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Ikarashi K, Sato D, Edama M, Fujimoto T, Ochi G, Yamashiro K. Fluctuation of fine motor skills throughout the menstrual cycle in women. Sci Rep 2024; 14:15079. [PMID: 38956128 PMCID: PMC11219923 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-65823-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2023] [Accepted: 06/24/2024] [Indexed: 07/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The effect of the menstrual cycle on fine motor skills is unclear. This study determined whether the menstrual cycle affected fine motor skills and related neural activities. Nineteen women with regular menstrual cycles were tested for fine motor skills using two types of tasks: grooved pegboard task (GPT), which evaluates motor control with high freedom of movements, and force modulation task (FMT), which evaluates more complex and fine motor control with low freedom of movements. We also assessed primary motor cortex intracortical circuits and sensorimotor integration using paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation to reveal why the menstrual cycle affects fine motor skills. The present study indicated that fine motor skills assessed by FMT varied throughout the menstrual cycle while those measured by GPT did not. These results suggest that fine motor skills requiring more complex and fine control may be affected by the menstrual cycle. Additionally, changes in fine motor skills throughout the menstrual cycle may be associated with the severity of menstruation-related symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Koyuki Ikarashi
- Institute for Human Movement and Medical Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, 1398 Shimami-Cho, Kita-Ku, Niigata, 950-3198, Japan
- Department of Health and Sports, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | - Daisuke Sato
- Institute for Human Movement and Medical Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, 1398 Shimami-Cho, Kita-Ku, Niigata, 950-3198, Japan.
- Department of Health and Sports, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan.
| | - Mutsuaki Edama
- Institute for Human Movement and Medical Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, 1398 Shimami-Cho, Kita-Ku, Niigata, 950-3198, Japan
- Department of Physical Therapy, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | - Tomomi Fujimoto
- Institute for Human Movement and Medical Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, 1398 Shimami-Cho, Kita-Ku, Niigata, 950-3198, Japan
- Department of Health and Sports, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | - Genta Ochi
- Institute for Human Movement and Medical Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, 1398 Shimami-Cho, Kita-Ku, Niigata, 950-3198, Japan
- Department of Health and Sports, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
| | - Koya Yamashiro
- Institute for Human Movement and Medical Sciences, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, 1398 Shimami-Cho, Kita-Ku, Niigata, 950-3198, Japan
- Department of Health and Sports, Niigata University of Health and Welfare, Niigata, Japan
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Rurak BK, Tan J, Rodrigues JP, Power BD, Drummond PD, Vallence AM. Cortico-cortical connectivity is influenced by levodopa in tremor-dominant Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2024; 196:106518. [PMID: 38679112 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2024.106518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 04/09/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Resting tremor is the most common presenting motor symptom in Parkinson's disease (PD). The supplementary motor area (SMA) is a main target of the basal-ganglia-thalamo-cortical circuit and has direct, facilitatory connections with the primary motor cortex (M1), which is important for the execution of voluntary movement. Dopamine potentially modulates SMA and M1 activity, and both regions have been implicated in resting tremor. This study investigated SMA-M1 connectivity in individuals with PD ON and OFF dopamine medication, and whether SMA-M1 connectivity is implicated in resting tremor. Dual-site transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to measure SMA-M1 connectivity in PD participants ON and OFF levodopa. Resting tremor was measured using electromyography and accelerometry. Stimulating SMA inhibited M1 excitability OFF levodopa, and facilitated M1 excitability ON levodopa. ON medication, SMA-M1 facilitation was significantly associated with smaller tremor than SMA-M1 inhibition. The current findings contribute to our understanding of the neural networks involved in PD which are altered by levodopa medication and provide a neurophysiological basis for the development of interventions to treat resting tremor.
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Affiliation(s)
- B K Rurak
- Discipline of Psychology, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Western Australia, Australia; Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Western Australia, Australia
| | - J Tan
- Discipline of Psychology, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Western Australia, Australia; Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Western Australia, Australia
| | - J P Rodrigues
- Hollywood Private Hospital, Western Australia, Australia
| | - B D Power
- Hollywood Private Hospital, Western Australia, Australia; School of Medicine Fremantle, University of Notre Dame, Western Australia, Australia
| | - P D Drummond
- Discipline of Psychology, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Western Australia, Australia; Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Western Australia, Australia
| | - A M Vallence
- Discipline of Psychology, College of Science, Health, Engineering and Education, Western Australia, Australia; Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Western Australia, Australia; Centre for Molecular Medicine and Innovative Therapeutics, Western Australia, Australia.
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Sato Y, Takanaka S, Izumi SI. Alteration of Interhemispheric Inhibition in Patients With Lateral Epicondylalgia. THE JOURNAL OF PAIN 2024; 25:104440. [PMID: 38065465 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpain.2023.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 11/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Patients with lateral epicondylalgia (LE) show alterations in the primary motor cortex (M1) contralateral to the affected side. Cortical alterations have been investigated by measuring intracortical facilitation/inhibition; however, their association with pain remains controversial. Furthermore, no studies have investigated changes in interhemispheric inhibition (IHI). IHI can be assessed using the ipsilateral silent period (iSP) known as the temporary inhibition of electromyographic activity evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation in the ipsilateral M1 of the contracting muscle. To better understand the relationship between cortical alterations and pain in LE, this observational study investigated the relationship between iSP and pain in LE. Twenty-seven healthy volunteers and 21 patients with LE were recruited. The duration of iSP in the extensor carpi radialis brevis was measured. The IHI asymmetry ratio was calculated to determine the IHI balance. Pain and disability were scored using the Japanese version of the patient-rated elbow evaluation. We observed increased inhibitory input from the ipsilateral M1 on the affected side to the contralateral M1 in LE. Additionally, the IHI balance correlated with pain severity. Hence, regulating imbalanced IHI can potentially decrease lateral elbow pain in LE. PERSPECTIVE: Patients with lateral epicondylalgia (LE) experience persistent pain and cortical alterations. However, there is no established relationship between cortical alterations and pain. This study demonstrated that the interhemispheric inhibition (IHI) balance is correlated with pain. Regulating imbalanced IHI can potentially decrease lateral elbow pain in patients with LE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosuke Sato
- Course of Rehabilitation, Department of Health Sciences, Tohoku Fukushi University, Aoba-ku, City, Miyagi, Japan; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai City, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Shun Takanaka
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai City, Miyagi, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Izumi
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai City, Miyagi, Japan; Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai City, Miyagi, Japan
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Gerges ANH, Graetz L, Hillier S, Uy J, Hamilton T, Opie G, Vallence AM, Braithwaite FA, Chamberlain S, Hordacre B. Transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation modifies cortical excitability in middle-aged and older adults. Psychophysiology 2024:e14584. [PMID: 38602055 DOI: 10.1111/psyp.14584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2024] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
There is a growing interest in the clinical application of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation (taVNS). However, its effect on cortical excitability, and whether this is modulated by stimulation duration, remains unclear. We evaluated whether taVNS can modify excitability in the primary motor cortex (M1) in middle-aged and older adults and whether the stimulation duration moderates this effect. In addition, we evaluated the blinding efficacy of a commonly reported sham method. In a double-blinded randomized cross-over sham-controlled study, 23 healthy adults (mean age 59.91 ± 6.87 years) received three conditions: active taVNS for 30 and 60 min and sham for 30 min. Single and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation was delivered over the right M1 to evaluate motor-evoked potentials. Adverse events, heart rate and blood pressure measures were evaluated. Participant blinding effectiveness was assessed via guesses about group allocation. There was an increase in short-interval intracortical inhibition (F = 7.006, p = .002) and a decrease in short-interval intracortical facilitation (F = 4.602, p = .014) after 60 min of taVNS, but not 30 min, compared to sham. taVNS was tolerable and safe. Heart rate and blood pressure were not modified by taVNS (p > .05). Overall, 96% of participants detected active stimulation and 22% detected sham stimulation. taVNS modifies cortical excitability in M1 and its effect depends on stimulation duration in middle-aged and older adults. taVNS increased GABAAergic inhibition and decreased glutamatergic activity. Sham taVNS protocol is credible but there is an imbalance in beliefs about group allocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashraf N H Gerges
- Innovation, Implementation and Clinical Translation (IIMPACT) in Health, Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Lynton Graetz
- College of Education, Psychology and Social Work, Flinders University, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Susan Hillier
- Innovation, Implementation and Clinical Translation (IIMPACT) in Health, Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Jeric Uy
- Innovation, Implementation and Clinical Translation (IIMPACT) in Health, Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Taya Hamilton
- Perron Institute for Neurological and Translational Science, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- Centre for Neuromuscular and Neurological Disorders, University of Western Australia, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - George Opie
- Discipline of Physiology, School of Biomedicine, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Ann-Maree Vallence
- School of Psychology, College of Health and Education, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
- Centre for Healthy Ageing, Health Futures Institute, Murdoch University, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Felicity A Braithwaite
- Innovation, Implementation and Clinical Translation (IIMPACT) in Health, Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Saran Chamberlain
- Innovation, Implementation and Clinical Translation (IIMPACT) in Health, Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Brenton Hordacre
- Innovation, Implementation and Clinical Translation (IIMPACT) in Health, Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
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Haggie L, Besier T, McMorland A. Circuits in the motor cortex explain oscillatory responses to transcranial magnetic stimulation. Netw Neurosci 2024; 8:96-118. [PMID: 38562291 PMCID: PMC10861165 DOI: 10.1162/netn_a_00341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/11/2023] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a popular method used to investigate brain function. Stimulation over the motor cortex evokes muscle contractions known as motor evoked potentials (MEPs) and also high-frequency volleys of electrical activity measured in the cervical spinal cord. The physiological mechanisms of these experimentally derived responses remain unclear, but it is thought that the connections between circuits of excitatory and inhibitory neurons play a vital role. Using a spiking neural network model of the motor cortex, we explained the generation of waves of activity, so called 'I-waves', following cortical stimulation. The model reproduces a number of experimentally known responses including direction of TMS, increased inhibition, and changes in strength. Using populations of thousands of neurons in a model of cortical circuitry we showed that the cortex generated transient oscillatory responses without any tuning, and that neuron parameters such as refractory period and delays influenced the pattern and timing of those oscillations. By comparing our network with simpler, previously proposed circuits, we explored the contributions of specific connections and found that recurrent inhibitory connections are vital in producing later waves that significantly impact the production of motor evoked potentials in downstream muscles (Thickbroom, 2011). This model builds on previous work to increase our understanding of how complex circuitry of the cortex is involved in the generation of I-waves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lysea Haggie
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Thor Besier
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Angus McMorland
