations. Tl also affected the glutathione-dependent system: while Tl(III) increased glutathione peroxidase (GPx) expression and activity, Tl(I) and Tl(III) decreased glutathione reductase (GR) expression. However, GR activity was mildly enhanced by Tl(III). Finally, thioredoxin-dependent system was evaluated. Only Tl(I) increased 2-Cys peroxiredoxins (2-Cys Prx) expression, although both cations increased their activity. Tl(I) increased cytosolic thioredoxin reductase (TrxR1) and decreased mitochondrial (TrxR2) expression. Tl(III) had a biphasic effect on TrxR1 expression and slightly increased TrxR2 expression. Despite of this, both cations increased total TrxR activity. Obtained results suggest that in Tl(I)-exposed PC12adh cells, there is an early response to oxidative stress mainly by GSH-dependent system while in Tl(III)-treated cells both GSH- and Trx-dependent systems are involved.
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Osorio-Rico L, Santamaria A, Galván-Arzate S. Thallium Toxicity: General Issues, Neurological Symptoms, and Neurotoxic Mechanisms. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2017; 18:345-353. [PMID: 28889276 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-60189-2_17] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Thallium (Tl+) is a ubiquitous natural trace metal considered as the most toxic among heavy metals. The ionic ratio of Tl+ is similar to that of potassium (K+), therefore accounting for the replacement of the latter during enzymatic reactions. The principal organelle damaged after Tl+ exposure is mitochondria. Studies on the mechanisms of Tl+ include intrinsic pathways altered and changes in antiapoptotic and proapoptotic proteins, cytochrome c, and caspases. Oxidative damage pathways increase after Tl+ exposure to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS), changes in physical properties of the cell membrane caused by lipid peroxidation, and concomitant activation of antioxidant mechanisms. These processes are likely to account for the neurotoxic effects of the metal. In humans, Tl+ is absorbed through the skin and mucous membranes and then is widely distributed throughout the body to be accumulated in bones, renal medulla, liver, and the Central Nervous System. Given the growing relevance of Tl+ intoxication, in recent years there is a notorious increase in the number of reports attending Tl+ pollution in different countries. In this sense, the neurological symptoms produced by Tl+ and its neurotoxic effects are gaining attention as they represent a serious health problem all over the world. Through this review, we present an update to general information about Tl+ toxicity, making emphasis on some recent data about Tl+ neurotoxicity, as a field requiring attention at the clinical and preclinical levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Osorio-Rico
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Insurgentes Sur 3877, Mexico City, 14269, Mexico
| | - Abel Santamaria
- Laboratorio de Aminoácidos Excitadores, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Insurgentes Sur 3877, Mexico City, 14269, Mexico
| | - Sonia Galván-Arzate
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía, Insurgentes Sur 3877, Mexico City, 14269, Mexico.
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Eskandari MR, Mashayekhi V, Aslani M, Hosseini MJ. Toxicity of thallium on isolated rat liver mitochondria: the role of oxidative stress and MPT pore opening. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2015; 30:232-241. [PMID: 23996974 DOI: 10.1002/tox.21900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2013] [Revised: 07/21/2013] [Accepted: 07/29/2013] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Thallium(I) is a highly toxic heavy metal; however, up to now, its mechanisms are poorly understood. The authors' previous studies showed that this compound could induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, reduced glutathione (GSH) oxidation, membrane lipid peroxidation, and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) collapse in isolated rat hepatocyte. Because the liver is the storage site of thallium, it seems that the liver mitochondria are one of the important targets for hepatotoxicity. In this investigation, the effects of thallium on mitochondria were studied to investigate its mechanisms of toxicity. Mitochondria were isolated from rat liver and incubated with different concentrations of thallium (25-200 µM). Thallium(I)-treated mitochondria showed a marked elevation in oxidative stress parameters accompanied by MMP collapse when compared with the control group. These results showed that different concentrations of thallium (25-200 µM) induced a significant (P < 0.05) increase in mitochondrial ROS formation, ATP depletion, GSH oxidation, mitochondrial outer membrane rupture, mitochondrial swelling, MMP collapse, and cytochrome c release. In general, these data strongly supported that the thallium(I)-induced liver toxicity is a result of the disruptive effect of this metal on the mitochondrial respiratory complexes (I, II, and IV), which are the obvious causes of metal-induced ROS formation and ATP depletion. The latter two events, in turn, trigger cell death signaling via opening of mitochondrial permeability transition pore and cytochrome c expulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- M R Eskandari
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Pharmacy, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences, Zanjan, Iran
