Non-coding RNAs with essential roles in neurodegenerative disorders. Lancet Neurol. 2012;11:189-200. [PMID: 22265214 DOI: 10.1016/s1474-4422(11)70286-1]

Exploring molecular mechanisms of diazinon toxicity in HT22 hippocampal neurons through integrated miRNA and mRNA profiling

Diazinon (DZN), a persistent organophosphate insecticide, has been associated with neurotoxic effects, particularly in the hippocampus. However, the specific molecular mechanisms of DZN-induced hippocampal toxicity remain unknown. In this study, we analyzed the mRNA and miRNA expression patterns of HT22 cells following exposure to DZN (125 μM), and the Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were conducted subsequently. The integration of miRNA sequencing (miRNA-seq) and mRNA sequencing (mRNA-seq) data identified 33 differentially expressed miRNAs (DEMIs, 15 up-regulated and 18 down-regulated) and 271 differentially expressed mRNAs (DEMs, 69 up-regulated and 202 down-regulated) targeted by the DEMIs. Moreover, the 3 most central mRNAs (ITGAV, FN1, and EGFR) and 7 associated miRNAs (mmu-miR-700-5p, mmu-miR-26a-2-3p, mmu-miR-452-3p, mmu-miR-25-3p, mmu-miR-582-5p, mmu-miR-467a-5p, and mmu-miR-467b-5p) were screened and validated using quantitative real-time PCR. Furthermore, the GO analysis revealed that the identified DEMs were enriched in biological adhesion extracellular matrix, and growth factor binding, while the KEGG analysis suggested that the enriched DEMs were involved in ECM-receptor interaction, mTOR signaling pathway, MAPK signaling pathway, and AMPK signaling pathway. Our results may aid in elucidating the underlying mechanisms associated with DZN-induced hippocampal toxicity and provide valuable insights into the pathogenesis of neurotoxicity triggered by other organophosphorus pesticides.

Non-Coding RNAs and Neurodegenerative Diseases: Information of their Roles in Apoptosis

Apoptosis can be known as a key factor in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. In disease conditions, the rate of apoptosis expands and tissue damage may become apparent. Recently, the scientific studies of the non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) has provided new information of the molecular mechanisms that contribute to neurodegenerative disorders. Numerous reports have documented that ncRNAs have important contributions to several biological processes associated with the increase of neurodegenerative disorders. In addition, microRNAs (miRNAs), circular RNAs (circRNAs), as well as, long ncRNAs (lncRNAs) represent ncRNAs subtypes with the usual dysregulation in neurodegenerative disorders. Dysregulating ncRNAs has been associated with inhibiting or stimulating apoptosis in neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, this review highlighted several ncRNAs linked to apoptosis in neurodegenerative disorders. CircRNAs, lncRNAs, and miRNAs were also illustrated completely regarding the respective signaling pathways of apoptosis.

SNHG14 Elevates NFAT5 Expression Through Sequestering miR-375-3p to Promote MPP + -Induced Neuronal Apoptosis, Inflammation, and Oxidative Stress in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons. LncRNA small nucleolar RNA host gene 14 (SNHG14) was found to promote neuron injury in PD. Here, we investigated the mechanisms of SNHG14 in PD process. In vivo or in vitro PD model was established by using 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced mice or 1-methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP +)-stimulated SK-N-SH cells. The expression of genes and proteins was measured by qRT-PCR and Western blot. In vitro assays were conducted using ELISA, CCK-8, colony formation, EdU, flow cytometry, and Western blot assays, respectively. The oxidative stress was evaluated by determining the production of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and malondialdehyde (MDA). The direct interactions between miR-375-3p and NFAT5 (Nuclear factor of activated T-cells 5) or SNHG14 was verified using dual-luciferase reporter and RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assays. SNHG14 and NFAT5 were elevated, while miR-375-3p was decreased in MPTP-mediated PD mouse model and MPP + -induced SK-N-SH cells. Knockdown of SNHG14 or NFAT5, or overexpression of miR-375-3p reversed MPP + -induced neuronal apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Mechanistically, SNHG14 directly bound to miR-375, which targeted NFAT5. Inhibition of miR-375-3p abolished the inhibitory activity of SNHG14 knockdown on MPP + -evoked neuronal damage. Besides that, NFAT5 up-regulation counteracted the effects of miR-375-3p on MPP + -mediated neuronal damage. SNHG14 contributed to MPP + -induced neuronal injury by miR-375/NFAT5 axis, suggesting a new insight into the pathogenesis of PD.

Alzheimer's Disease-Related Epigenetic Changes: Novel Therapeutic Targets

Aging is a significant risk factor for Alzheimer's disease (AD), although the precise mechanism and molecular basis of AD are not yet fully understood. Epigenetic mechanisms, such as DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation, mitochondrial DNA methylation, histone modifications, and non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), play a role in regulating gene expression related to neuron plasticity and integrity, which are closely associated with learning and memory development. This review describes the impact of dynamic and reversible epigenetic modifications and factors on memory and plasticity throughout life, emphasizing their potential as target for therapeutic intervention in AD. Additionally, we present insight from postmortem and animal studies on abnormal epigenetics regulation in AD, as well as current strategies aiming at targeting these factors in the context of AD therapy.

Multiple Sclerosis: Roles of miRNA, lcnRNA, and circRNA and Their Implications in Cellular Pathways

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a degenerative condition characterized by axonal damage and demyelination induced by autoreactive immune cells that occur in the Central Nervous System (CNS). The interaction between epigenetic changes and genetic factors can be widely involved in the onset, development, and progression of the disease. Although numerous efforts were made to discover new therapies able to prevent and improve the course of MS, definitive curative treatments have not been found yet. However, in recent years, it has been reported that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), including microRNAs (miRNAs), long ncRNAs (lncRNAs), and circular RNAs (circRNAs), acting as gene expression regulators, could be used as potential therapeutic targets or biomarkers to diagnose and fight MS. In this review, we discussed the role of miRNAs, lncRNAs, and circRNAs, as well as their expression level changes and signaling pathways that are related to preclinical and human MS studies. Hence, the investigation of ncRNAs could be important to provide additional information regarding MS pathogenesis as well as promote the discovery of new therapeutic strategies or biomarkers.

Role of miRNAs in Brain Development

Non-coding RNAs that are small in size, called microRNAs (miRNAs), exert a consequence in neutralizing gene activity after transcription. The nervous system is a massively expressed organ, and an expanding body of research reveals the vital functions that miRNAs play in the brain's growth and neural activity. The significant benefit of miRNAs on the development of the central nervous system is currently shown through new scientific methods that concentrate on targeting and eradicating vital miRNA biogenesis pathways the elements involving Dicer and DGCR8. Modulation of miRNA has been associated with numerous essential cellular processes on neural progenitors, like differentiation, proliferation, and destiny determination. Current research discoveries that emphasize the significance of miRNAs in the complex process of brain development are included in this book. The miRNA pathway plays a major role in brain development, its operational dynamics, and even diseases. Recent studies on miRNA-mediated gene regulation within neural discrepancy, the circadian period and synaptic remodeling are signs of this. We also discussed how these discoveries may affect our comprehension of the fundamental processes behind brain diseases, highlighting the novel therapeutic opportunities miRNAs provide for treating various human illnesses.