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Exercise Sciences, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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Zeng K, Li Z, Xia X, Wang Z, Darmani G, Li X, Chen R. Effects of different sonication parameters of theta burst transcranial ultrasound stimulation on human motor cortex. Brain Stimul 2024; 17:258-268. [PMID: 38442800 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2024.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2023] [Revised: 03/01/2024] [Accepted: 03/02/2024] [Indexed: 03/07/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Theta burst TUS (tbTUS) can induce increased cortical excitability in human, but how different sonication parameters influence the effects are still unknown. OBJECTIVE To examine how a range of sonication parameters, including acoustic intensity, pulse repetition frequency, duty cycle and sonication duration, influence the effects of tbTUS on human motor cortical excitability. METHODS 14 right-handed healthy subjects underwent 8 sessions with different tbTUS parameters in a randomized, cross-over design on separate days. The original tbTUS protocol was studied in one session and one parameter was changed in each of the seven sessions. To examine changes in cortical excitability induced by tbTUS, we measured the motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitude, resting motor threshold, short-interval intracortical inhibition and intracortical facilitation, as well as short-interval intracortical facilitation before and up to 90 min after tbTUS. RESULTS All conditions increased MEP amplitudes except the condition with low acoustic intensity of 10 W/cm2. Pulse repetition frequency of 5 Hz produced higher MEP amplitudes compared to pulse repetition frequencies of 2 and 10 Hz. In addition, higher duty cycles (5%, 10%, and 15%) and longer sonication durations (40, 80, and 120 s) were associated with longer duration of increased MEP amplitudes. Resting motor threshold remained stable in all conditions. For paired-pulse TMS measures, tbTUS reduced short-interval intracortical inhibition and enhanced short-interval intracortical facilitation, but had no effect on intracortical facilitation. CONCLUSIONS Ultrasound bursts repeated at theta (∼5 Hz) frequency is optimal to produce increased cortical excitability with the range of 2-10 Hz. Furthermore, there was a dose-response effect regarding duty cycle and sonication duration in tbTUS for plasticity induction. The aftereffects of tbTUS were associated with a shift of the inhibition/excitation balance toward less inhibition and more excitation in the motor cortex. These findings can be used to determine the optimal tbTUS parameters in neuroscience research and treatment of neurological and psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ke Zeng
- Center for Cognition and Neuroergonomics, State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China; Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Zhiwei Li
- School of Electrical Engineering, Yanshan University, Qinhuangdao, China
| | - Xue Xia
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; School of Social Development and Health Management, University of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Zhen Wang
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; School of Sport and Health Science, Xi'an Physical Education University, Xi'an, China
| | - Ghazaleh Darmani
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Xiaoli Li
- Center for Cognition and Neuroergonomics, State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai, Guangdong, China
| | - Robert Chen
- Krembil Research Institute, University Health Network, Toronto, Ontario, Canada; Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
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Tian D, Izumi SI. Different effects of I-wave periodicity repetitive TMS on motor cortex interhemispheric interaction. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1079432. [PMID: 37457007 PMCID: PMC10349661 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1079432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 07/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Activity of the neural circuits in the human motor cortex can be probed using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Changing TMS-induced current direction recruits different cortical neural circuits. I-wave periodicity repetitive TMS (iTMS) substantially modulates motor cortex excitability through neural plasticity, yet its effect on interhemispheric interaction remains unclear. Objective To explore the modulation of interhemispheric interaction by iTMS applied in different current directions. Materials and Methods Twenty right-handed healthy young volunteers (aged 27.5 ± 5.0 years) participated in this study with three visits. On each visit, iTMS in posterior-anterior/anterior-posterior direction (PA-/AP-iTMS) or sham-iTMS was applied to the right hemisphere, with corticospinal excitability and intracortical facilitation of the non-stimulated left hemisphere evaluated at four timepoints. Ipsilateral silent period was also measured at each timepoint probing interhemispheric inhibition (IHI). Results PA- and AP-iTMS potentiated cortical excitability concurrently in the stimulated right hemisphere. Corticospinal excitability of the non-stimulated left hemisphere increased 10 min after both PA- and AP-iTMS intervention, with a decrease in short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) observed in AP-iTMS only. Immediately after the intervention, PA-iTMS tilted the IHI balance toward inhibiting the non-stimulated hemisphere, while AP-iTMS shifted the balance toward the opposite direction. Conclusions Our findings provide systematic evidence on the plastic modulation of interhemispheric interaction by PA- and AP-iTMS. We show that iTMS induces an interhemispheric facilitatory effect, and that PA- and AP-iTMS differs in modulating interhemispheric inhibition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongting Tian
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
| | - Shin-Ichi Izumi
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduate School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
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Gonçalves FDT, Pacheco-Barrios K, Rebello-Sanchez I, Castelo-Branco L, de Melo PS, Parente J, Cardenas-Rojas A, Firigato I, Pessotto AV, Imamura M, Simis M, Battistella L, Fregni F. Association of Mu opioid receptor (A118G) and BDNF (G196A) polymorphisms with rehabilitation-induced cortical inhibition and analgesic response in chronic osteoarthritis pain. Int J Clin Health Psychol 2023; 23:100330. [PMID: 36199368 PMCID: PMC9508345 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijchp.2022.100330] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Accepted: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Background/objective Chronic pain due to osteoarthritis (OA) is a prevalent cause of global disability. New biomarkers are needed to improve treatment allocation, and genetic polymorphisms are promising candidates. Method We aimed to assess the association of OPRM1 (A118G and C17T) and brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF [G196A]) polymorphisms with pain-related outcomes and motor cortex excitability metrics (measured by transcranial magnetic stimulation) in 113 knee OA patients with chronic pain. We performed adjusted multivariate regression analyses to compare carriers versus non-carriers in terms of clinical and neurophysiological characteristics at baseline, and treatment response (pain reduction and increased cortical inhibitory tonus) after rehabilitation. Results Compared to non-carriers, participants with polymorphisms on both OPRM1 (A118G) and BDNF (G196A) genes were less likely to improve pain after rehabilitation (85 and 72% fewer odds of improvement, respectively). Likewise, both carriers of OPRM1 polymorphisms (A118G and C17T) were also less likely to improve cortical inhibition (short intracortical inhibition [SICI], and intracortical facilitation [ICF], respectively). While pain and cortical inhibition improvement did not correlate in the total sample, the presence of OPRM1 (A118G) and BDNF (G196A) polymorphisms moderated this relationship. Conclusions These results underscore the promising role of combining genetic and neurophysiological markers to endotype the treatment response in this population.
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van den Bos MAJ, Menon P, Vucic S. Cortical hyperexcitability and plasticity in Alzheimer's disease: developments in understanding and management. Expert Rev Neurother 2022; 22:981-993. [PMID: 36683586 DOI: 10.1080/14737175.2022.2170784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neurophysiological tool that provides important insights into Alzheimer's Disease (AD). A significant body of work utilizing TMS techniques has explored the pathophysiological relevance of cortical hyperexcitability and plasticity in AD and their modulation in novel therapies. AREAS COVERED This review examines the technique of TMS, the use of TMS to examine specific features of cortical excitability and the use of TMS techniques to modulate cortical function. A search was performed utilizing the PubMed database to identify key studies utilizing TMS to examine cortical hyperexcitability and plasticity in Alzheimer's dementia. We then translate this understanding to the study of Alzheimer's disease pathophysiology, examining the underlying neurophysiologic links contributing to these twin signatures, cortical hyperexcitability and abnormal plasticity, in the cortical dysfunction characterizing AD. Finally, we examine utilization of TMS excitability to guide targeted therapies and, through the use of repetitive TMS (rTMS), modulate cortical plasticity. EXPERT OPINION The examination of cortical hyperexcitability and plasticity with TMS has potential to optimize and expand the window of therapeutic interventions in AD, though remains at relatively early stage of development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehdi A J van den Bos
- Brain and Nerve Research Centre, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Parvathi Menon
- Brain and Nerve Research Centre, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Steve Vucic
- Brain and Nerve Research Centre, Concord Repatriation General Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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Lanza G, Fisicaro F, Dubbioso R, Ranieri F, Chistyakov AV, Cantone M, Pennisi M, Grasso AA, Bella R, Di Lazzaro V. A comprehensive review of transcranial magnetic stimulation in secondary dementia. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:995000. [PMID: 36225892 PMCID: PMC9549917 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.995000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Although primary degenerative diseases are the main cause of dementia, a non-negligible proportion of patients is affected by a secondary and potentially treatable cognitive disorder. Therefore, diagnostic tools able to early identify and monitor them and to predict the response to treatment are needed. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive neurophysiological technique capable of evaluating in vivo and in “real time” the motor areas, the cortico-spinal tract, and the neurotransmission pathways in several neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders, including cognitive impairment and dementia. While consistent evidence has been accumulated for Alzheimer’s disease, other degenerative cognitive disorders, and vascular dementia, to date a comprehensive review of TMS studies available in other secondary dementias is lacking. These conditions include, among others, normal-pressure hydrocephalus, multiple sclerosis, celiac disease and other immunologically mediated diseases, as well as a number of inflammatory, infective, metabolic, toxic, nutritional, endocrine, sleep-related, and rare genetic disorders. Overall, we observed that, while in degenerative dementia neurophysiological alterations might mirror specific, and possibly primary, neuropathological changes (and hence be used as early biomarkers), this pathogenic link appears to be weaker for most secondary forms of dementia, in which neurotransmitter dysfunction is more likely related to a systemic or diffuse neural damage. In these cases, therefore, an effort toward the understanding of pathological mechanisms of cognitive impairment should be made, also by investigating the relationship between functional alterations of brain circuits and the specific mechanisms of neuronal damage triggered by the causative disease. Neurophysiologically, although no distinctive TMS pattern can be identified that might be used to predict the occurrence or progression of cognitive decline in a specific condition, some TMS-associated measures of cortical function and plasticity (such as the short-latency afferent inhibition, the short-interval intracortical inhibition, and the cortical silent period) might add useful information in most of secondary dementia, especially in combination with suggestive clinical features and other diagnostic tests. The possibility to detect dysfunctional cortical circuits, to monitor the disease course, to probe the response to treatment, and to design novel neuromodulatory interventions in secondary dementia still represents a gap in the literature that needs to be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Lanza
- Department of Surgery and Medical-Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
- Clinical Neurophysiology Research Unit, Oasi Research Institute-IRCCS, Troina, Italy
- *Correspondence: Giuseppe Lanza,
| | - Francesco Fisicaro
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Raffaele Dubbioso
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Odontostomatology, University of Naples “Federico II”, Naples, Italy
| | - Federico Ranieri
- Unit of Neurology, Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | | | - Mariagiovanna Cantone
- Neurology Unit, Policlinico University Hospital “G. Rodolico – San Marco”, Catania, Italy
- Neurology Unit, Sant’Elia Hospital, ASP Caltanissetta, Caltanissetta, Italy
| | - Manuela Pennisi
- Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Alfio Antonio Grasso
- Department of Surgery and Medical-Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Rita Bella
- Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies, University of Catania, Catania, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Di Lazzaro
- Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology and Neurobiology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome, Italy
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario Campus Bio-Medico, Rome, Italy
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Ginatempo F, Loi N, Manca A, Rothwell JC, Deriu F. Is it possible to compare inhibitory and excitatory intracortical circuits in face and hand primary motor cortex? J Physiol 2022; 600:3567-3583. [PMID: 35801987 PMCID: PMC9544430 DOI: 10.1113/jp283137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract Face muscles are important in a variety of different functions, such as feeding, speech and communication of non‐verbal affective states, which require quite different patterns of activity from those of a typical hand muscle. We ask whether there are differences in their neurophysiological control that might reflect this. Fifteen healthy individuals were studied. Standard single‐ and paired‐pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) methods were used to compare intracortical inhibitory (short interval intracortical inhibition (SICI); cortical silent period (CSP)) and excitatory circuitries (short interval intracortical facilitation (SICF)) in two typical muscles, the depressor anguli oris (DAO), a face muscle, and the first dorsal interosseous (FDI), a hand muscle. TMS threshold was higher in DAO than in FDI. Over a range of intensities, resting SICF was not different between DAO and FDI, while during muscle activation SICF was stronger in FDI than in DAO (P = 0.012). At rest, SICI was stronger in FDI than in DAO (P = 0.038) but during muscle contraction, SICI was weaker in FDI than in DAO (P = 0.034). We argue that although many of the difference in response to the TMS protocols could result from the difference in thresholds, some, such as the reduction of resting SICI in DAO, may reflect fundamental differences in the physiology of the two muscle groups.