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Li S, Huang W, Duan Y, Xing J, Zhou Y. Human fatality due to thallium poisoning: autopsy, microscopy, and mass spectrometry assays. J Forensic Sci 2014; 60:247-51. [PMID: 25407479 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.12623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2013] [Revised: 01/15/2014] [Accepted: 01/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Thallium has been responsible for many intoxications since its discovery; however, toxicological profiles for thallium in human fatalities have not been updated recently. Autopsy, microscopic investigations, and toxicological analyses were performed on a married couple who died from thallium sulfate intended homicidal poisoning. The distribution of thallium was established by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry with hair samples showing the highest thallium concentration. Electron microscopy revealed a dystrophic condition of hair with disorganized cuticle and atrophy of the hair bulb. Thallium interacts with cells at different levels, with prominent ultrastructural injuries in the mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum, and high concentration of electron dense granules observed in the cytoplasm and mitochondria of several organs. Alopecia, toxic encephalopathy, and peripheral neuropathy were diagnosed in the victims and suggested to be crucial implications for thallium poisoning. The analytical procedures used in this case are of considerable forensic importance in the diagnosis of thallium poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shangxun Li
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, 430030, China; Department of Public Security of Hubei Province, Wuhan, 430070, China
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Saljooghi AS, Babaie M, Mendi FD, Zahmati M, Saljooghi ZS. Chelation of thallium by combining deferasirox and desferrioxamine in rats. Toxicol Ind Health 2013; 32:83-8. [DOI: 10.1177/0748233713498442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The hypothesis that two known chelators deferasirox (4-[3,5-bis(2-hydroxyphenyl)-1,2,4-triazol-1-yl]-benzoic acid) and desferrioxamine (DFO) might be more efficient as combined treatment than as monotherapies in removing thallium from the body was tested in a new acute rat model. 7-week-old male Wistar rats received chelators: deferasirox (orally), DFO (intraperitoneal; i.p.), or deferasirox + DFO as 75 or 150 mg/kg dose half an hour after a single i.p. administration of 8 mg thallium/kg body weight in the form of chloride. Serum thallium concentration, urinary thallium, and iron excretions were determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. Both chelators were effective only at the higher dose level, while DFO was more effective than deferasirox in enhancing urinary thallium excretion, deferasirox was more effective than DFO in enhancing urinary iron excretion. In the combined treatment group, deferasirox did not increase the DFO effect on thallium and DFO did not increase the effect of deferasirox on iron elimination. Our results support the usefulness of this animal model for preliminary in vivo testing of thallium chelators. Urinary values were more useful because of the high variability of serum results.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Shokooh Saljooghi
- Department of Chemistry, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Maryam Babaie
- Department of Chemistry, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Fatemeh Delavar Mendi
- Department of Chemistry, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Maliheh Zahmati
- Department of Chemistry, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Mashhad, Islamic Republic of Iran
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Nava-Ruíz C, Méndez-Armenta M. Cadmium, Lead, Thallium: Occurrence, Neurotoxicity and Histopathological Changes of the Nervous System. ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY FOR A SUSTAINABLE WORLD 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-02387-8_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Abstract
This review summarizes the current knowledge about the general toxicity of thallium (Tl) and its environmental sources, with special emphasis placed on its potential mutagenic, genotoxic, and cytotoxic effects on both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Tl is a nonessential heavy metal that poses environmental and occupational threats as well as therapeutic hazards because of its use in medicine. It is found in two oxidation states, thallous (Tl(+)) and thallic (Tl(3+)), both of which are considered highly toxic to human beings and domestic and wild organisms. Many Tl compounds are colorless, odorless and tasteless, and these characteristics, combined with the high toxicity of TI compounds, have led to their use as poisons. Because of its similarity to potassium ions (K(+)), plants and mammals readily absorb Tl(+) through the skin and digestive and respiratory systems. In mammals, it can cross the placental, hematoencephalic, and gonadal barriers. Inside cells, Tl can accumulate and interfere with the metabolism of potassium and other metal cations, mimicking or inhibiting their action. The effects of Tl on genetic material have not yet been thoroughly explored, and few existing studies have focused exclusively on Tl(+). Both in vivo and in vitro studies indicate that Tl compounds can have a weak mutagenic effect, but no definitive effect on the induction of primary DNA damage or chromosomal damage has been shown. These studies have demonstrated that Tl compounds are highly toxic and lead to changes in cell-cycle progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan José Rodríguez-Mercado
- Unidad de Investigación en Genética y Toxicología Ambiental (UIGTA), Laboratorio L5-PA, Unidad Multidisciplinaria de Investigación Experimental (UMIE-Z), Facultad de Estudios Superiores-Zaragoza, Cuidad de México, México.