Regulatory Non-coding RNAs Involved in Oxidative Stress and Neuroinflammation: An Intriguing Crosstalk in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common neurodegenerative disorder characterized by the accumulation of α-synuclein and the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. Although the molecular bases for PD development are not fully recognized, extensive evidence has suggested that the development of PD is strongly associated with neuroinflammation. It is noteworthy that while neuroinflammation might not be a primary factor in all patients with PD, it seems to be a driving force for disease progression, and therefore, exploring the role of pathways involved in neuroinflammation is of great importance. Besides, the importance of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), such as microRNAs (miRNAs), long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), and competing endogenous RNAs (ceRNAs), has been widely studied with a focus on the pathogenesis of PD. However, there is no comprehensive review regarding the role of neuroinflammation- related ncRNAs as prospective biomarkers and therapeutic targets involved in the pathogenesis of PD, even though the number of studies connecting ncRNAs to neuroinflammatory pathways and oxidative stress has markedly increased in the last few years. Hence, the present narrative review intended to describe the crosstalk between regulatory ncRNAs and neuroinflammatory targets with respect to PD to find and propose novel combining biomarkers or therapeutic targets in clinical settings.

Mechanism and Therapeutic Prospect of miRNAs in Neurodegenerative Diseases

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are the smallest class of noncoding RNAs, which widely exist in animals and plants. They can inhibit translation or overexpression by combining with mRNA and participate in posttranscriptional regulation of genes, resulting in reduced expression of target proteins, affecting the development, growth, aging, metabolism, and other physiological and pathological processes of animals and plants. It is a powerful negative regulator of gene expression. It mediates the information exchange between different cellular pathways in cellular homeostasis and stress response and regulates the differentiation, plasticity, and neurotransmission of neurons. In neurodegenerative diseases, in addition to the complex interactions between genetic susceptibility and environmental factors, miRNAs can serve as a promising diagnostic tool for diseases. They can also increase or reduce neuronal damage by regulating the body's signaling pathways, immune system, stem cells, gut microbiota, etc. They can not only affect the occurrence of diseases and exacerbate disease progression but also promote neuronal repair and reduce apoptosis, to prevent and slow down the development of diseases. This article reviews the research progress of miRNAs on the mechanism and treatment of neurodegenerative diseases in the nervous system. This trial is registered with NCT01819545, NCT02129452, NCT04120493, NCT04840823, NCT02253732, NCT02045056, NCT03388242, NCT01992029, NCT04961450, NCT03088839, NCT04137926, NCT02283073, NCT04509271, NCT02859428, and NCT05243017.

Bioengineered chimeric tRNA/pre-miRNAs as prodrugs in cancer therapy

Today, biologic prodrugs have led to targeting specific tumor markers and have increased specificity and selectivity in cancer therapy. Various studies have shown the role of ncRNAs in cancer pathology and tumorigenesis and have suggested that ncRNAs, especially miRNAs, are valuable molecules in understanding cancer biology and therapeutic processes. Most miRNAs-based research and treatment are limited to chemically synthesized miRNAs. Synthetic alterations in these miRNA mimics may affect their folding, safety profile, and even biological activity. However, despite synthetic miRNA mimics produced by automated systems, various carriers could be used to achieve efficient production of bioengineered miRNAs through economical microbial fermentation. These bioengineered miRNAs as biological prodrugs could provide a new approach for safe therapeutic methods and drug production. In this regard, bioengineered chimeric miRNAs could be selectively processed to mature miRNAs in different types of cancer cells by targeting the desired gene and regulating cancer progression. In this article, we aim to review bioengineered miRNAs and their use in cancer therapy, as well as offering advances in this area, including the use of chimeric tRNA/pre-miRNAs.

Characterizing intergenic transcription at RNA polymerase II binding sites in normal and cancer tissues

Intergenic transcription in normal and cancerous tissues is pervasive but incompletely understood. To investigate this, we constructed an atlas of over 180,000 consensus RNA polymerase II (RNAPII)-bound intergenic regions from 900 RNAPII chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing (ChIP-seq) experiments in normal and cancer samples. Through unsupervised analysis, we identified 51 RNAPII consensus clusters, many of which mapped to specific biotypes and revealed tissue-specific regulatory signatures. We developed a meta-clustering methodology to integrate our RNAPII atlas with active transcription across 28,797 RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) samples from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA), Genotype-Tissue Expression (GTEx), and Encyclopedia of DNA Elements (ENCODE). This analysis revealed strong tissue- and disease-specific interconnections between RNAPII occupancy and transcriptional activity. We demonstrate that intergenic transcription at RNAPII-bound regions is a novel per-cancer and pan-cancer biomarker. This biomarker displays genomic and clinically relevant characteristics, distinguishing cancer subtypes and linking to overall survival. Our results demonstrate the effectiveness of coherent data integration to uncover intergenic transcriptional activity in normal and cancer tissues.

MEG3 activates necroptosis in human neuron xenografts modeling Alzheimer's disease

Neuronal cell loss is a defining feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. We xenografted human or mouse neurons into the brain of a mouse model of AD. Only human neurons displayed tangles, Gallyas silver staining, granulovacuolar neurodegeneration (GVD), phosphorylated tau blood biomarkers, and considerable neuronal cell loss. The long noncoding RNA MEG3 was strongly up-regulated in human neurons. This neuron-specific long noncoding RNA is also up-regulated in AD patients. MEG3 expression alone was sufficient to induce necroptosis in human neurons in vitro. Down-regulation of MEG3 and inhibition of necroptosis using pharmacological or genetic manipulation of receptor-interacting protein kinase 1 (RIPK1), RIPK3, or mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) rescued neuronal cell loss in xenografted human neurons. This model suggests potential therapeutic approaches for AD and reveals a human-specific vulnerability to AD.

Data Mining of Microarray Datasets in Translational Neuroscience

Data mining involves the computational analysis of a plethora of publicly available datasets to generate new hypotheses that can be further validated by experiments for the improved understanding of the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. Although the number of sequencing datasets is on the rise, microarray analysis conducted on diverse biological samples represent a large collection of datasets with multiple web-based programs that enable efficient and convenient data analysis. In this review, we first discuss the selection of biological samples associated with neurological disorders, and the possibility of a combination of datasets, from various types of samples, to conduct an integrated analysis in order to achieve a holistic understanding of the alterations in the examined biological system. We then summarize key approaches and studies that have made use of the data mining of microarray datasets to obtain insights into translational neuroscience applications, including biomarker discovery, therapeutic development, and the elucidation of the pathogenic mechanisms of neurodegenerative diseases. We further discuss the gap to be bridged between microarray and sequencing studies to improve the utilization and combination of different types of datasets, together with experimental validation, for more comprehensive analyses. We conclude by providing future perspectives on integrating multi-omics, to advance precision phenotyping and personalized medicine for neurodegenerative diseases.