![]() Key points Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) single‐ and paired‐pulse protocols were used to investigate and compare the activity of facilitatory and inhibitory intracortical circuits in a face (depressor anguli oris; DAO) and hand (first dorsal interosseous; FDI) muscles. Several TMS intensities and interstimulus intervals were tested with the target muscles at rest and when voluntarily activated. At rest, intracortical inhibitory activity was stronger in FDI than in DAO. In contrast, during muscle contraction inhibitory activity was stronger in DAO than in FDI. As many previous reports have found, the motor evoked potential threshold was higher in DAO than in FDI. Although many of the differences in response to the TMS protocols could result from the difference in thresholds, some, such as the reduction of resting short interval intracortical inhibition in DAO, may reflect fundamental differences in the physiology of the two muscle groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Ginatempo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Viale San Pietro 43/b, Sassari, 07100, Italy
| | - Nicola Loi
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Viale San Pietro 43/b, Sassari, 07100, Italy
| | - Andrea Manca
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Viale San Pietro 43/b, Sassari, 07100, Italy
| | - John C Rothwell
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, London, UK
| | - Franca Deriu
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Sassari, Viale San Pietro 43/b, Sassari, 07100, Italy.,Unit of Endocrinology, Nutritional and Metabolic Disorders, AOU Sassari, Sassari, Italy
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12
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Tomasevic L, Siebner HR, Thielscher A, Manganelli F, Pontillo G, Dubbioso R. Relationship between high-frequency activity in the cortical sensory and the motor hand areas, and their myelin content. Brain Stimul 2022; 15:717-726. [PMID: 35525389 DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2022.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2021] [Revised: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The human primary sensory (S1) and primary motor (M1) hand areas feature high-frequency neuronal responses. Electrical nerve stimulation evokes high-frequency oscillations (HFO) at around 650 Hz in the contralateral S1. Likewise, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of M1 can evoke a series of descending volleys in the corticospinal pathway that can be detected non-invasively with a paired-pulse TMS protocol, called short interval intracortical facilitation (SICF). SICF features several peaks of facilitation of motor evoked potentials in contralateral hand muscles, which are separated by inter-peak intervals resembling HFO rhythmicity. HYPOTHESIS In this study, we tested the hypothesis that the individual expressions of HFO and SICF are tightly related to each other and to the regional myelin content in the sensorimotor cortex. METHODS In 24 healthy volunteers, we recorded HFO and SICF, and, in a subgroup of 20 participants, we mapped the cortical myelin content using the ratio between the T1- and T2-weighted MRI signal as read-out. RESULTS The individual frequencies and magnitudes of HFO and SICF curves were tightly correlated: the intervals between the first and second peak of cortical HFO and SICF showed a positive linear relationship (r = 0.703, p < 0.001), while their amplitudes were inversely related (r = -0.613, p = 0.001). The rhythmicity, but not the magnitude of the high-frequency responses, was related to the cortical myelin content: the higher the cortical myelin content, the shorter the inter-peak intervals of HFO and SICF. CONCLUSION The results confirm a tight functional relationship between high-frequency responses in S1 (i.e., HFO) and M1 (i.e., as measured with SICF). They also establish a link between the degree of regional cortical myelination and the expression of high-frequency responses in the human sensorimotor cortex, giving further the opportunity to infer their generators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leo Tomasevic
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Center for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University, Hospital Amager and Hvidovre, Copenhagen, Denmark.
| | - Hartwig Roman Siebner
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Center for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University, Hospital Amager and Hvidovre, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital Bispebjerg and Fredriksberg, Copenhagen, Denmark; Institute for Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Axel Thielscher
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Center for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University, Hospital Amager and Hvidovre, Copenhagen, Denmark; Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, Kgs, Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Fiore Manganelli
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Odontostomatology, University Federico II of Naples, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Pontillo
- Department of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, University "Federico II", Naples, Italy
| | - Raffaele Dubbioso
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Odontostomatology, University Federico II of Naples, Italy.
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Dubbioso R, Bove M, Boccia D, D'Ambrosio V, Nolano M, Manganelli F, Iodice R. Neurophysiological and behavioural correlates of ocrelizumab therapy on manual dexterity in patients with primary progressive multiple sclerosis. J Neurol 2022; 269:4791-4801. [PMID: 35419681 PMCID: PMC9363320 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-022-11114-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 03/28/2022] [Accepted: 03/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Background Hand dexterity impairment is a key feature of disability in people with primary progressive multiple sclerosis (PPMS). So far, ocrelizumab, a recombinant humanized monoclonal antibody that selectively depletes CD20-expressing B cells, is the only therapy approved for PPMS and recent analysis reported its ability to reduce the risk of upper limb disability progression. However, the neural mechanisms underlying hand impairment in PPMS and the brain networks behind the effect of ocrelizumab on manual dexterity are not fully understood. Objective Main aims of our study were: (i) to investigate neurophysiological and behavioural correlates of hand function impairment in subjects with PPMS, and (ii) to use neurophysiologic and behavioural measures to track the effects of ocrelizumab therapy on manual dexterity. Methods Seventeen PPMS patients and 17 healthy-controls underwent routine neurophysiological protocols assessing the integrity of cortico-spinal and somatosensory pathways and advanced transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) protocols evaluating inhibitory (short and long interval intracortical inhibition, short-latency afferent inhibition) and facilitatory (motor thresholds, intracortical facilitation, short-interval intracortical facilitation) circuits in the primary motor cortex. All subjects also underwent behavioural analysis of hand dexterity by means of nine-hole peg test and finger movement analysis, and hand strength with handgrip and three-point pinch test. Neurophysiological and clinical assessments of hand functionality were also performed after 1 year of ocrelizumab therapy. Results At baseline PPMS patients displayed a significant impairment of hand dexterity and strength compared to healthy controls (all p < 0.03). Neurophysiological study disclosed prolonged latencies of standard somatosensory and motor evoked potentials (all p < 0.025) and an overall reduction of intracortical excitability at TMS protocols, involving both excitatory and inhibitory circuits. Importantly, hand dexterity impairment, indexed by delayed 9HPT, correlated with TMS protocols investigating cortical sensorimotor integration (short-latency afferent inhibition, SAI), p = 0.009. Both parameters, 9HPT (p = 0.01) and SAI (p = 0.01), displayed a significant improvement after 1 year of therapy with ocrelizumab. Conclusion Intracortical sensorimotor networks are involved in hand dexterity dysfunction of PPMS. Ocrelizumab therapy displays a beneficial effect on hand dexterity impairment most likely through intracortical networks implicated in fast sensorimotor integration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raffaele Dubbioso
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Odontostomatology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini, 5. 80131, Napoli, Italy.
| | - Marco Bove
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy.,Section of Human Physiology, Department of Experimental Medicine, Università Degli Studi Di Genova, 16132, Genoa, Italy
| | - Daniele Boccia
- IRCCS Ospedale Policlinico San Martino, Genova, Italy.,Department of Neuroscience Genetics, Maternal and Child Health (DINOGMI)Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research (CEBR), University of Genoa, RehabilitationGenoa, Ophthalmology, Italy
| | - Vincenzo D'Ambrosio
- Department of Advanced Biomedical Sciences, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Maria Nolano
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Odontostomatology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini, 5. 80131, Napoli, Italy.,Department of Neurology, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri IRCCS, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Fiore Manganelli
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Odontostomatology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini, 5. 80131, Napoli, Italy
| | - Rosa Iodice
- Department of Neurosciences, Reproductive Sciences and Odontostomatology, University of Naples Federico II, Via Sergio Pansini, 5. 80131, Napoli, Italy
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14
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Tian D, Izumi SI. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation and Neocortical Neurons: The Micro-Macro Connection. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:866245. [PMID: 35495053 PMCID: PMC9039343 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.866245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Understanding the operation of cortical circuits is an important and necessary task in both neuroscience and neurorehabilitation. The functioning of the neocortex results from integrative neuronal activity, which can be probed non-invasively by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Despite a clear indication of the direct involvement of cortical neurons in TMS, no explicit connection model has been made between the microscopic neuronal landscape and the macroscopic TMS outcome. Here we have performed an integrative review of multidisciplinary evidence regarding motor cortex neurocytology and TMS-related neurophysiology with the aim of elucidating the micro–macro connections underlying TMS. Neurocytological evidence from animal and human studies has been reviewed to describe the landscape of the cortical neurons covering the taxonomy, morphology, circuit wiring, and excitatory–inhibitory balance. Evidence from TMS studies in healthy humans is discussed, with emphasis on the TMS pulse and paradigm selectivity that reflect the underlying neural circuitry constitution. As a result, we propose a preliminary neuronal model of the human motor cortex and then link the TMS mechanisms with the neuronal model by stimulus intensity, direction of induced current, and paired-pulse timing. As TMS bears great developmental potential for both a probe and modulator of neural network activity and neurotransmission, the connection model will act as a foundation for future combined studies of neurocytology and neurophysiology, as well as the technical advances and application of TMS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongting Tian
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduates School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- *Correspondence: Dongting Tian,
| | - Shin-Ichi Izumi
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Tohoku University Graduates School of Medicine, Sendai, Japan
- Graduate School of Biomedical Engineering, Tohoku University, Sendai, Japan
- Shin-Ichi Izumi,
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15
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di Hou M, Santoro V, Biondi A, Shergill SS, Premoli I. A systematic review of TMS and neurophysiological biometrics in patients with schizophrenia. J Psychiatry Neurosci 2021; 46:E675-E701. [PMID: 34933940 PMCID: PMC8695525 DOI: 10.1503/jpn.210006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2021] [Revised: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Transcranial magnetic stimulation can be combined with electromyography (TMS-EMG) and electroencephalography (TMS-EEG) to evaluate the excitatory and inhibitory functions of the cerebral cortex in a standardized manner. It has been postulated that schizophrenia is a disorder of functional neural connectivity underpinned by a relative imbalance of excitation and inhibition. The aim of this review was to provide a comprehensive overview of TMS-EMG and TMS-EEG research in schizophrenia, focused on excitation or inhibition, connectivity, motor cortical plasticity and the effect of antipsychotic medications, symptom severity and illness duration on TMS-EMG and TMS-EEG indices. METHODS We searched PsycINFO, Embase and Medline, from database inception to April 2020, for studies that included TMS outcomes in patients with schizophrenia. We used the following combination of search terms: transcranial magnetic stimulation OR tms AND interneurons OR glutamic acid OR gamma aminobutyric acid OR neural inhibition OR pyramidal neurons OR excita* OR inhibit* OR GABA* OR glutam* OR E-I balance OR excitation-inhibition balance AND schizoaffective disorder* OR Schizophrenia OR schizophreni*. RESULTS TMS-EMG and TMS-EEG measurements revealed deficits in excitation or inhibition, functional connectivity and motor cortical plasticity in patients with schizophrenia. Increased duration of the cortical silent period (a TMS-EMG marker of γ-aminobutyric acid B receptor activity) with clozapine was a relatively consistent finding. LIMITATIONS Most of the studies used patients with chronic schizophrenia and medicated patients, employed cross-sectional group comparisons and had small sample sizes. CONCLUSION TMS-EMG and TMS-EEG offer an opportunity to develop a novel and improved understanding of the physiologic processes that underlie schizophrenia and to assess the therapeutic effect of antipsychotic medications. In the future, these techniques may also help predict disease progression and further our understanding of the excitatory/inhibitory balance and its implications for mechanisms that underlie treatment-resistant schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng di Hou
- From the Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK (Hou, Shergill); the Department of Basic and Clinical Neuroscience, Institute of Psychiatry, Psychology and Neuroscience, King's College London, London, UK (Santoro, Biondi, Premoli); and the Kent and Medway Medical School, Canterbury, UK (Shergill)
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16
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Neva JL, Brown KE, Peters S, Feldman SJ, Mahendran N, Boisgontier MP, Boyd LA. Acute Exercise Modulates the Excitability of Specific Interneurons in Human Motor Cortex. Neuroscience 2021; 475:103-116. [PMID: 34487820 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.08.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Revised: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
Acute exercise can modulate the excitability of the non-exercised upper-limb representation in the primary motor cortex (M1). Accumulating evidence demonstrates acute exercise affects measures of M1 intracortical excitability, with some studies also showing altered corticospinal excitability. However, the influence of distinct M1 interneuron populations on the modulation of intracortical and corticospinal excitability following acute exercise is currently unknown. We assessed the impact of an acute bout of leg cycling exercise on unique M1 interneuron excitability of a non-exercised intrinsic hand muscle using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in young adults. Specifically, posterior-to-anterior (PA) and anterior-to-posterior (AP) TMS current directions were used to measure the excitability of distinct populations of interneurons before and after an acute bout of exercise or rest. Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) and short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) were measured in the PA and AP current directions in M1 at two time points separated by 25 min of rest, as well as immediately and 30 min after a 25-minute bout of moderate-intensity cycling exercise. Thirty minutes after exercise, MEP amplitudes were significantly larger than other timepoints when measured with AP current, whereas MEP amplitudes derived from PA current did not show this effect. Similarly, SICI was significantly decreased immediately following acute exercise measured with AP but not PA current. Our findings suggest that the excitability of unique M1 interneurons are differentially modulated by acute exercise. These results indicate that M1 interneurons preferentially activated by AP current may play an important role in the exercise-induced modulation of intracortical and corticospinal excitability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason L Neva
- Université de Montréal, École de kinésiologie et des sciences de l'activité physique, Faculté de médecine, Montréal, QC, Canada; Centre de recherche de l'institut universitaire de gériatrie de Montréal, Montréal, QC, Canada.