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Pourahmad J, Eskandari MR, Daraei B. A comparison of hepatocyte cytotoxic mechanisms for thallium (I) and thallium (III). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2010; 25:456-467. [PMID: 20549620 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Thallium (Tl) is a highly toxic heavy metal though up to now its mechanisms are poorly understood. In this study, we comparatively investigated the cytotoxic mechanisms of Tl(I) and Tl(III) in isolated rat hepatocytes. Both Tl(I) and Tl(III) cytotoxicities were associated with reactive oxygen species (ROS) formation, lipid peroxidation, collapse of mitochondrial membrane potential, activation of caspases cascade, lysosomal membrane leakiness, and cellular proteolysis. Hepatocyte glutathione (GSH) was also rapidly oxidized. GSH-depleted hepatocytes were more resistant to Tl(I)-induced cytotoxicity, ROS formation and lipid peroxidation. This suggests that Tl(I) is reductively activated by GSH. On the other hand, GSH-depleted hepatocytes were much more sensitive to Tl(III)-induced cytotoxicity, ROS formation, and lipid peroxidation. This suggests that GSH only plays an antioxidant role against Tl(III) cytotoxicity. Our results also showed that CYP2E1 involves in Tl(I) and Tl(III) oxidative stress cytotoxicity mechanism and both cations detoxified via methylation. In conclusion, both Tl(I) and Tl(III) cytotoxicities were associated with mutual mitochondrial/lysosomal injuries (cross-talk) initiated by increased ROS formation resulted from metal-CYP2E1 destructive interaction or metal-induced disruption of mitochondrial electron transfer chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jalal Pourahmad
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Shaheed Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
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Saljooghi AS, Fatemi SJ. Removal of thallium by deferasirox in rats as biological model. J Appl Toxicol 2010; 31:139-43. [PMID: 20687118 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
The present research aimed to characterize the potential efficiency of deferasirox in removing thallium after its administration for 30 days following two dose levels of 20 and 160 μm of thallium (III) chloride to male Wistar rats every day. After thallium administration some abnormal clinical signs such as red staining around the eyes, greenish mottling on the liver, weakness, loss of hair and weight, were observed in animals. Deferasirox was given orally to different groups of rats for a period of one week immediately after thallium administration. After chelation therapy, animals were killed by exsanguination from the abdominal aorta, and then thallium and iron concentrations in various tissues were determined by standard addition method. The chelation therapy results showed that deferasirox was able to remove thallium ions from the body and clinical symptoms were also reduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amir Sh Saljooghi
- Department of Chemistry, Shahid Bahonar University of Kerman, Faculty of Science, Kerman, Iran.
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Abstract
Thallium is a naturally occurring trace element, widely distributed in the earth's crust, but at very low concentrations. It does not have a known biological use and does not appear to be an essential element for life. It has been considered one of the most toxic heavy metals.Occasionally, there are reports on thallium poisoning as results of suicide or murder attempt or accident. The main threat to humans is through occupational exposure, environmental contamination, and accumulation in food, mainly in vegetables grown on contaminated soil. Increasing use in emerging new technologies and demanding high-tech industry constantly raise concern about exposure risk to all living organisms. Thallium is considered a cumulative poison that can cause adverse health effects and degenerative changes in many organs. The effects are the most severe in the nervous system. The exact mechanism of thallium toxicity still remains unknown, although impaired glutathione metabolism, oxidative stress, and disruption of potassium-regulated homeostasis may play a role. The lack of data about mutagenic, carcinogenic, or teratogenic effects of thallium compounds in humans calls for further research.