The Role of miR-128 in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Several neurodegenerative disorders are characterized by the accumulation of misfolded proteins and are collectively known as proteinopathies. Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), and Huntington's disease (HD) represent some of the most common neurodegenerative disorders whose steady increase in prevalence is having a major socio-economic impact on our society. Multiple laboratories have reported hundreds of changes in gene expression in selective brain regions of AD, PD, and HD brains. While the mechanisms underlying these changes remain an active area of investigation, alterations in the expression of noncoding RNAs, which are common in AD, PD, and HD, may account for some of the changes in gene expression in proteinopathies. In this review, we discuss the role of miR-128, which is highly expressed in mammalian brains, in AD, PD, and HD. We highlight how alterations in miR-128 may account, at least in part, for the gene expression changes associated with proteinopathies. Indeed, miR-128 is involved, among other things, in the regulation of neuronal plasticity, cytoskeletal organization, and neuronal death, events linked to various proteinopathies. For example, reducing the expression of miR-128 in a mouse model of AD ameliorates cognitive deficits and reduces neuropathology. Overall, the data in the literature suggest that targeting miR-128 might be beneficial to mitigate the behavioral phenotype associated with these diseases.

Recent Updates on Corticosteroid-Induced Neuropsychiatric Disorders and Theranostic Advancements through Gene Editing Tools

The vast use of corticosteroids (CCSs) globally has led to an increase in CCS-induced neuropsychiatric disorders (NPDs), a very common manifestation in patients after CCS consumption. These neuropsychiatric disorders range from depression, insomnia, and bipolar disorders to panic attacks, overt psychosis, and many other cognitive changes in such subjects. Though their therapeutic importance in treating and improving many clinical symptoms overrides the complications that arise after their consumption, still, there has been an alarming rise in NPD cases in recent years, and they are seen as the greatest public health challenge globally; therefore, these potential side effects cannot be ignored. It has also been observed that many of the neuronal functional activities are regulated and controlled by genomic variants with epigenetic factors (DNA methylation, non-coding RNA, and histone modeling, etc.), and any alterations in these regulatory mechanisms affect normal cerebral development and functioning. This study explores a general overview of emerging concerns of CCS-induced NPDs, the effective molecular biology approaches that can revitalize NPD therapy in an extremely specialized, reliable, and effective manner, and the possible gene-editing-based therapeutic strategies to either prevent or cure NPDs in the future.

Biomarkers in the diagnosis of neurodegenerative diseases

Biomarkers are molecules that behave as of biological states. Ideally, they should have high sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy in reflecting the total disease burden. The review discusses the current status of biomarkers used in neurological disorders. Neurodegenerative diseases are a heterogeneous group disorders characterized by progressive loss of structure and function of the central nervous system or peripheral nervous system. The review discusses the main biomarkers that have predictive value for describing clinical etiology, pathophysiology, and intervention strategies. Preciseness and reliability are one of important requirement for good biomarker. As a result of the analysis of literature data, it was revealed that beta-amyloid, total tau protein and its phosphorylated forms are the first biochemical biomarkers of neurodegenerative diseases measured in cerebrospinal fluid, but these markers are dependent upon invasive lumbar puncture and therefore it’s a cumbersome process for patients. Among the various biomarkers of neurodegenerative diseases, special attention is paid to miRNAs. MicroRNAs, important biomarkers in many disease states, including neurodegenerative disorders, make them promising candidates that may lead to identify new therapeutic targets. Conclusions. Biomarkers of neurological disease are present optimal amount in the cerebrospinal fluid but they are also present in blood at low levels. The data obtained reveal the predictive value of molecular diagnostics of neurodegenerative disorders and the need for its wider use.

Current progress in understanding schizophrenia using genomics and pluripotent stem cells: A meta-analytical overview

Schizophrenia (SCZ) is a complex, heritable and polygenic neuropsychiatric disease, which disables the patients as well as decreases their life expectancy and quality of life. Common and rare variants studies on SCZ subjects have provided >100 genomic loci that hold importance in the context of SCZ pathophysiology. Transcriptomic studies from clinical samples have informed about the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and non-coding RNAs in SCZ patients. Despite these advancements, no causative genes for SCZ were found and hence SCZ is difficult to recapitulate in animal models. In the last decade, induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)-based models have helped in understanding the neural phenotypes of SCZ by studying patient iPSC-derived 2D neuronal cultures and 3D brain organoids. Here, we have aimed to provide a simplistic overview of the current progress and advancements after synthesizing the enormous literature on SCZ genetics and SCZ iPSC-based models. Although further understanding of SCZ genetics and pathophysiological mechanisms using these technological advancements is required, the recent approaches have allowed to delineate important cellular mechanisms and biological pathways affected in SCZ.

Enhancer RNA (eRNA) in Human Diseases

Enhancer RNAs (eRNAs), a class of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) transcribed from enhancer regions, serve as a type of critical regulatory element in gene expression. There is increasing evidence demonstrating that the aberrant expression of eRNAs can be broadly detected in various human diseases. Some studies also revealed the potential clinical utility of eRNAs in these diseases. In this review, we summarized the recent studies regarding the pathological mechanisms of eRNAs as well as their potential utility across human diseases, including cancers, neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases and metabolic diseases. It could help us to understand how eRNAs are engaged in the processes of diseases and to obtain better insight of eRNAs in diagnosis, prognosis or therapy. The studies we reviewed here indicate the enormous therapeutic potency of eRNAs across human diseases.

Small RNA Sequencing in the Tg4–42 Mouse Model Suggests the Involvement of snoRNAs in the Etiology of Alzheimer’s Disease

Background: The Tg4-42 mouse model for sporadic Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has unique features, as the neuronal expression of wild type N-truncated Aβ4–42 induces an AD-typical neurological phenotype in the absence of plaques. It is one of the few models developing neuron death in the CA1 region of the hippocampus. As such, it could serve as a powerful tool for preclinical drug testing and identification of the underlying molecular pathways that drive the pathology of AD. Objective: The aim of this study was to use a differential co-expression analysis approach for analyzing a small RNA sequencing dataset from a well-established murine model in order to identify potentially new players in the etiology of AD. Methods: To investigate small nucleolar RNAs in the hippocampus of Tg4-42 mice, we used RNA-Seq data from this particular tissue and, instead of analyzing the data at single gene level, employed differential co-expression analysis, which takes the comparison to gene pair level and thus affords a new angle to the interpretation of these data. Results: We identified two clusters of differentially correlated small RNAs, including Snord55, Snord57, Snord49a, Snord12, Snord38a, Snord99, Snord87, Mir1981, Mir106b, Mir30d, Mir598, and Mir99b. Interestingly, some of them have been reported to be functionally relevant in AD pathogenesis, as AD biomarkers, regulating tau phosphorylation, TGF-β receptor function or Aβ metabolism. Conclusion: The majority of snoRNAs for which our results suggest a potential role in the etiology of AD were so far not conspicuously implicated in the context of AD pathogenesis and could thus point towards interesting new avenues of research in this field.