| | - Katlyn E Brown
- University of Waterloo, Department of Kinesiology, Applied Health Sciences, Waterloo, ON, Canada
| | - Sue Peters
- Rehabilitation Research Program, GF Strong Rehabilitation Centre, Vancouver Coastal Health Research Institute, Vancouver, BC, Canada; University of British Columbia, Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Samantha J Feldman
- Graduate Program in Clinical Developmental Neuropsychology, Department of Psychology, York University, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Niruthikha Mahendran
- University of Queensland, Discipline of Physiotherapy, School of Health and Rehabilitation Sciences, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Matthieu P Boisgontier
- School of Rehabilitation Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa ON, Canada; Bruyère Research Institute, Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Lara A Boyd
- University of British Columbia, Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, Vancouver, BC, Canada; Djavad Mowafaghian Centre for Brain Health, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
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Geevasinga N, Van den Bos M, Menon P, Vucic S. Utility of Transcranial Magnetic Simulation in Studying Upper Motor Neuron Dysfunction in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11070906. [PMID: 34356140 PMCID: PMC8304017 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11070906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 07/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is characterised by progressive dysfunction of the upper and lower motor neurons. The disease can evolve over time from focal limb or bulbar onset to involvement of other regions. There is some clinical heterogeneity in ALS with various phenotypes of the disease described, from primary lateral sclerosis, progressive muscular atrophy and flail arm/leg phenotypes. Whilst the majority of ALS patients are sporadic in nature, recent advances have highlighted genetic forms of the disease. Given the close relationship between ALS and frontotemporal dementia, the importance of cortical dysfunction has gained prominence. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a noninvasive neurophysiological tool to explore the function of the motor cortex and thereby cortical excitability. In this review, we highlight the utility of TMS and explore cortical excitability in ALS diagnosis, pathogenesis and insights gained from genetic and variant forms of the disease.
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Turco CV, Nelson AJ. Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation to Assess Exercise-Induced Neuroplasticity. FRONTIERS IN NEUROERGONOMICS 2021; 2:679033. [PMID: 38235229 PMCID: PMC10790852 DOI: 10.3389/fnrgo.2021.679033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2024]
Abstract
Aerobic exercise facilitates neuroplasticity and has been linked to improvements in cognitive and motor function. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a non-invasive technique that can be used to quantify changes in neurophysiology induced by exercise. The present review summarizes the single- and paired-pulse TMS paradigms that can be used to probe exercise-induced neuroplasticity, the optimal stimulation parameters and the current understanding of the neurophysiology underlying each paradigm. Further, this review amalgamates previous research exploring the modulation of these paradigms with exercise-induced neuroplasticity in healthy and clinical populations and highlights important considerations for future TMS-exercise research.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Aimee J. Nelson
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON, Canada
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19
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Opie GM, Liao WY, Semmler JG. Interactions Between Cerebellum and the Intracortical Excitatory Circuits of Motor Cortex: a Mini-Review. CEREBELLUM (LONDON, ENGLAND) 2021; 21:159-166. [PMID: 33978934 DOI: 10.1007/s12311-021-01278-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Interactions between cerebellum (CB) and primary motor cortex (M1) are critical for effective motor function. Although the associated neurophysiological processes are yet to be fully characterised, a growing body of work using non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques has significantly progressed our current understanding. In particular, recent developments with both transcranial magnetic (TMS) and direct current (tDCS) stimulation suggest that CB modulates the activity of local excitatory interneuronal circuits within M1. These circuits are known to be important both physiologically and functionally, and understanding the nature of their connectivity with CB therefore has the potential to provide important insight for NIBS applications. Consequently, this mini-review provides an overview of the emerging literature that has investigated interactions between CB and the intracortical excitatory circuits of M1.
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Affiliation(s)
- George M Opie
- Discipline of Physiology, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - Wei-Yeh Liao
- Discipline of Physiology, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia
| | - John G Semmler
- Discipline of Physiology, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, 5005, Australia.
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20
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Modulation of Motor Cortex Plasticity by Repetitive Paired-Pulse TMS at Late I-Wave Intervals Is Influenced by Intracortical Excitability. Brain Sci 2021; 11:brainsci11010121. [PMID: 33477434 PMCID: PMC7829868 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci11010121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
The late indirect (I)-waves recruited by transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) over primary motor cortex (M1) can be modulated using I-wave periodicity repetitive TMS (iTMS). The purpose of this study was to determine if the response to iTMS is influenced by different interstimulus intervals (ISIs) targeting late I-waves, and whether these responses were associated with individual variations in intracortical excitability. Seventeen young (27.2 ± 6.4 years, 12 females) healthy adults received iTMS at late I-wave intervals (4.0, 4.5, and 5.0 ms) in three separate sessions. Changes due to each intervention were examined with motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes and short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) using both posterior-anterior (PA) and anterior-posterior (AP) TMS current directions. Changes in MEP amplitude and SICF were influenced by iTMS ISI, with the greatest facilitation for ISIs at 4 and 5 ms with PA TMS, and 4 ms with AP TMS. Maximum SICF at baseline (irrespective of ISI) was associated with increased iTMS response, but only for PA stimulation. These results suggest that modifying iTMS parameters targeting late I-waves can influence M1 plasticity. They also suggest that maximum SICF may be a means by which responders to iTMS targeting the late I-waves could be identified.
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21
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Evaluation and Treatment of Vascular Cognitive Impairment by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Neural Plast 2020. [PMID: 33193753 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8820881.] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The exact relationship between cognitive functioning, cortical excitability, and synaptic plasticity in dementia is not completely understood. Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) is deemed to be the most common cognitive disorder in the elderly since it encompasses any degree of vascular-based cognitive decline. In different cognitive disorders, including VCI, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can be exploited as a noninvasive tool able to evaluate in vivo the cortical excitability, the propension to undergo neural plastic phenomena, and the underlying transmission pathways. Overall, TMS in VCI revealed enhanced cortical excitability and synaptic plasticity that seem to correlate with the disease process and progression. In some patients, such plasticity may be considered as an adaptive response to disease progression, thus allowing the preservation of motor programming and execution. Recent findings also point out the possibility to employ TMS to predict cognitive deterioration in the so-called "brains at risk" for dementia, which may be those patients who benefit more of disease-modifying drugs and rehabilitative or neuromodulatory approaches, such as those based on repetitive TMS (rTMS). Finally, TMS can be exploited to select the responders to specific drugs in the attempt to maximize the response and to restore maladaptive plasticity. While no single TMS index owns enough specificity, a panel of TMS-derived measures can support VCI diagnosis and identify early markers of progression into dementia. This work reviews all TMS and rTMS studies on VCI. The aim is to evaluate how cortical excitability, plasticity, and connectivity interact in the pathophysiology of the impairment and to provide a translational perspective towards novel treatments of these patients. Current pitfalls and limitations of both studies and techniques are also discussed, together with possible solutions and future research agenda.
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Turco CV, Arsalan SO, Nelson AJ. The Influence of Recreational Substance Use in TMS Research. Brain Sci 2020; 10:E751. [PMID: 33080965 PMCID: PMC7603156 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci10100751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 10/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) approaches are widely used to study cortical and corticospinal function. However, responses to TMS are subject to significant intra-and inter-individual variability. Acute and chronic exposure to recreational substances alters the excitability of the sensorimotor system and may contribute to the variability in TMS outcome measures. The increasing prevalence of recreational substance use poses a significant challenge for executing TMS studies, but there is a lack of clarity regarding the influence of these substances on sensorimotor function. (2) Methods: The literature investigating the influence of alcohol, nicotine, caffeine and cannabis on TMS outcome measures of corticospinal, intracortical and interhemispheric excitability was reviewed. (3) Results: Both acute and chronic use of recreational substances modulates TMS measures of excitability. Despite the abundance of research in this field, we identify knowledge gaps that should be addressed in future studies to better understand the influence of these substances on TMS outcomes. (4) Conclusions: This review highlights the need for TMS studies to take into consideration the history of participant substance use and to control for acute substance use prior to testing.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Aimee J. Nelson
- Department of Kinesiology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4L8, Canada; (C.V.T.); (S.O.A.)