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Sahin A, Senturk M, Ciftci M, Varoglu E, Kufrevioglu OI. The effects of chemical and radioactive properties of Tl-201 on human erythrocyte glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase activity. Nucl Med Biol 2010; 37:389-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nucmedbio.2009.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2009] [Revised: 11/01/2009] [Accepted: 11/23/2009] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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26
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Kiliç GA, Kutlu M. Effects of exogenous metallothionein against thallium-induced oxidative stress in rat liver. Food Chem Toxicol 2010; 48:980-7. [PMID: 20079794 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2010.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2009] [Revised: 12/30/2009] [Accepted: 01/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Metallothionein (MT) is a low-molecular weight sulfur-rich protein that plays role in metal homeostasis/detoxification and radical scavenging. The following study investigated the ability of exogenous MT to protect against oxidative damage induced by thallium (TI) in rat liver. Male Wistar rats were divided into four groups; a control and three experimental groups. The control group received physiological saline. Group 1 animals were injected with thallium acetate intraperitoneally (i.p.) at a single dose of LD(50) (32 mg/kg). In group 2 and group 3, metallothionein I was administrated once at two different doses (1 or 2.5mg/kg i.p., respectively) 1h before TI intoxication. Levels of endogenous antioxidants, oxidative stress markers were measured and histopathological examinations were performed 4 days after TI administration. TI accumulation in liver decreased related to the dose of MT. Mostly all of the alterations in the levels antioxidants restored to normal levels in MT administrated animals. H(2)O(2) levels and lipid peroxidation decreased, integrity of hepatocytes and membranous structures inside the cells were preserved. The toxic effects of TI were modulated in MT administrated animals particularly at the dose of 2.5mg/kg. These findings suggest an active role of exogenous MT against TI-induced oxidative stress in rat liver.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gözde Aydoğan Kiliç
- Faculty of Science, Department of Biology, Anadolu University, 26470 Eskişehir, Turkey.
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27
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Chia CF, Chen SC, Chen CS, Shih CM, Lee HM, Wu CH. Thallium acetate induces C6 glioma cell apoptosis. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1042:523-30. [PMID: 15965099 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1338.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Thallium acetate is a known neurotoxic agent. In this study, we investigated the mechanisms by which thallium acetate induces cell cycle arrest and cell apoptosis in cultured LC6 glioma cells. Exposure of C6 glioma cells to thallium acetate decreased cell viability as demonstrated by the MTT assay. Incubation of thallium acetate arrested cell cycle progression at the G2/M phase and caused cellular apoptosis at 300 microM as determined by trypan blue exclusion and flow cytometric analysis. The G2/M arrest was associated with a decrease in expression of CDK2 protein and an upregulation of p53 and the CDK inhibitor p21(Cip1), but not p27(Kip1). Thallium acetate did not alter the protein levels of cyclin A and B; cyclin D1, D2, and D3; and CDK4 expression in C6 glioma cells. Incubation of C6 glioma cells with thallium acetate upregulated the expression of proapoptotic proteins Bad and Apaf and downregulated the expression of anti-apoptotic proteins Bcl-xL and Bcl-2. In conclusion, these data suggest that thallium acetate inhibits cell cycle progression at G2/M phase by suppressing CDK activity through the p53-mediated induction of the CDK inhibitor p21(Cip1). Impairment of cell cycle progression may trigger the activation of a mitochondrial pathway and shifts the balance in the Bcl-2 family toward the proapoptotic members, promoting the formation of the apoptosome and, consequently, apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chee-Fah Chia
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Taipei Medical University and Hospital, 252 Wu-Hsing St., Taipei, Taiwan
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28
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Verstraeten SV. Relationship between thallium(I)-mediated plasma membrane fluidification and cell oxidants production in Jurkat T cells. Toxicology 2006; 222:95-102. [PMID: 16517040 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2006.01.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2005] [Accepted: 01/28/2006] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The effects of thallous cation (Tl(+)) on: (a) the production of oxidant species and (b) membrane fluidity were evaluated in human leukemia T cells (Jurkat). After 72 h of incubation in the presence of Tl(+) (5-100 microM), no significant changes in cell viability were observed, although the average cell size was decreased as evaluated by steady-state light scattering. Tl(+) (5-100 microM) caused a significant increase in the concentration of cellular oxidants as measured with the probe 5(6)-carboxy-2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (DCDCDHF). Similarly, a higher lipid oxidation products release was observed as measured by TBARS production. Both Tl(+)-mediated DCDCDHF oxidation and TBARS production were prevented when cells were supplemented with 2mM Trolox. Tl(+) (5-100 microM) also induced a concentration-dependent increase in plasma membrane fluidity, evaluated with the probe 6-(9-anthroyloxy)stearic acid (6-AS). This effect of Tl(+) was neither associated to the externalization of phosphatidylserine, nor observed in Trolox-supplemented cells. Significant correlations were found between the increase in plasma membrane fluidity and TBARS production and DCDCDHF oxidation. Together, the present results suggest that the increase in cellular oxidants caused by Tl(+) could oxidize membrane fatty acids, resulting in an increase in membrane fluidity. These effects could underlie the pathology associated with Tl(+) toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandra Viviana Verstraeten