Noncoding RNAs in age-related cardiovascular diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the adult population worldwide and represent a severe economic burden and public health concern. The majority of human genes do not code for proteins. However, noncoding transcripts play important roles in ageing that significantly increases the risk for CVDs. Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are critical regulators of multiple biological processes related to ageing such as oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction and chronic inflammation. NcRNAs are also involved in pathophysiological developments within the cardiovascular system including arrhythmias, cardiac hypertrophy, fibrosis, myocardial infarction and heart failure. In this review article, we cover the roles of ncRNAs in cardiovascular ageing and disease as well as their potential therapeutic applications in CVDs.

PART1 destabilized by NOVA2 regulates blood-brain barrier permeability in endothelial cells via STAU1-mediated mRNA degradation

Blood-brain barrier dysfunction is recognized as a precursor of Alzheimer's disease development. Endothelial cells as structural basis of blood-brain barrier were observed tight junction failure in amyloid-β(1-42)-stimulated environment. In this study, we found NOVA2, PPP2R3A were down-regulated while PART1, p-NFκB-p65 were up-regulated in amyloid-β(1-42)-incubated endothelial cells. Knockdown of either NOVA2 or PPP2R3A and overexpression of PART1 all increased blood-brain barrier permeability. Lower blood-brain barrier permeability was observed in overexpression of NOVA2 and PPP2R3A and knockdown of PART1 and NFκB-p65. Same tendencies were found in the tight junction-related proteins expressions. Furthermore, overexpression and knockdown of NOVA2 and PART1 had no effect on cell viability. Mechanistically, NOVA2 overexpression was confirmed to reduce half-life of PART1. PART1 could destabilize PPP2R3A messenger RNA (mRNA) by interacting with STAU1. In addition, p-NFκB-p65 functioning as transcription factor reduced the expression of tight junction-related proteins, which was prompted by low protein level of PPP2R3A. Our study highlights the crucial role of NOVA2/PART1/PPP2R3A/p-NFκB-p65 pathway in amyloid-β(1-42)-incubated endothelial cells to modulating blood-brain barrier permeability through STAU1-mediated messenger RNA degradation, implying a potential mechanism of lncRNA and protein interaction in pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.

Ion channel long non-coding RNAs in neuropathic pain

Neuropathic pain is one of the primary forms of chronic pain and is the consequence of the somatosensory system's direct injury or disease. It is a relevant public health problem that affects about 10% of the world's general population. In neuropathic pain, alteration in neurotransmission occurs at various levels, including the dorsal root ganglia, the spinal cord, and the brain, resulting from the malfunction of diverse molecules such as receptors, ion channels, and elements of specific intracellular signaling pathways. In this context, there have been exciting advances in elucidating neuropathic pain's cellular and molecular mechanisms in the last decade, including the possible role that long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) may play, which open up new alternatives for the development of diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for this condition. This review focuses on recent studies associated with the possible relevance of lncRNAs in the development and maintenance of neuropathic pain through their actions on the functional expression of ion channels. Recognizing the changes in the function and spatio-temporal patterns of expression of these membrane proteins is crucial to understanding the control of neuronal excitability in chronic pain syndromes.

Revealing the Role of lncRNA CCDC144NL-AS1 and LINC01614 in Gastric Cancer via Integrative Bioinformatics Analysis and Experimental Validation

Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are key regulators in the pathophysiology of gastric cancer, and lncRNAs have been regarded as potential biomarkers and therapeutic targets for gastric cancer. The present study performed the WGCNA analysis of the GSE70880 dataset and aimed to identify novel lncRNAs associated with gastric cancer progression. Based on the WGCNA, the lncRNAs and mRNA co-expression network were constructed. A total of four modules were identified and the eigengenes in different modules were involved in various key signaling pathways. Furthermore, the co-expression networks were constructed between the lncRNAs and mRNA; this leads to the identification of 6 modules, which participated in various cellular pathways. The survival analysis showed that high expression of CCDC144NL antisense RNA 1 (CCDC144NL-AS1) and LINC01614 was positively correlated with the poor prognosis of patients with gastric cancer. The in vitro validation results showed that CCDC144NL-AS1 and LINC01614 were both up-regulated in the gastric cancer cells. Silence of CCDC144NL-AS1 and LINC01614 both significantly suppressed the cell proliferation and migration of gastric cancer cells, and also promoted the chemosensitivity of gastric cancer cells to 5-fluorouracil. Collectively, our results suggested that the newly identified two lncRNAs (CCDC144NL-AS1 and LINC01614) may act as oncogenes in gastric cancer.

Adult Neural Stem Cell Regulation by Small Non-coding RNAs: Physiological Significance and Pathological Implications

The adult neurogenic niches are complex multicellular systems, receiving regulatory input from a multitude of intracellular, juxtacrine, and paracrine signals and biological pathways. Within the niches, adult neural stem cells (aNSCs) generate astrocytic and neuronal progeny, with the latter predominating in physiological conditions. The new neurons generated from this neurogenic process are functionally linked to memory, cognition, and mood regulation, while much less is known about the functional contribution of aNSC-derived newborn astrocytes and adult-born oligodendrocytes. Accumulating evidence suggests that the deregulation of aNSCs and their progeny can impact, or can be impacted by, aging and several brain pathologies, including neurodevelopmental and mood disorders, neurodegenerative diseases, and also by insults, such as epileptic seizures, stroke, or traumatic brain injury. Hence, understanding the regulatory underpinnings of aNSC activation, differentiation, and fate commitment could help identify novel therapeutic avenues for a series of pathological conditions. Over the last two decades, small non-coding RNAs (sncRNAs) have emerged as key regulators of NSC fate determination in the adult neurogenic niches. In this review, we synthesize prior knowledge on how sncRNAs, such as microRNAs (miRNAs) and piwi-interacting RNAs (piRNAs), may impact NSC fate determination in the adult brain and we critically assess the functional significance of these events. We discuss the concepts that emerge from these examples and how they could be used to provide a framework for considering aNSC (de)regulation in the pathogenesis and treatment of neurological diseases.