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Qasem H, Fujiyama H, Rurak BK, Vallence AM. Good test–retest reliability of a paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation protocol to measure short-interval intracortical facilitation. Exp Brain Res 2020; 238:2711-2723. [DOI: 10.1007/s00221-020-05926-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Abstract
I-waves represent high-frequency (~ 600 Hz) repetitive discharge of corticospinal fibers elicited by single-pulse stimulation of motor cortex. First detected and examined in animal preparations, this multiple discharge can also be recorded in humans from the corticospinal tract with epidural spinal electrodes. The exact underpinning neurophysiology of I-waves is still unclear, but there is converging evidence that they originate at the cortical level through synaptic input from specific excitatory interneuronal circuitries onto corticomotoneuronal cells, controlled by GABAAergic interneurons. In contrast, there is at present no supportive evidence for the alternative hypothesis that I-waves are generated by high-frequency oscillations of the membrane potential of corticomotoneuronal cells upon initial strong depolarization. Understanding I-wave physiology is essential for understanding how TMS activates the motor cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulf Ziemann
- Department of Neurology and Stroke, University of Tübingen, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 3, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
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Brunet A, Stuart-Lopez G, Burg T, Scekic-Zahirovic J, Rouaux C. Cortical Circuit Dysfunction as a Potential Driver of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:363. [PMID: 32410944 PMCID: PMC7201269 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2019] [Accepted: 03/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a devastating neurodegenerative disease that affects selected cortical and spinal neuronal populations, leading to progressive paralysis and death. A growing body of evidences suggests that the disease may originate in the cerebral cortex and propagate in a corticofugal manner. In particular, transcranial magnetic stimulation studies revealed that ALS patients present with early cortical hyperexcitability arising from a combination of increased excitability and decreased inhibition. Here, we discuss the possibility that initial cortical circuit dysfunction might act as the main driver of ALS onset and progression, and review recent functional, imaging and transcriptomic studies conducted on ALS patients, along with electrophysiological, pathological and transcriptomic studies on animal and cellular models of the disease, in order to evaluate the potential cellular and molecular origins of cortical hyperexcitability in ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | - Caroline Rouaux
- INSERM UMR_S 1118, Mécanismes Centraux et Périphériques de la Neurodégénérescence, Faculté de Médecine, Université de Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
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Bhattacharjee S, Kashyap R, Abualait T, Annabel Chen SH, Yoo WK, Bashir S. The Role of Primary Motor Cortex: More Than Movement Execution. J Mot Behav 2020; 53:258-274. [PMID: 32194004 DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2020.1738992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The predominant role of the primary motor cortex (M1) in motor execution is well acknowledged. However, additional roles of M1 are getting evident in humans owing to advances in noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques. This review collates such studies in humans and proposes that M1 also plays a key role in higher cognitive processes. The review commences with the studies that have investigated the nature of connectivity of M1 with other cortical regions in light of studies based on NIBS. The review then moves on to discuss the studies that have demonstrated the role of M1 in higher cognitive processes such as attention, motor learning, motor consolidation, movement inhibition, somatomotor response, and movement imagery. Overall, the purpose of the review is to highlight the additional role of M1 in motor cognition besides motor control, which remains unexplored.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rajan Kashyap
- Center for Research and Development in Learning (CRADLE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Turki Abualait
- Physical Therapy Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shen-Hsing Annabel Chen
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKC Medicine), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Office of Educational Research, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Woo-Kyoung Yoo
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital, Anyang, South Korea
| | - Shahid Bashir
- Neuroscience Center, King Fahad Specialist Hospital Dammam, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.,Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Mooney RA, Cirillo J, Stinear CM, Byblow WD. Neurophysiology of motor skill learning in chronic stroke. Clin Neurophysiol 2020; 131:791-798. [PMID: 32066097 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2019.12.410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2019] [Revised: 12/04/2019] [Accepted: 12/14/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Motor learning is relevant in chronic stroke for acquiring compensatory strategies to motor control deficits. However, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying motor skill acquisition with the paretic upper limb have received little systematic investigation. The aim of this study was to assess the modulation of corticomotor excitability and intracortical inhibition within ipsilesional primary motor cortex (M1) during motor skill learning. METHODS Ten people at the chronic stage after stroke and twelve healthy controls trained on a sequential visuomotor isometric wrist extension task. Skill was quantified before, immediately after, 24 hours and 7 days post-training. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to examine corticomotor excitability and short- and long-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI and LICI) pre- and post-training. RESULTS The patient group exhibited successful skill acquisition and retention, although absolute skill level was lower compared with controls. In contrast to controls, patients' ipsilesional corticomotor excitability was not modulated during skill acquisition, which may be attributed to excessive ipsilesional LICI relative to controls. SICI decreased after training for both patient and control groups. CONCLUSIONS Our findings indicate distinct inhibitory networks within M1 that may be relevant for motor learning after stroke. SIGNIFICANCE These findings have potential clinical relevance for neurorehabilitation adjuvants aimed at augmenting the recovery of motor function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronan A Mooney
- Movement Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Exercise Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - John Cirillo
- Movement Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Exercise Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Cathy M Stinear
- Department of Medicine, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Winston D Byblow
- Movement Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Exercise Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand; Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.
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Cantone M, Lanza G, Fisicaro F, Pennisi M, Bella R, Di Lazzaro V, Di Pino G. Evaluation and Treatment of Vascular Cognitive Impairment by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Neural Plast 2020; 2020:8820881. [PMID: 33193753 PMCID: PMC7641667 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8820881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The exact relationship between cognitive functioning, cortical excitability, and synaptic plasticity in dementia is not completely understood. Vascular cognitive impairment (VCI) is deemed to be the most common cognitive disorder in the elderly since it encompasses any degree of vascular-based cognitive decline. In different cognitive disorders, including VCI, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) can be exploited as a noninvasive tool able to evaluate in vivo the cortical excitability, the propension to undergo neural plastic phenomena, and the underlying transmission pathways. Overall, TMS in VCI revealed enhanced cortical excitability and synaptic plasticity that seem to correlate with the disease process and progression. In some patients, such plasticity may be considered as an adaptive response to disease progression, thus allowing the preservation of motor programming and execution. Recent findings also point out the possibility to employ TMS to predict cognitive deterioration in the so-called "brains at risk" for dementia, which may be those patients who benefit more of disease-modifying drugs and rehabilitative or neuromodulatory approaches, such as those based on repetitive TMS (rTMS). Finally, TMS can be exploited to select the responders to specific drugs in the attempt to maximize the response and to restore maladaptive plasticity. While no single TMS index owns enough specificity, a panel of TMS-derived measures can support VCI diagnosis and identify early markers of progression into dementia. This work reviews all TMS and rTMS studies on VCI. The aim is to evaluate how cortical excitability, plasticity, and connectivity interact in the pathophysiology of the impairment and to provide a translational perspective towards novel treatments of these patients. Current pitfalls and limitations of both studies and techniques are also discussed, together with possible solutions and future research agenda.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariagiovanna Cantone
- 1Department of Neurology, Sant'Elia Hospital, ASP Caltanissetta, Caltanissetta 93100, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Lanza
- 2Department of Surgery and Medical-Surgical Specialties, University of Catania, Catania 95123, Italy
- 3Department of Neurology IC, Oasi Research Institute–IRCCS, Troina 94108, Italy
| | - Francesco Fisicaro
- 4Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania 95123, Italy
| | - Manuela Pennisi
- 4Department of Biomedical and Biotechnological Sciences, University of Catania, Catania 95123, Italy
| | - Rita Bella
- 5Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences and Advanced Technologies, University of Catania, Catania 95123, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Di Lazzaro
- 6Unit of Neurology, Neurophysiology, Neurobiology, Department of Medicine, Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome 00128, Italy
| | - Giovanni Di Pino
- 7Research Unit of Neurophysiology and Neuroengineering of Human-Technology Interaction (NeXTlab), Università Campus Bio-Medico di Roma, Rome 00128, Italy
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Guerra A, Suppa A, D'Onofrio V, Di Stasio F, Asci F, Fabbrini G, Berardelli A. Abnormal cortical facilitation and L-dopa-induced dyskinesia in Parkinson's disease. Brain Stimul 2019; 12:1517-1525. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2019.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2019] [Accepted: 06/07/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
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30
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Port RG, Oberman LM, Roberts TPL. Revisiting the excitation/inhibition imbalance hypothesis of ASD through a clinical lens. Br J Radiol 2019; 92:20180944. [PMID: 31124710 PMCID: PMC6732925 DOI: 10.1259/bjr.20180944] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 05/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) currently affects 1 in 59 children, although the aetiology of this disorder remains unknown. Faced with multiple seemingly disparate and noncontiguous neurobiological alterations, Rubenstein and Merzenich hypothesized that imbalances between excitatory and inhibitory neurosignaling (E/I imbalance) underlie ASD. Since this initial statement, there has been a major focus examining this exact topic spanning both clinical and preclinical realms. The purpose of this article is to review the clinical neuroimaging literature surrounding E/I imbalance as an aetiology of ASD. Evidence for E/I imbalance is presented from several complementary clinical techniques including magnetic resonance spectroscopy, magnetoencephalography and transcranial magnetic stimulation. Additionally, two GABAergic potential interventions for ASD, which explicitly attempt to remediate E/I imbalance, are reviewed. The current literature suggests E/I imbalance as a useful framework for discussing the neurobiological etiology of ASD in at least a subset of affected individuals. While not constituting a completely unifying aetiology, E/I imbalance may be relevant as one of several underlying neuropathophysiologies that differentially affect individuals with ASD. Such statements do not diminish the value of the E/I imbalance concept-instead they suggest a possible role for the characterization of E/I imbalance, as well as other underlying neuropathophysiologies, in the biologically-based subtyping of individuals with ASD for potential applications including clinical trial enrichment as well as treatment triage.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Lindsay M Oberman
- Center for Neuroscience and Regenerative Medicine, Henry M. Jackson Foundation for the Advancement of Military Medicine, Rockville, Maryland
| | - Timothy PL Roberts
- Department of Radiology, Lurie Family Foundations MEG Imaging Center, Children’s Hospital of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
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31
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Pathophysiology and Diagnosis of ALS: Insights from Advances in Neurophysiological Techniques. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20112818. [PMID: 31185581 PMCID: PMC6600525 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20112818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2019] [Revised: 05/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a rapidly progressive and fatal neurodegenerative disorder of the motor neurons, characterized by focal onset of muscle weakness and incessant disease progression. While the presence of concomitant upper and lower motor neuron signs has been recognized as a pathognomonic feature of ALS, the pathogenic importance of upper motor neuron dysfunction has only been recently described. Specifically, transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) techniques have established cortical hyperexcitability as an important pathogenic mechanism in ALS, correlating with neurodegeneration and disease spread. Separately, ALS exhibits a heterogeneous clinical phenotype that may lead to misdiagnosis, particularly in the early stages of the disease process. Cortical hyperexcitability was shown to be a robust diagnostic biomarker if ALS, reliably differentiating ALS from neuromuscular mimicking disorders. The present review will provide an overview of key advances in the understanding of ALS pathophysiology and diagnosis, focusing on the importance of cortical hyperexcitability and its relationship to advances in genetic and molecular processes implicated in ALS pathogenesis.