- Department of Biological Chemistry-IQUIFIB (UBA-CONICET), School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina. @ffyb.uba.ar
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Villaverde MS, Hanzel CE, Verstraeten SV. In vitro interactions of thallium with components of the glutathione-dependent antioxidant defence system. Free Radic Res 2005; 38:977-84. [PMID: 15621716 DOI: 10.1080/10715760400000950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
We investigated the hypothesis that thallium (Tl) interactions with the glutathione-dependent antioxidant defence system could contribute to the oxidative stress associated with Tl toxicity. Working in vitro with reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione reductase (GR) or glutathione peroxidase (GPx) in solution, we studied the effects of Tl+ and Tl3+ (1-25 microM) on: (a) the amount of free GSH, investigating whether the metal binds to GSH and/or oxidizes it; (b) the activity of the enzyme GR, that catalyzes GSH regeneration; and (c) the enzyme GPx, that reduces hydroperoxide at expense of GSH oxidation. We found that, while Tl+ had no effect on GSH concentration, Tl3+ oxidized it. Both cations inhibited the reduction of GSSG by GR and the diaphorase activity of this enzyme. In addition, Tl3+ per se oxidized NADPH, the cofactor of GR. The effects of Tl on GPx activity depended on the metal charge: Tl+ inhibited GPx when cumene hydroperoxide (CuOOH) was the substrate, while Tl(3+)-mediated GPx inhibition occurred with both substrates. The present results show that Tl interacts with all the components of GSH/GSSG antioxidant defence system. Alterations of this protective pathway could be partially responsible for the oxidative stress associated with Tl toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela S Villaverde
- Department of Biological Chemistry-IQUIFIB (UBA-CONICET), School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Junín 956 (C1113AAD), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Galván-Arzate S, Pedraza-Chaverrí J, Medina-Campos ON, Maldonado PD, Vázquez-Román B, Ríos C, Santamaría A. Delayed effects of thallium in the rat brain: regional changes in lipid peroxidation and behavioral markers, but moderate alterations in antioxidants, after a single administration. Food Chem Toxicol 2005; 43:1037-45. [PMID: 15833379 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2005.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2004] [Revised: 01/25/2005] [Accepted: 02/15/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Thallium (Tl+) toxicity has been related with the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and oxidative stress (OS) in the central nervous system. Since changes in endogenous antioxidant systems might contribute to acute Tl+-induced OS and neurotoxicity, in this study we measured the metal concentration and the levels of lipid peroxidation (LP) in different brain regions (hypothalamus (Ht); cerebellum (Ce); striatum (S); hippocampus (Hc) and frontal cortex (Cx)) in possible correlation with the content of reduced glutathione (GSH), the activities of glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and superoxide dismutase (SOD), and the animal performance in behavioral tests, all evaluated after a single administration of thallium acetate (8 or 16 mg/kg, i.p.) to rats. Seven days after Tl+ administration, the metal was homogeneously and dose-dependently accumulated in all regions evaluated. LP was increased in Ht, Ce and S, while GSH was depleted in S. Cu,Zn-SOD activity was also decreased in Ht and S. All these changes occurred with 16 mg/kg dose and at 7 days after treatment, but not at 1 or 3 days. In addition, Tl+-treated animals exhibited general hypokinesis, but no changes were observed in spatial learning. Our findings suggest that a delayed response of the brain to Tl+ may be the result of its residual levels. Also, despite the regional alterations produced by Tl+ in LP and the limited changes in endogenous antioxidants, there is a correlation between the Tl+-induced oxidative damage and the affected behavioral tasks, suggesting that, although still moderate, Tl+ evokes neurotoxic patterns under the experimental conditions tested.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Galván-Arzate
- Departamento de Neuroquímica, Instituto Nacional de Neurología y Neurocirugía Manuel Velasco Suárez, México D.F. 14269, Mexico