Roles of Non-Coding RNAs as Novel Diagnostic Biomarkers in Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, affecting 5%of the elderly population. Currently, the diagnosis of PD is mainly based on clinical features and no definitive diagnostic biomarkers have been identified. The discovery of biomarkers at the earliest stages of PD is of extreme interest. This review focuses on the current findings in the field of circulating non-coding RNAs in PD. We briefly describe the more established circulating biomarkers in PD and provide a more thorough review of non-coding RNAs, in particular microRNAs, long non-coding RNAs and circular RNAs, differentially expressed in PD, highlighting their potential for being considered as biomarkers for diagnosis. Together, these studies hold promise for the use of peripheral biomarkers for the diagnosis of PD.

Non-coding RNAs: New players in mitophagy and neurodegeneration

Mitophagy controls mitochondrial quality to maintain cellular homeostasis, while aberrations in this process are responsible for neurodegenerative diseases. Mitophagy is initiated through the recruitment of autophagosomes in a ubiquitin-dependent or ubiquitin-independent manner under different stress conditions. Although the detailed molecular mechanisms of how mitophagy processes influence neurodegeneration remain largely uncharacterized, there is mounting evidence indicating that non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs), a variety of endogenous regulators, including microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs, extensively participate in mitophagy processes and play pivotal roles in the aging process and neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we reviewed the major mitophagy pathways modulated by some classical and newly found ncRNAs and summarized the diverse mechanisms in a regulatory network. We also discussed the generalizability of ncRNAs in the development of common neurodegenerative diseases related to proteotoxicity and the importance of mitophagy in the pathogenesis of these diseases. In summary, we propose that ncRNAs act as linkers between mitophagy and neurodegeneration, showing the potential therapeutic application of mitophagy regulation mediated by ncRNAs in neurodegenerative diseases.

LncRNA JHDM1D-AS1 Suppresses MPP + -Induced Neuronal Injury in Parkinson's Disease via miR-134-5p/PIK3R3 Axis

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multi-factorial neurodegenerative disease. Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been revealed to be involved in the process of PD. Herein, this study aimed to investigate the potential function and mechanism of JHDM1D-AS1 (JHDM1D antisense 1) in PD process. 1-Methyl-4-phenylpyridinium (MPP +)-induced SK-N-SH cells were used to conduct expression and function analyses. Levels of genes and proteins were examined using real-time reverse transcription PCR (RT-qPCR) and Western blot. Cell viability and apoptosis were determined using CCK-8 assay, flow cytometry, and Western blot, respectively. ELISA analysis was performed for the detection of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α. The contents of lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and malondialdehyde (MDA) were measured using commercial kits. The direct interactions between miR-134-5p and PIK3R3 (Phosphoinositide-3-Kinase Regulatory Subunit 3) or JHDM1D-AS1 were verified by dual-luciferase reporter and RNA immunoprecipitation (RIP) assays. JHDM1D-AS1 expression was decreased by MPP + in SK-N-SH cells in a dose- or time-dependent manner. Functionally, JHDM1D-AS1 overexpression attenuated MPP + -evoked neuronal apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Mechanistically, JHDM1D-AS1 competitively bound to miR-134-5p to upregulate the expression of its target PIK3R3. Rescue experiments suggested that miR-134-5p upregulation reversed the inhibitory effects of JHDM1D-AS1 on MPP + -induced neuronal injury. Moreover, inhibition of miR-134-5p protected neurons against MPP + -induced neuronal apoptosis, inflammation, and oxidative stress, which were abolished by PIK3R3 silencing. JHDM1D-AS1 protected against MPP + -induced neuron injury via miR-134-5p/PIK3R3 axis, suggesting the potential involvement of this axis in PD process.

The emerging role of noncoding RNAs in neuroinflammation: Implications in pathogenesis and therapeutic approaches

Noncoding RNAs (ncRNAs) are important regulators of gene expression in different cell processes. Due to their ability in monitoring neural development genes, these transcripts confer neurons with the potential to exert broad control over the expression of genes for performing neurobiological functions. Although the change of ncRNA expression in different neurodegenerative diseases has been reviewed elsewhere, only recent evidence drove our attention to unravel the involvement of these molecules in neuroinflammation within these devastating disorders. Remarkably, the interactions between ncRNAs and inflammatory pathways are not fully recognized. Therefore, this review has focused on the interplay between diverse inflammatory pathways and the related ncRNAs, including microRNAs, long noncoding RNAs, and competing endogenous RNAs in Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's diseases, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, Huntington's disease, and prion diseases. Providing novel insights in the field of combining biomarkers is a critical step for using them as diagnostic tools and therapeutic targets in clinical settings.

Implications on hypnotherapy: Neuroplasticity, epigenetics and pain

We provide a brief review about the significance of hypnosis with respect to applications and physiological processes in hypnotherapy. Our review concludes that hypnosis is a promising method to manage acute and chronic pain. In addition, we discuss indications pointing toward the view that hypnosis can induce changes in neuroplasticity possibly involving epigenetic mechanisms.

The emerging roles of long non-coding RNAs in polyglutamine diseases

Polyglutamine (polyQ) diseases are characterized by trinucleotide repeat amplifications within genes, thus resulting in the formation of polyQ peptides, selective neuronal degeneration and possibly death due to neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs). Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs), which exceed 200 nucleotides in length, have been shown to play important roles in several pathological processes of NDDs, including polyQ diseases. Some lncRNAs have been consistently identified to be specific to polyQ diseases, and circulating lncRNAs are among the most promising novel candidates in the search for non-invasive biomarkers for the diagnosis and prognosis of polyQ diseases. In this review, we describe the emerging roles of lncRNAs in polyQ diseases and provide an overview of the general biology of lncRNAs, their implications in pathophysiology and their potential roles as future biomarkers and applications for therapy.

Developmental Inhibition of Long Intergenic Non-Coding RNA, HOTAIRM1, Impairs Dopamine Neuron Differentiation and Maturation

The dopaminergic (DA) system is important for a range of brain functions and subcortical DA development precedes many cortical maturational processes. The dysfunction of DA systems has been associated with neuropsychiatric disorders such as schizophrenia, depression, and addiction. DA neuron cell fate is controlled by a complex web of transcriptional factors that dictate DA neuron specification, differentiation, and maturation. A growing body of evidence suggests that these transcriptional factors are under the regulation of newly discovered non-coding RNAs. However, with regard to DA neuron development, little is known of the roles of non-coding RNAs. The long non-coding RNA (lncRNA) HOX-antisense intergenic RNA myeloid 1 (HOTAIRM1) is present in adult DA neurons, suggesting it may have a modulatory role in DA systems. Moreover, HOTAIRM1 is involved in the neuronal differentiation in human stem cells suggesting it may also play a role in early DA neuron development. To determine its role in early DA neuron development, we knocked down HOTAIRM1 using RNAi in vitro in a human neuroblastoma cell line, and in vivo in mouse DA progenitors using a novel in utero electroporation technique. HOTAIRM1 inhibition decreased the expression of a range of key DA neuron specification factors and impaired DA neuron differentiation and maturation. These results provide evidence of a functional role for HOTAIRM1 in DA neuron development and differentiation. Understanding of the role of lncRNAs in the development of DA systems may have broader implications for brain development and neurodevelopmental disorders such as schizophrenia.