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Martinotti G, Montemitro C, Pettorruso M, Viceconte D, Alessi MC, Di Carlo F, Lucidi L, Picutti E, Santacroce R, Di Giannantonio M. Augmenting pharmacotherapy with neuromodulation techniques for the treatment of bipolar disorder: a focus on the effects of mood stabilizers on cortical excitability. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2019; 20:1575-1588. [PMID: 31150304 DOI: 10.1080/14656566.2019.1622092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Introduction: Mood stabilizers and antipsychotics have been demonstrated to be effective in Bipolar Disorder, with lithium as the gold standard. However, the presence of adverse events and treatment-resistance is still a relevant issue. To this respect, the use of brain stimulation techniques may be considered as an augmentation strategy, with both Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) and Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation (tDCS) having shown some level of efficacy in bipolar patients although clinical trials are still not sufficient to draw any conclusion. Areas covered: The authors have conducted a systematic review of the literature, in order to evaluate the role of mood stabilizers on neural activity and cortical excitability. Furthermore, the article reviews neuromodulation techniques and highlights the potential of integrating pharmacological first-line therapies with these techniques to treat BD patients. Expert opinion: The combination of neuromodulation techniques and available pharmacotherapies is a valuable opportunity which is not undermined by specific effects on cortical excitability and could improve BD patient outcome. Neurostimulation techniques may be considered safer than antidepressant treatments in BD, with a lower level of manic switches and may represent a new treatment strategy in BD depressive episodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Martinotti
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy.,Department of Pharmacy, Pharmacology, Clinical Science, University of Hertfordshire , Herts , UK
| | - C Montemitro
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy
| | - M Pettorruso
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy
| | - D Viceconte
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy
| | - M C Alessi
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy
| | - F Di Carlo
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy
| | - L Lucidi
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy
| | - E Picutti
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy
| | - R Santacroce
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy
| | - M Di Giannantonio
- Department of Neuroscience, Imaging and Clinical Sciences, University "G. d'Annunzio" of Chieti , Chieti , Italy
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Cortical and Subcortical Contributions to Neuroplasticity after Repetitive Transspinal Stimulation in Humans. Neural Plast 2019; 2019:4750768. [PMID: 30881443 PMCID: PMC6383395 DOI: 10.1155/2019/4750768] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2018] [Revised: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The objectives of this study were to establish cortical and subcortical contributions to neuroplasticity induced by noninvasive repetitive transspinal stimulation in human subjects free of any neurological disorder. To meet our objectives, before and after 40 minutes of transspinal stimulation we established changes in tibialis anterior (TA) motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) in response to paired transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) pulses at interstimulus intervals (ISIs) consistent with I-wave periodicity. In order to establish to what extent similar actions are exerted at the spinal cord and motor axons, changes in soleus H-reflex and transspinal evoked potential (TEP) amplitude following transspinal and group Ia afferent conditioning stimulation, respectively, were established. After 40 min of transspinal stimulation, the TA MEP consecutive peaks of facilitation produced by paired TMS pulses were significantly decreased supporting for depression of I-waves. Additionally, the soleus H-reflex and ankle TEP depression following transspinal and group Ia afferent conditioning stimulation was potentiated at intervals when both responses interacted at the spinal cord and nerve axons. These findings support the notion that repetitive transspinal stimulation decreases corticocortical inputs onto corticospinal neurons and promotes a surround inhibition in the spinal cord and nerve axons. This novel method may be a suitable neuromodulation tool to alter excitability at cortical and subcortical levels in neurological disorders.
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Jordan HT, Stinear CM. Effects of bilateral priming on motor cortex function in healthy adults. J Neurophysiol 2018; 120:2858-2867. [PMID: 30281376 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00472.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Bilateral priming is a rehabilitation adjuvant that can improve upper limb motor recovery poststroke. It uses a table-top device to couple the upper limbs together such that active flexion and extension of one wrist leads to passive movement of the opposite wrist in a mirror symmetric pattern. Bilateral priming increases corticomotor excitability (CME) in the primary motor cortex (M1) of the passively driven wrist; however, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying this increase remain unclear. This study explored these mechanisms by using transcranial magnetic stimulation over the right M1 and recording motor-evoked potentials from the passively driven left extensor carpi radialis of healthy adults. Intracortical measures were recorded before and 5 and 35 min after a single 15-min session of priming. One-millisecond short-interval intracortical inhibition, long-interval intracortical inhibition, late cortical disinhibition (LCD), and intracortical facilitation were recorded with a posterior-anterior (PA) intracortical current, whereas CME and short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) were recorded with both PA and anterior-posterior (AP) currents. CME with PA stimulation was also recorded ~1 h postpriming. PA CME was elevated 35 min postpriming and remained elevated ~1 h postpriming. LCD decreased, and AP SICF increased at both 5 and 35 min postpriming. However, these changes in LCD and AP SICF are unlikely to be the cause of the increased PA CME because of the differing timelines of their effects and AP and PA currents activating separate interneuron circuits. These results suggest that bilateral priming does not increase CME through alterations of the intracortical circuits investigated here. NEW & NOTEWORTHY This is the first study to measure how bilateral priming modulates corticomotor excitability with posterior-anterior and anterior-posterior intracortical currents, 1-ms short-interval intracortical inhibition, late cortical disinhibition, intracortical facilitation, and short-interval intracortical facilitation. We found corticomotor excitability with a posterior-anterior current increased by 35 min until ~1 h postpriming. Short-interval intracortical facilitation with an anterior-posterior current was greater for at least 35 min postpriming. This provides further insight into the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying bilateral priming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harry T Jordan
- Department of Medicine, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
| | - Cathy M Stinear
- Department of Medicine, University of Auckland , Auckland , New Zealand
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Vucic S, van den Bos M, Menon P, Howells J, Dharmadasa T, Kiernan MC. Utility of threshold tracking transcranial magnetic stimulation in ALS. Clin Neurophysiol Pract 2018; 3:164-172. [PMID: 30560220 PMCID: PMC6275211 DOI: 10.1016/j.cnp.2018.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Revised: 10/17/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Upper motor neuron [UMN] and lower motor neuron [LMN] dysfunction, in the absence of sensory features, is a pathognomonic feature of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis [ALS]. Although the precise mechanisms have yet to be elucidated, one leading hypothesis is that UMN precede LMN dysfunction, which is induced by anterograde glutamatergic excitotoxicity. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is a neurophysiological tool that provides a non-invasive and painless assessment of cortical function. Threshold tracking methodologies have been recently adopted for TMS, whereby changes in threshold rather than motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitude serve as outcome measures. This technique is reliable and provides a rapid assessment of cortical function in ALS. Utilisng the threshold tracking TMS technique, cortical hyperexcitability was demonstrated as an early feature in sporadic ALS preceding the onset of LMN dysfunction and possibly contributing to disease spread. Separately, cortical hyperexcitability was reported to precede the clinical onset of familial ALS. Of further relevance, the threshold tracking TMS technique was proven to reliably distinguish ALS from mimicking disorders, even in the presence of a comparable degree of LMN dysfunction, suggesting a diagnostic utility of TMS. Taken in total, threshold tracking TMS has provided support for a cortical involvement at the earliest detectable stages of ALS, underscoring the utility of the technique for probing the underlying pathophysiology. The present review will discuss the physiological processes underlying TMS parameters, while further evaluating the pathophysiological and diagnostic utility of threshold tracking TMS in ALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steve Vucic
- Western Clinical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | | | - Parvathi Menon
- Western Clinical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - James Howells
- Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney and Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Thanuja Dharmadasa
- Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney and Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
| | - Matthew C Kiernan
- Brain and Mind Centre, University of Sydney and Institute of Clinical Neurosciences, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Sydney, Australia
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36
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Van den Bos MA, Higashihara M, Geevasinga N, Menon P, Kiernan MC, Vucic S. Imbalance of cortical facilitatory and inhibitory circuits underlies hyperexcitability in ALS. Neurology 2018; 91:e1669-e1676. [DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000006438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
ObjectiveTo determine the relative contribution of inhibitory and facilitatory circuits in the development of cortical hyperexcitability in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS).MethodsIn this cross-sectional study, cortical excitability was assessed in 27 patients with ALS, and results compared to 25 healthy controls. In addition, a novel neurophysiologic measure of cortical function, short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF), was assessed reflecting activity of the facilitatory circuits.ResultsThere was a significant increase in SICF (ALS −18.51 ± 1.56%, controls −8.52 ± 1.21%, p < 0.001) in patients with ALS that was accompanied by a reduction of short-interval intracortical inhibition (ALS 3.94 ± 1.29%, controls 14.23 ± 1.18%, p < 0.001) and cortical silent period duration (p = 0.034). The index of excitation, a biomarker reflecting the contribution of inhibitory and facilitatory circuit activity, was significantly increased in patients with ALS (82.79 ± 6.01%) compared to controls (36.15 ± 3.44, p < 0.001), suggesting a shift toward cortical excitation. Increased excitation correlated with upper motor neuron signs (R2 = 0.235, p = 0.016) and greater functional disability as reflected by a correlation with the Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis Functional Rating Scale–Revised score (R2 = 0.335, p = 0.002).ConclusionsThe present study established that cortical hyperexcitability is a key contributor to ALS pathophysiology, mediated through dysfunction of inhibitory and facilitatory intracortical circuits. Therapies aimed at restoring the cortical inhibitory imbalance provide novel avenues for future therapeutic targets.
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Weavil JC, Amann M. Corticospinal excitability during fatiguing whole body exercise. PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2018; 240:219-246. [PMID: 30390833 PMCID: PMC6363483 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2018.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The corticospinal pathway is considered the primary conduit for voluntary motor control in humans. The efficacy of the corticospinal pathway to relay neural signals from higher brain areas to the locomotor muscle, i.e., corticospinal excitability, is subject to alterations during exercise. While the integrity of this motor pathway has historically been examined during single-joint contractions, a small number of investigations have recently focused on whole body exercise, such as cycling or rowing. Although differences in methodologies employed between these studies complicate the interpretation of the existing literature, it appears that the net excitability of the corticospinal pathway remains unaltered during fatiguing whole body exercise. Importantly, this lack of an apparent effect does not designate the absence of change, but a counterbalance of excitatory and inhibitory influences on the two components of the corticospinal pathway, namely the motor cortex and the spinal motoneurons. Specific emphasis is put on group III/IV afferent feedback from locomotor muscle which has been suggested to play a significant role in mediating these changes. Overall, this review aims at summarizing our limited understanding of how fatiguing whole body exercise influences the corticospinal pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua C Weavil
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Salt Lake City VAMC, Salt Lake City, UT, United States; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States.
| | - Markus Amann
- Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, Salt Lake City VAMC, Salt Lake City, UT, United States; Department of Internal Medicine, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States; Department of Anesthesiology, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, United States
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38
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Efficient Mapping of the Motor Cortex with Navigated Biphasic Paired-Pulse Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Brain Topogr 2018; 31:963-971. [PMID: 29971634 DOI: 10.1007/s10548-018-0660-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Navigated transcranial magnetic stimulation (nTMS) can be applied to locate cortical muscle representations. Usually, single TMS pulses are targeted to the motor cortex with the help of neuronavigation and by measuring motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes from the peripheral muscles. The efficacy of single-pulse TMS to induce MEPs has been shown to increase by applying facilitatory paired-pulse TMS (ppTMS). Therefore, the aim was to study whether the facilitatory ppTMS could enable more efficient motor mapping. Biphasic single-pulse TMS and ppTMS with inter-stimulus intervals (ISIs) of 1.4 and 2.8 ms were applied to measure resting motor thresholds (rMTs) as a percentage of the maximal stimulator output and to determine the cortical representation areas of the right first dorsal interosseous muscle in healthy volunteers. The areas, shapes, hotspots, and center of gravities (CoGs) of the representations were calculated. Biphasic ppTMS with ISI of 1.4 ms resulted in lower rMTs than those obtained with the other protocols (p = 0.001). With ISI of 2.8 ms, rMT was lower than with single-pulse TMS (p = 0.032). The ppTMS mapping was thus performed with lower intensity than when using single-pulse TMS. The areas, shapes, hotspots, and CoGs of the muscle representations were in agreement. Hence, biphasic ppTMS has potential in the mapping of cortical hand representations in healthy individuals as an alternative for single-pulses, but with lower stimulation intensity by utilizing cortical facilitatory mechanism. This could improve application of nTMS in subjects with low motor tract excitability.