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Hanzel CE, Villaverde MS, Verstraeten SV. Glutathione metabolism is impaired in vitro by thallium(III) hydroxide. Toxicology 2005; 207:501-10. [PMID: 15664276 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2004.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2004] [Revised: 10/22/2004] [Accepted: 11/02/2004] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The possibility that Tl(OH)3, the main Tl3+ specie present in water solutions, could interfere with the normal functioning of the glutathione-dependent antioxidant defense system was investigated. For this purpose, we used both the purified components of this system and rat brain cytosolic fractions. Tl(OH)3 (1-25 microM) significantly decreased the content of reduced glutathione (GSH) in both experimental systems, caused by GSH oxidation. In the same range of concentrations Tl(OH)3 inhibited glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity in both models, using cumene hydroperoxide as the substrate. No alterations in the capacity of GPx activity to metabolize H2O2 were observed. Both in purified GR as well as in the cytosolic fraction, Tl(OH)3 (1-5 microM) inhibited GR activity, with a partial recovery of the activity at higher concentrations. While Tl(OH)3 inhibited the GR diaphorase activity of purified GR, in a concentration (1-25 microM) dependent manner, this effect was only observed in the cytosolic fractions at the highest concentration assessed (25 microM). Results indicate that, similarly to previous findings for Tl+ and Tl3+, Tl(OH)3 also alters the glutathione-dependent antioxidant defense system. The observed alterations of this important antioxidant protective pathway by the major Tl3+ specie in water solutions could be one mechanism involved in the oxidative stress associated to Tl-intoxication.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cecilia E Hanzel
- Department of Biological Chemistry-IQUIFIB (UBA-CONICET), School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Abstract
Thallium salts have been used as medicinal agents, as key ingredients in a variety of manufacturing processes, and as a potent rodenticide. Additionally, environmental concerns are growing, as thallium is a waste product of coal combustion and the manufacturing of cement. Thallium salts are rapidly and nearly completely absorbed by virtually all routes, with gastrointestinal exposure being the most common route to produce toxicity. Thallium enters cells by a unique process governed by its similarity in charge and ionic radius to potassium. Although the exact mechanism of toxicity has not been established, thallium interferes with energy production at essential steps in glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. Additional effects include inhibition of sodium-potassium-adenosine triphosphatase and binding to sulfhydryl groups. The major manifestations of toxicity consist of a rapidly progressive, ascending, extremely painful sensory neuropathy and alopecia. Unlike exposure to most metal salts, gastrointestinal symptoms of thallium toxicity are relatively minor, and constipation is more characteristic than diarrhoea. Many other findings such as an autonomic neuropathy, cranial nerve abnormalities, altered mental status, motor weakness, cardiac, hepatic, and renal effects are described, but are less specific. Thallium also crosses the placenta freely and produces abnormalities in animals as well as fetal demise, overt toxicity and congenital abnormalities in humans. There are no controlled trials of treatments in thallium-poisoned patients. Thus, the literature is predominated by very small animal studies and case reports with very limited data. Strong evidence speaks against the use of traditional metal chelators such as dimercaprol (British Anti-Lewisite) and penicillamine, and the latter may cause redistribution of thallium into the central nervous system. Likewise, forced potassium diuresis appears harmful. The use of single- or multiple-dose activated charcoal is supported by in vitro binding experiments and some animal data, and charcoal haemoperfusion may be a useful adjunct. Multiple animal studies give evidence for enhanced elimination and improved survival with Prussian blue. Unfortunately, despite the fact that many humans have been treated with Prussian blue, the data presented are insufficient to comment definitively on its efficacy. However, Prussian blue's safety profile is superior to that of other proposed therapies and it should be considered the drug of choice in acute thallium poisoning. Public health efforts should focus on greater restrictions on access to, and use of, thallium salts.
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Villaverde MS, Verstraeten SV. Effects of thallium(I) and thallium(III) on liposome membrane physical properties. Arch Biochem Biophys 2003; 417:235-43. [PMID: 12941306 DOI: 10.1016/s0003-9861(03)00366-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The hypothesis that thallium (Tl) interaction with membrane phospholipids could result in the alteration of membrane physical properties was investigated. Working with liposomes composed of brain phosphatidylcholine and phosphatidylserine, we found that Tl(+), Tl(3+), and Tl(OH)(3) (0.5-25 microM): (a) increased membrane surface potential, (b) decreased the fluidity of the anionic regions of the membrane, in association with an increased fluidity in the cationic regions, and (c) promoted the rearrangement of lipids through lateral phase separation. The magnitude of these effects followed the order Tl(3+), Tl(OH)(3)>Tl(+). In addition, Tl(3+) also decreased the hydration of phospholipid polar headgroups and induced membrane permeabilization. The present results show that Tl interacts with membranes inducing major alterations in the rheology of the bilayer, which could be partially responsible for the neurotoxic effects of this metal.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcela S Villaverde
- Department of Biological Chemistry, IQUIFIB (UBA-CONICET), School of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, University of Buenos Aires, Junín 956, C1113AAD, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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