Genetic variants in miRNAs differentially expressed during brain development and their relevance to psychiatric disorders susceptibility

OBJECTIVES

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play an important regulatory role in the expression of genes involved in brain functions during development. Genetic variants in miRNA genes may impact their regulatory function and lead to psychiatric disorders. To evaluate the role of genetic variants in genes of miRNAs differentially expressed during neurodevelopment on autism spectrum disorder (ASD), attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), schizophrenia (SCZ), and major depressive disorder (MDD).

METHODS

The miRNAs were identified in the literature. Summary statistics from the most recent genome-wide association studies to date were used to evaluate the association between the selected polymorphisms and each disorder in a look-up approach. In a global analysis, we compared the standardised risk effect of variants in neurodevelopment-related miRNAs with those in the remaining miRNAs from miRBase.

RESULTS

The global analysis showed that variants in neurodevelopment-related miRNAs had higher risk effects compared to the other miRNAs for SCZ (p = 0.010) and ADHD (p = 0.001). MIR33B, MIR29B2, MIR29C, MIR137, and MIR135A1 were significantly associated with SCZ, while 55.9% of the miRNAs were at least nominally associated with one or more psychiatric disorders (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Genetic variants in neurodevelopment-related miRNAs play an important role in the genetic susceptibility of psychiatric disorders, mainly SCZ and ADHD.

Application of miRNA-seq in neuropsychiatry: A methodological perspective

MiRNAs are emerging as key molecules to study neuropsychiatric diseases. However, despite the large number of methodologies and software for miRNA-seq analyses, there is little supporting literature for researchers in this area. This review focuses on evaluating how miRNA-seq has been used to study neuropsychiatric diseases to date, analyzing both the main findings discovered and the bioinformatics workflows and tools used from a methodological perspective. The objective of this review is two-fold: first, to evaluate current miRNA-seq procedures used in neuropsychiatry; and second, to offer comprehensive information that can serve as a guide to new researchers in bioinformatics. After conducting a systematic search (from 2016 to June 30, 2020) of articles using miRNA-seq in neuropsychiatry, we have seen that it has already been used for different types of studies in three main categories: diagnosis, prognosis, and mechanism. We carefully analyzed the bioinformatics workflows of each study, observing a high degree of variability with respect to the tools and methods used and several methodological complexities that are identified and discussed in this review.

MiR-132 down-regulates high glucose-induced β-dystroglycan degradation through Matrix Metalloproteinases-9 up-regulation in primary neurons

Cognitive dysfunction is one of the complications of diabetes. Unfortunately, there is no effective methods to block its progression currently. One of the pathophysiological mechanisms is synaptic protein damage and neuronal signal disruption because of glucose metabolism disorder. Dystroglycan protein, located in the post‐synaptic membrane of neurons, links the intracellular cytoskeleton with extracellular matrix. Abnormal expression of dystroglycan protein affects neuronal biological functions and leads to cognitive impairment. However, there are no relevant studies to observe the changes of β‐dystroglycan protein in diabetes rat brain and in primary neurons under high glucose exposure. Our data demonstrated the alterations of cognitive abilities in the diabetic rats; β‐dystroglycan protein degradation occurred in hippocampal and cortical tissues in diabetic rat brain. We further explored the mechanisms underlying of this phenomenon. When neurons are exposed to high glucose environment in long‐term period, microRNA‐132 (miR‐132) would be down‐regulated in neurons. Matrix Metalloproteinases‐9 (MMP‐9) mRNA, as a target of miR‐132, could be up‐regulated; higher expression and overlay activity of MMP‐9 protein could increase β‐DG protein degradation. In this way, β‐DG degradation may affect structure and functions among the synapses, which related to cognition decline. It may provide some theoretical basis for elucidating the molecular mechanism of diabetes‐induced cognitive dysfunction.

All-Trans Retinoic Acid Fosters the Multifarious U87MG Cell Line as a Model of Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a primary brain cancer of poor prognosis, with existing treatments remaining essentially palliative. Current GBM therapy fails due to rapid reappearance of the heterogeneous neoplasm, with models suggesting that the recurrent growth is from treatment-resistant glioblastoma stem-like cells (GSCs). Whether GSCs depend on survival/proliferative cues from their surrounding microenvironmental niche, particularly surrounding the leading edge after treatment remains unknown. Simulating human GBM in the laboratory relies on representative cell lines and xenograft models for translational medicine. Due to U87MG source discrepancy and differential proliferation responses to retinoic acid treatment, this study highlights the challenges faced by laboratory scientists working with this representative GBM cell line. Investigating the response to all trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) revealed its sequestering of the prominin-1 stem cell marker. ICAM-1 universally present throughout U87MG was enhanced by ATRA, of interest for chemotherapy targeting studies. ATRA triggered diverse expression patterns of long non-coding RNAs PARTICLE and GAS5 in the leading edge and established monolayer growth zone microenvironment. Karyotyping confirmed the female origin of U87MG sourced from Europe. Passaging U87MG revealed the presence of chromosomal anomalies reflective of structural genomic alterations in this glioblastoma cell line. All evidence considered, this study exposes further phenotypic nuances of U87MG which may belie researchers seeking data contributing towards the elusive cure for GBM.

Association of lncRNA with regulatory molecular factors in brain and their role in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is one of the most agonizing neurodegenerative diseases of the brain. Research undertaken to understand the molecular mechanism of this disease has undergone a transition and currently more emphasis is put on long noncoding RNA (lncRNA). High expression level of lncRNA in the brain contributes to several molecular pathways essential for the proper functioning of neurons, neurotransmitters, and synapses, that are often found dysfunctional in Schizophrenia. Recently, the association of lncRNA with various molecular factors in the brain has been explored to a considerably large extent. This review comprehends the significance of lncRNA in causing profound regulatory effect in the brain and how any alterations to the association of lncRNA with regulatory proteins, enzymes and other noncoding RNA could contribute to the aetiology of Schizophrenia.

Biological relevance and therapeutic potential of G-quadruplex structures in the human noncoding transcriptome

Noncoding RNAs are functional transcripts that are not translated into proteins. They represent the largest portion of the human transcriptome and have been shown to regulate gene expression networks in both physiological and pathological cell conditions. Research in this field has made remarkable progress in the comprehension of how aberrations in noncoding RNA drive relevant disease-associated phenotypes; however, the biological role and mechanism of action of several noncoding RNAs still need full understanding. Besides fulfilling its function through sequence-based mechanisms, RNA can form complex secondary and tertiary structures which allow non-canonical interactions with proteins and/or other nucleic acids. In this context, the presence of G-quadruplexes in microRNAs and long noncoding RNAs is increasingly being reported. This evidence suggests a role for RNA G-quadruplexes in controlling microRNA biogenesis and mediating noncoding RNA interaction with biological partners, thus ultimately regulating gene expression. Here, we review the state of the art of G-quadruplexes in the noncoding transcriptome, with their structural and functional characterization. In light of the existence and further possible development of G-quadruplex binders that modulate G-quadruplex conformation and protein interactions, we also discuss the therapeutic potential of G-quadruplexes as targets to interfere with disease-associated noncoding RNAs.