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Opie GM, Cirillo J, Semmler JG. Age-related changes in late I-waves influence motor cortex plasticity induction in older adults. J Physiol 2018; 596:2597-2609. [PMID: 29667190 DOI: 10.1113/jp274641] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS The response to neuroplasticity interventions using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is reduced in older adults, which may be due, in part, to age-related alterations in interneuronal (I-wave) circuitry. The current study investigated age-related changes in interneuronal characteristics and whether they influence motor cortical plasticity in older adults. While I-wave recruitment was unaffected by age, there was a shift in the temporal characteristics of the late, but not the early I-waves. Using I-wave periodicity repetitive TMS (iTMS), we showed that these differences in I-wave characteristics influence the induction of cortical plasticity in older adults. ABSTRACT Previous research shows that neuroplasticity assessed using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is reduced in older adults. While this deficit is often assumed to represent altered synaptic modification processes, age-related changes in the interneuronal circuits activated by TMS may also contribute. Here we assessed age-related differences in the characteristics of the corticospinal indirect (I) waves and how they influence plasticity induction in primary motor cortex. Twenty young (23.7 ± 3.4 years) and 19 older adults (70.6 ± 6.0 years) participated in these studies. I-wave recruitment was assessed by changing the direction of the current used to activate the motor cortex, whereas short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) was recorded to assess facilitatory I-wave interactions. In a separate study, I-wave periodicity TMS (iTMS) was used to examine the effect of I-wave latency on motor cortex plasticity. Data from the motor-evoked potential (MEP) onset latency produced using different coil orientations suggested that there were no age-related differences in preferential I-wave recruitment (P = 0.6). However, older adults demonstrated significant reductions in MEP facilitation at all 3 SICF peaks (all P values < 0.05) and a delayed latency of the second and third SICF peaks (all P values < 0.05). Using I-wave intervals that were optimal for young and older adults, these changes in the late I-waves were shown to influence the plasticity response in older adults after iTMS. These findings suggest that temporal characteristics are delayed for the late I-waves in older adults, and that optimising TMS interventions based on I-wave characteristics may improve the plasticity response in older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- George M Opie
- Discipline of Physiology, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
| | - John Cirillo
- Movement Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Exercise Sciences, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand.,Centre for Brain Research, The University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - John G Semmler
- Discipline of Physiology, Adelaide Medical School, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, Australia
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Van den Bos MAJ, Menon P, Howells J, Geevasinga N, Kiernan MC, Vucic S. Physiological Processes Underlying Short Interval Intracortical Facilitation in the Human Motor Cortex. Front Neurosci 2018; 12:240. [PMID: 29695952 PMCID: PMC5904283 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 03/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Short interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) may be elicited by a paired pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) paradigm, whereby a suprathreshold first stimulus (S1) precedes a perithreshold second stimulus (S2). Other facilitatory circuits can be probed by TMS such as intracranial facilitation, however the cortical contributions to these circuits may lie partially outside of M1. SICF as such represents a unique analog to M1 inhibitory circuits such as short interveal intracortical circuits. The aim of the present study was to provide insight into the physiological processes underlying the development of SICF using the threshold tracking TMS technique which was recently demonstrated to have significant reliability. TMS studies were undertaken on 35 healthy controls, using either a 90 mm circular and 70 mm figure of eight coil, and one of two targets (0.2 and 1.0 mV) tracked. The motor evoked potential (MEP) responses were recorded from the abductor pollicis brevis. SICF was consistently evident between interstimulus intervals (ISI) of 1–5 ms (P < 0.001), with two peaks occurring ISIs 1.5 and 3 ms when using the circular coil. A significant SICF reduction (F = 5.631, P < 0.05) was evident with the higher tracking target, while SICF increased when stimulating with the figure of eight coil. While there was a correlation between SICF and CSP duration, there was no relationship between SICF and SICI or ICF. Age appeared to have no influence on SICF, SICI, or ICF. Findings from the present work suggest that SICF appears to be mediated by I-wave facilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Parvathi Menon
- Westmead Clinical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - James Howells
- Brain and Mind Center, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | | | - Steve Vucic
- Westmead Clinical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Kaskie RE, Ferrarelli F. Investigating the neurobiology of schizophrenia and other major psychiatric disorders with Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Schizophr Res 2018; 192:30-38. [PMID: 28478887 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2017.04.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2016] [Revised: 04/24/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Characterizing the neurobiology of schizophrenia and other major psychiatric disorders is one of the main challenges of the current research in psychiatry. The availability of Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (TMS) allows to directly probe virtually any cortical areas, thus providing a unique way to assess the neurophysiological properties of cortical neurons. This article presents a review of studies employing TMS in combination with Motor Evoked Potentials (TMS/MEPs) and high density Electroencephalogram (TMS/hd-EEG) in schizophrenia and other major psychiatric disorders. Studies were identified by conducting a PubMed search using the following search item: "transcranial magnetic stimulation and (Schizophrenia or OCD or MDD or ADHD)". Studies that utilized TMS/MEP and/or TMS/hd-EEG measures to characterize cortical excitability, inhibition, oscillatory activity, and/or connectivity in psychiatric patients were selected. Across disorders, patients displayed a pattern of reduced cortical inhibition, and to a lesser extent increased excitability, in the motor cortex, which was most consistently established in Schizophrenia. Furthermore, psychiatric patients showed abnormalities in a number of TMS-evoked EEG oscillations, which was most prominent in the prefrontal cortex of Schizophrenia relative to healthy comparison subjects. Overall, results from this review point to significant impairments in cortical excitability, inhibition, and oscillatory activity, especially in frontal areas, in several major psychiatric disorders. Building on these findings, future studies employing TMS-based experimental paradigms may help elucidating the neurobiology of these psychiatric disorders, and may assess the contribution of TMS-related measures in monitoring and possibly maximizing the effectiveness of treatment interventions in psychiatric populations.
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Li CT, Yang KC, Lin WC. Glutamatergic Dysfunction and Glutamatergic Compounds for Major Psychiatric Disorders: Evidence From Clinical Neuroimaging Studies. Front Psychiatry 2018; 9:767. [PMID: 30733690 PMCID: PMC6353824 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00767] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Excessive glutamate release has been linked to stress and many neurodegenerative diseases. Evidence indicates abnormalities of glutamatergic neurotransmission or glutamatergic dysfunction as playing an important role in the development of many major psychiatric disorders (e.g., schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and major depressive disorder). Recently, ketamine, an N-methyl-d-aspartate antagonist, has been demonstrated to have promisingly rapid antidepressant efficacy for treatment-resistant depression. Many compounds that target the glutamate system have also become available that possess potential in the treatment of major psychiatric disorders. In this review, we update evidence from recent human studies that directly or indirectly measured glutamatergic neurotransmission and function in major psychiatric disorders using modalities such as magnetic resonance spectroscopy, positron emission tomography/single-photon emission computed tomography, and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation. The newer generation of antidepressants that target the glutamatergic system developed in human clinical studies is also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Ta Li
- Department of Psychiatry, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Institute of Brain Science and Brain Research Center, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Division of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan.,Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, National Central University, Jhongli, Taiwan
| | - Kai-Chun Yang
- Department of Psychiatry, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Division of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Chen Lin
- Department of Psychiatry, Taipei Veterans General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan.,Division of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, Taiwan
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Long J, Federico P, Perez MA. A novel cortical target to enhance hand motor output in humans with spinal cord injury. Brain 2017; 140:1619-1632. [PMID: 28549131 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awx102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2016] [Accepted: 03/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
A main goal of rehabilitation strategies in humans with spinal cord injury is to strengthen transmission in spared neural networks. Although neuromodulatory strategies have targeted different sites within the central nervous system to restore motor function following spinal cord injury, the role of cortical targets remain poorly understood. Here, we use 180 pairs of transcranial magnetic stimulation for ∼30 min over the hand representation of the motor cortex at an interstimulus interval mimicking the rhythmicity of descending late indirect (I) waves in corticospinal neurons (4.3 ms; I-wave protocol) or at an interstimulus interval in-between I-waves (3.5 ms; control protocol) on separate days in a randomized order. Late I-waves are thought to arise from trans-synaptic cortical inputs and have a crucial role in the recruitment of spinal motor neurons following spinal cord injury. Motor evoked potentials elicited by transcranial magnetic stimulation, paired-pulse intracortical inhibition, spinal motor neuron excitability (F-waves), index finger abduction force and electromyographic activity as well as a hand dexterity task were measured before and after both protocols in 15 individuals with chronic incomplete cervical spinal cord injury and 17 uninjured participants. We found that motor evoked potentials size increased in spinal cord injury and uninjured participants after the I-wave but not the control protocol for ∼30 to 60 min after the stimulation. Intracortical inhibition decreased and F-wave amplitude and persistence increased after the I-wave but not the control protocol, suggesting that cortical and subcortical networks contributed to changes in corticospinal excitability. Importantly, hand motor output and hand dexterity increased in individuals with spinal cord injury after the I-wave protocol. These results provide the first evidence that late synaptic input to corticospinal neurons may represent a novel therapeutic target for improving motor function in humans with paralysis due to spinal cord injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinyi Long
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami, Bruce W. Carter Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Paolo Federico
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami, Bruce W. Carter Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Monica A Perez
- Department of Neurological Surgery, The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami, Bruce W. Carter Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Miami, FL, USA
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Neva JL, Brown KE, Mang CS, Francisco BA, Boyd LA. An acute bout of exercise modulates both intracortical and interhemispheric excitability. Eur J Neurosci 2017; 45:1343-1355. [PMID: 28370664 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2016] [Revised: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Primary motor cortex (M1) excitability is modulated following a single session of cycling exercise. Specifically, short-interval intracortical inhibition and intracortical facilitation are altered following a session of cycling, suggesting that exercise affects the excitability of varied cortical circuits. Yet we do not know whether a session of exercise also impacts the excitability of interhemispheric circuits between, and other intracortical circuits within, M1. Here we present two experiments designed to address this gap in knowledge. In experiment 1, single and paired pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) were used to measure intracortical circuits including, short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF) tested at 1.1, 1.5, 2.7, 3.1 and 4.5 ms interstimulus intervals (ISIs), contralateral silent period (CSP) and interhemispheric interactions by measuring transcallosal inhibition (TCI) recorded from the abductor pollicus brevis muscles. All circuits were assessed bilaterally pre and two time points post (immediately, 30 min) moderate intensity lower limb cycling. SICF was enhanced in the left hemisphere after exercise at the 1.5 ms ISI. Also, CSP was shortened and TCI decreased bilaterally after exercise. In Experiment 2, corticospinal and spinal excitability were tested before and after exercise to investigate the locus of the effects found in Experiment 1. Exercise did not impact motor-evoked potential recruitment curves, Hoffman reflex or V-wave amplitudes. These results suggest that a session of exercise decreases intracortical and interhemispheric inhibition and increases facilitation in multiple circuits within M1, without concurrently altering spinal excitability. These findings have implications for developing exercise strategies designed to potentiate M1 plasticity and skill learning in healthy and clinical populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- J L Neva
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 212-2177 Westbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - K E Brown
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 212-2177 Westbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - C S Mang
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 212-2177 Westbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - B A Francisco
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 212-2177 Westbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
| | - L A Boyd
- Department of Physical Therapy, Faculty of Medicine, University of British Columbia, 212-2177 Westbrook Mall, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z3, Canada
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45
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Physical activity levels determine exercise-induced changes in brain excitability. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173672. [PMID: 28278300 PMCID: PMC5344515 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Accepted: 02/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Emerging evidence suggests that regular physical activity can impact cortical function and facilitate plasticity. In the present study, we examined how physical activity levels influence corticospinal excitability and intracortical circuitry in motor cortex following a single session of moderate intensity aerobic exercise. We aimed to determine whether exercise-induced short-term plasticity differed between high versus low physically active individuals. Participants included twenty-eight young, healthy adults divided into two equal groups based on physical activity level determined by the International Physical Activity Questionnaire: low-to-moderate (LOW) and high (HIGH) physical activity. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to assess motor cortex excitability via motor evoked potential (MEP) recruitment curves for the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) muscle at rest (MEPREST) and during tonic contraction (MEPACTIVE), short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) and facilitation (SICF), and intracortical facilitation (ICF). All dependent measures were obtained in the resting FDI muscle, with the exception of AMT and MEPACTIVE recruitment curves that were obtained during tonic FDI contraction. Dependent measures were acquired before and following moderate intensity aerobic exercise (20 mins, ~60% of the age-predicted maximal heart rate) performed on a recumbent cycle ergometer. Results indicate that MEPREST recruitment curve amplitudes and area under the recruitment curve (AURC) were increased following exercise in the HIGH group only (p = 0.002 and p = 0.044, respectively). SICI and ICF were reduced following exercise irrespective of physical activity level (p = 0.007 and p = 0.04, respectively). MEPACTIVE recruitment curves and SICF were unaltered by exercise. These findings indicate that the propensity for exercise-induced plasticity is different in high versus low physically active individuals. Additionally, these data highlight that a single session of aerobic exercise can transiently reduce inhibition in the motor cortex regardless of physical activity level, potentially priming the system for plasticity induction.