AhR/miR-23a-3p/PKCα axis contributes to memory deficits in ovariectomized and normal aging female mice

The mechanism of estrogen deficiency-induced cognitive impairment is still not fully elucidated. In this study, we assessed the effect of microRNA (miRNA) on the memory of long-term estrogen-deficient mice after ovariectomy (OVX) and normal aging. We observed that 5-month OVX and 22-month-old normal aging female mice showed significantly impaired spatial and object recognition memory, declined hippocampal long-term potentiation (LTP), and decreased hippocampal protein kinase C α (PKCα) protein. Quantitative real-time PCR analysis showed upregulated miRNA-23a-3p (miR-23a-3p) in the hippocampus of 5-month OVX and 22-month-old female mice. In vitro, overexpression of miR-23a-3p downregulated PKCα by binding the 3¢ UTRs of Prkca mRNAs, which was prevented by its antisense oligonucleotide AMO-23a. In vivo, adeno-associated virus-mediated overexpression of miR-23a-3p (AAV-pre-miR-23a-3p) suppressed hippocampal PKCα and impaired the memory of mice. Chromatin immunoprecipitation analysis showed that aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) binds the promoter region of miR-23a-3p. The AhR-dependent downregulation of PKCα could be prevented by AMO-23a as well. Furthermore, knockdown of miR-23a-3p using AAV-AMO-23a rescued the cognitive and electrophysiological impairments of OVX and normal aging female mice. We conclude that long-term estrogen deficiency impairs cognition and hippocampal LTP by activating the AhR/miR-23a-3p/PKCα axis. The knockdown of miR-23a-3p may be a potentially valuable therapeutic strategy for estrogen deficiency-induced memory deficits.

Novel insights into the interaction between long non-coding RNAs and microRNAs in glioma

Glioma is the most common brain tumor of the central nervous system. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) and microRNAs (miRNAs) have been identified to play a vital role in the initiation and progression of glioma, including tumor cell proliferation, survival, apoptosis, invasion, and therapy resistance. New documents emerged, which indicated that the interaction between long non-coding RNAs and miRNAs contributes to the tumorigenesis and pathogenesis of glioma. LncRNAs can act as competing for endogenous RNA (ceRNA), and molecular sponge/deregulator in regulating miRNAs. These interactions stimulate different molecular signaling pathways in glioma, including the lncRNAs/miRNAs/Wnt/β-catenin molecular signaling pathway, the lncRNAs/miRNAs/PI3K/AKT/mTOR molecular signaling pathway, the lncRNAs-miRNAs/MAPK kinase molecular signaling pathway, and the lncRNAs/miRNAs/NF-κB molecular signaling pathway. In this paper, the basic roles and molecular interactions of the lncRNAs and miRNAs pathway glioma were summarized to better understand the pathogenesis and tumorigenesis of glioma.

miR-142 downregulation alleviates rat PTSD-like behaviors, reduces the level of inflammatory cytokine expression and apoptosis in hippocampus, and upregulates the expression of fragile X mental retardation protein

Background

FMRP is a selective mRNA-binding protein that regulates protein synthesis at synapses, and its loss may lead to the impairment of trace fear memory. Previously, we found that FMRP levels in the hippocampus of rats with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) were decreased. However, the mechanism underlying these changes remains unclear.

Methods

Forty-eight male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups. The experimental groups were treated with the single-prolonged stress (SPS) procedure and injected with a lentivirus-mediated inhibitor of miR-142-5p. Behavior test as well as morphology and molecular biology experiments were performed to detect the effect of miR-142 downregulation on PTSD, which was further verified by in vitro experiments.

Results

We found that silence of miRNA-142 (miR-142), an upstream regulator of FMRP, could alleviate PTSD-like behaviors of rats exposed to the SPS paradigm. MiR-142 silence not only decreased the levels of proinflammatory mediators, such as interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α, but also increased the expressive levels of synaptic proteins including PSD95 and synapsin I in the hippocampus, which was one of the key brain regions associated with PTSD. We further detected that miR-142 silence also downregulated the transportation of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB) into the nuclei of neurons and might further affect the morphology of neurons.

Conclusions

The results revealed miR-142 downregulation could alleviate PTSD-like behaviors through attenuating neuroinflammation in the hippocampus of SPS rats by binding to FMRP.

Enrichment and Correlation Analysis of Serum miRNAs in Comorbidity Between Arnold-Chiari and Tourette Syndrome Contribute to Clarify Their Molecular Bases

Due to its rarity, coupled to a multifactorial and very heterogeneous nature, the molecular etiology of Arnold-Chiari (AC) syndrome remains almost totally unknown. Its relationship with other neuropsychiatric disorders such as Tourette syndrome (TS) is also undetermined. The rare comorbid status between both disorders (ACTS) complicates the framework of diagnosis and negatively affects the patients' quality of life. In this exploratory study, we aimed to identify serum microRNA expression profiles as molecular fingerprints for AC, TS, and ACTS, by using a high-throughput approach. For this aim, 10 AC patients, 11 ACTS patients, 6 TS patients, and 8 unaffected controls (NC) were recruited. Nine miRNAs resulted significantly differentially expressed (DE): let-7b-5p (upregulated in ACTS vs. TS); miR-21-5p (upregulated in ACTS vs. AC; downregulated in AC vs. TS); miR-23a-3p (upregulated in TS vs. NCs; downregulated in AC vs. TS); miR-25-3p (upregulated in AC vs. TS and NCs; downregulated in ACTS vs. AC); miR-93-5p (upregulated in AC vs. TS); miR-130a-3p (downregulated in ACTS and TS vs. NCs); miR-144-3p (downregulated in ACTS vs. AC; upregulated in AC vs. TS); miR-222-3p (upregulated in ACTS vs. NCs); miR-451a (upregulated in AC vs. TS and NCs; in ACTS vs. NCs). Altered expression of miRNAs was statistically correlated to neuroimaging and neuropsychological anomalies. Furthermore, computational analyses indicated that DE miRNAs are involved in AC and TS pathomechanisms. Finally, we propose the dysregulation of the miRNA set as a potential molecular tool for supporting the current diagnosis of AC, TS, and ACTS by using liquid biopsies, in an unbiased and non-invasive way.