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San-Juan D, Espinoza López DA, Vázquez Gregorio R, Trenado C, Fernández-González Aragón M, Morales-Quezada L, Hernandez Ruiz A, Hernandez-González F, Alcaraz-Guzmán A, Anschel DJ, Fregni F. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation in Mesial Temporal Lobe Epilepsy and Hippocampal Sclerosis. Brain Stimul 2017; 10:28-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brs.2016.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2016] [Revised: 08/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
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Julkunen P, Järnefelt G, Savolainen P, Laine J, Karhu J. Facilitatory effect of paired-pulse stimulation by transcranial magnetic stimulation with biphasic wave-form. Med Eng Phys 2016; 38:813-7. [PMID: 27215172 DOI: 10.1016/j.medengphy.2016.04.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2015] [Revised: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 04/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) is used to probe corticospinal excitability by stimulating the motor cortex. Our aim was to enhance the effects of biphasic TMS by coupling a suprathreshold test pulse and a following subthreshold priming pulse to induce short-interval intracortical facilitation (SICF), which is conventionally produced with monophasic TMS. Biphasic TMS could potentially induce the SICF effect with better energy-efficiency and with lower stimulus intensities. This would make the biphasic paired-pulses better applicable in patients with reduced cortical excitability. A prototype stimulator was built to produce biphasic paired-pulses. Resting motor thresholds (rMTs) from the right and left hand abductor pollicis brevis muscles, and the right tibialis anterior muscle of eight healthy volunteers were determined using single-pulse paradigm with neuronavigated TMS. The rMTs and MEPs were measured using single-pulses and three paired-pulse setups (interstimulus interval, ISI of 3, 7 or 15ms). The rMTs were lower and MEPs were higher with biphasic paired-pulses compared to single-pulses. The SICF effect was greatest at 3ms ISI. This suggests that the application of biphasic paired-pulses to enhance stimulation effects is possible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Petro Julkunen
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Kuopio University Hospital, Kuopio, Finland; Department of Applied Physics, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland.
| | | | | | - Jarmo Laine
- Nexstim Plc, Elimäenkatu 9 B, FI-00510 Helsinki, Finland
| | - Jari Karhu
- Nexstim Plc, Elimäenkatu 9 B, FI-00510 Helsinki, Finland
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48
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Onesti E, Gori MC, Frasca V, Inghilleri M. Transcranial magnetic stimulation as a new tool to control pain perception. World J Anesthesiol 2016; 5:15-27. [DOI: 10.5313/wja.v5.i1.15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2015] [Revised: 10/07/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Treatment for chronic pain is frequently unsuccessful or characterized by side-effects. The high-frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (HF-rTMS) has been suggested in the management of refractory chronic pain. Various studies have shown that HF-rTMS sessions of long-duration applied at primary motor cortex induce pain relief through mechanisms of plastic changes. Efficacy of rTMS mostly depends on stimulation parameters, but this aspect requires better characterization. A rationale to target other cortical areas exists. Current data are promising, but a careful analysis of stimulation settings and maintenance treatment design are need.
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49
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Bridgman AC, Barr MS, Goodman MS, Chen R, Rajji TK, Daskalakis ZJ, George TP. Deficits in GABAA receptor function and working memory in non-smokers with schizophrenia. Schizophr Res 2016; 171:125-30. [PMID: 26796540 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2016.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Revised: 12/31/2015] [Accepted: 01/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although altered gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) neurotransmission has been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, it is unclear whether the influence of GABA on working memory processes is confounded by nicotine use in this population. It is therefore crucial to evaluate working memory and its underlying mechanisms in non-smokers with schizophrenia to eliminate the confounding effects of nicotine on behavior and neurophysiology. METHODS In this cross-sectional study, working memory was assessed using the verbal N-back task, while GABAergic function was assessed through motor cortical inhibition using single and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to the left primary motor cortex in 11 non-smokers with schizophrenia and 13 non-smoker healthy subjects. RESULTS Similar to previously published studies, working memory performance was significantly impaired in the 3-back condition in patients with schizophrenia compared to healthy subjects (p=0.036). In addition, GABAA receptor function was significantly reduced in schizophrenia as assessed by short interval cortical inhibition (SICI) (p=0.005). A positive correlation was found between GABAA inhibition and working memory performance on the 3-back task (r(23)=0.55, p=0.006), suggesting that greater GABAA inhibition is associated with better performance on tasks of working memory. CONCLUSIONS Our findings highlight the role of GABAA receptor dysfunction in working memory and the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, and may represent a selective characteristic of schizophrenia. Moreover, these findings suggest a potential therapeutic role for targeting GABA receptor activity to improve cognition and quality of life in patients with schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alanna C Bridgman
- Schizophrenia Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada; Temerty Centre for Therapeutic Brain Intervention, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4, Canada
| | - Mera S Barr
- Schizophrenia Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada; Division of Brain and Therapeutics, Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada; Temerty Centre for Therapeutic Brain Intervention, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4, Canada.
| | - Michelle S Goodman
- Schizophrenia Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada; Temerty Centre for Therapeutic Brain Intervention, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4, Canada
| | - Robert Chen
- Division of Neurology, Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, 399 Bathurst Street, Toronto, ON M5T 2S8, Canada
| | - Tarek K Rajji
- Temerty Centre for Therapeutic Brain Intervention, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4, Canada; Division of Geriatric Psychiatry, Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
| | - Zafiris J Daskalakis
- Division of Brain and Therapeutics, Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada; Temerty Centre for Therapeutic Brain Intervention, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 1001 Queen Street West, Toronto, ON M6J 1H4, Canada
| | - Tony P George
- Schizophrenia Division, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada; Division of Brain and Therapeutics, Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, 250 College Street, Toronto, ON M5T 1R8, Canada
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50
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Mori F, Nisticò R, Nicoletti CG, Zagaglia S, Mandolesi G, Piccinin S, Martino G, Finardi A, Rossini PM, Marfia GA, Furlan R, Centonze D. RANTES correlates with inflammatory activity and synaptic excitability in multiple sclerosis. Mult Scler 2016; 22:1405-1412. [PMID: 26733422 DOI: 10.1177/1352458515621796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2015] [Accepted: 11/18/2015] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Alterations of synaptic transmission induced by inflammatory activity have been linked to the pathogenic mechanisms of multiple sclerosis (MS). Regulated upon activation, normal T-cell expressed, and secreted (RANTES) is a pro-inflammatory chemokine involved in MS pathophysiology, potentially able to regulate glutamate release and plasticity in MS brains, with relevant consequences on the clinical manifestations of the disease. OBJECTIVE To assess the role of RANTES in the regulation of cortical excitability. METHODS We explored the association of RANTES levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of newly diagnosed MS patients with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and laboratory measures of inflammatory activity, as well its role in the control of cortical excitability and plasticity explored by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), and in hippocampal mouse slices in vitro. RESULTS CSF levels of RANTES were remarkably high only in active MS patients and were correlated with the concentrations of interleukin-1β. RANTES levels were associated with TMS measures of cortical synaptic excitability, but not with long-term potentiation (LTP)-like plasticity. Similar findings were obtained in mouse hippocampal slices in vitro, where we observed that RANTES enhanced basal excitatory synaptic transmission with no effect on LTP. CONCLUSION RANTES correlates with inflammation and synaptic excitability in MS brains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Mori
- Multiple Sclerosis Clinical and Research Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy/IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo (INM) Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Robert Nisticò
- Dipartimento di Biologia, Università degli Studi di Roma Tor Vergata, Roma, Italy/Laboratorio di Farmacologia della Plasticità Sinaptica, EBRI-European Brain Research Institute, Roma, Italy
| | - Carolina G Nicoletti
- Multiple Sclerosis Clinical and Research Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy/IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Roma, Italy
| | - Sara Zagaglia
- Multiple Sclerosis Clinical and Research Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy/Clinica di Neurologia, Università Politecnica delle Marche, Ancona, Italy
| | | | - Sonia Piccinin
- Laboratorio di Farmacologia della Plasticità Sinaptica, EBRI-European Brain Research Institute, Roma, Italy
| | - Gianvito Martino
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Institute of Experimental Neurology (INSpe), Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Annamaria Finardi
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Institute of Experimental Neurology (INSpe), Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Paolo M Rossini
- Institute of Neurology, Catholic University, Rome, Italy/Brain Connectivity Laboratory, IRCCS San Raffaele Pisana, Rome, Italy
| | - Girolama A Marfia
- Multiple Sclerosis Clinical and Research Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy/IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo (INM) Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Roberto Furlan
- Neuroimmunology Unit, Institute of Experimental Neurology (INSpe), Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milano, Italy
| | - Diego Centonze
- Multiple Sclerosis Clinical and Research Unit, Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy/IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Mediterraneo (INM) Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
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