The role and mechanisms of Microglia in Neuromyelitis Optica Spectrum Disorders

Neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder (NMOSD) is an autoimmune neurological disease that can cause blindness and disability. As the major mediators in the central nervous system, microglia plays key roles in immunological regulation in neuroinflammatory diseases, including NMOSD. Microglia can be activated by interleukin (IL)-6 and type I interferons (IFN-Is) during NMOSD, leading to signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) activation. Moreover, complement C3a secreted from activated astrocytes may induce the secretion of complement C1q, inflammatory cytokines and progranulin (PGRN) by microglia, facilitating injury to microglia, neurons, astrocytes and oligodendrocytes in an autocrine or paracrine manner. These processes involving activated microglia ultimately promote the pathological course of NMOSD. In this review, recent research progress on the roles of microglia in NMOSD pathogenesis is summarized, and the mechanisms of microglial activation and microglial-mediated inflammation, and the potential research prospects associated with microglial activation are also discussed.

Social Isolation and Enrichment Induce Unique miRNA Signatures in the Prefrontal Cortex and Behavioral Changes in Mice

An extensive body of evidence supports the notion that exposure to an enriched/impoverished environment alters brain functions via epigenetic changes. However, how specific modifications of social environment modulate brain functions remains poorly understood. To address this issue, we investigate the molecular and behavioral consequences of briefly manipulating social settings in young and middle-aged wild-type mice. We observe that, modifications of the social context, only affect the performance in socially related tasks. Social enrichment increases sociability whereas isolation leads to the opposite effect. Our work also pointed out specific miRNA signatures associated to each social environment. These miRNA alterations are reversible and found selectively in the medial prefrontal cortex. Finally, we show that miRNA modifications linked to social enrichment or isolation might target rather different intracellular pathways. Together, these observations suggest that the prefrontal cortex may be a key brain area integrating social information via the modification of precise miRNA networks.

Non-Coding RNAs as Sensors of Oxidative Stress in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Oxidative stress (OS) results from an imbalance between the production of reactive oxygen species and the cellular antioxidant capacity. OS plays a central role in neurodegenerative diseases, where the progressive accumulation of reactive oxygen species induces mitochondrial dysfunction, protein aggregation and inflammation. Regulatory non-protein-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) are essential transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene expression controllers, showing a highly regulated expression in space (cell types), time (developmental and ageing processes) and response to specific stimuli. These dynamic changes shape signaling pathways that are critical for the developmental processes of the nervous system and brain cell homeostasis. Diverse classes of ncRNAs have been involved in the cell response to OS and have been targeted in therapeutic designs. The perturbed expression of ncRNAs has been shown in human neurodegenerative diseases, with these changes contributing to pathogenic mechanisms, including OS and associated toxicity. In the present review, we summarize existing literature linking OS, neurodegeneration and ncRNA function. We provide evidences for the central role of OS in age-related neurodegenerative conditions, recapitulating the main types of regulatory ncRNAs with roles in the normal function of the nervous system and summarizing up-to-date information on ncRNA deregulation with a direct impact on OS associated with major neurodegenerative conditions.

Altered miRNA landscape of the anterior cingulate cortex is associated with potential loss of key neuronal functions in depressed brain

MicroRNAs (miRNAs), a family of non-coding RNAs, have recently gained a considerable attention in neuropsychiatric disorders. Being a pleiotropic modulator of target gene(s), miRNA has been recognized as central to downstream gene regulatory networks. In the recent past, reports have suggested their role in changing the epigenetic landscape in brain of subjects with major depressive disorder (MDD). Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) is a brain area implicated in several complex cognitive functions, such as impulse control, emotion, and decision-making and is associated with psychopathology associated with mood regulation. In this study, we examined whether MDD is associated with altered miRNA transcriptome in ACC and whether altered miRNA landscape is associated with modifications in specific gene network(s) at the functional level. Using next generation sequencing (NGS), it was observed that 117 miRNAs (4.61%) were significantly upregulated and 54 (2.13%) were downregulated in MDD subjects (n = 22) compared with non-psychiatric controls (n = 25). Using 24 most significantly upregulated miRNAs in the MDD group, we determined functional enrichment of target genes and found them to be associated with long-term potentiation, neurotrophin signaling, and axon guidance. Intra- and inter-cluster similarities of enriched terms based on overrepresented gene list showed neurobiological functions associated with neuronal growth and survival. Web centric parameters and ontology enrichment functions identified two major domains related to phosphatidyl signaling, GTPase signaling, neuronal migration, and neurotrophin signaling. Our findings of altered miRNA landscape along with a shift in targetome relate to previously reported morphometric changes and neuronal atrophy in ACC of MDD subjects.

Genome-Scale Expression Pattern of Long Non-Coding RNAs in Chinese Uyghur Patients with Parkinson's Disease

BACKGROUND Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) are transcripts thought to regulate gene expression at the post-transcriptional level. Some lncRNAs are associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) and participate in pathological processes of PD. The incidence of PD is relatively high in members of the Uyghur minority living in Xingjiang province of China. This study measured the expression of lncRNAs in the peripheral blood cells of Chinese Uyghur individuals with and without PD and analyzed the possible function of these lncRNAs in the development of PD. MATERIAL AND METHODS Peripheral blood samples were collected from 55 Uyghur patients with PD and 55 healthy volunteers. Total RNA was extracted, and the levels of expression of whole-genome lncRNAs and mRNAs in 10 samples (5 PD and 5 controls) were determined by microarray method. The expression levels of lncRNAs in all 100 subjects were determined by qRT-PCR. The lncRNA expression profiles of PD patients were determined based on lncRNA microarray chip analysis, and differentially expressed lncRNAs were identified. The results of chip analysis were confirmed in a large clinical cohort. RESULTS Comparison of subjects with and without PD identified 32 significantly up-regulated and 18 significantly down-regulated lncRNAs in the PD group. GO analysis showed that mRNAs encoding proteins involved in the regulation of biological processes were differentially expressed, with the inflammatory immune response being the most significantly related pathway. CONCLUSIONS The expression of lncRNAs in peripheral blood differed significantly in PD patients and controls. These differentially expressed lncRNAs may play a role in the development of PD.

miRNA Alterations Elicit Pathways Involved in Memory Decline and Synaptic Function in the Hippocampus of Aged Tg4-42 Mice

The transcriptome of non-coding RNA (ncRNA) species is increasingly focused in Alzheimer’s disease (AD) research. NcRNAs comprise, among others, transfer RNAs, long non-coding RNAs and microRNAs (miRs), each with their own specific biological function. We used smallRNASeq to assess miR expression in the hippocampus of young (3 month old) and aged (8 month old) Tg4-42 mice, a model system for sporadic AD, as well as age-matched wildtype controls. Tg4-42 mice express N-truncated Aβ_4–42, develop age-related neuron loss, reduced neurogenesis and behavioral deficits. Our results do not only confirm known miR-AD associations in Tg4-42 mice, but more importantly pinpoint 22 additional miRs associated to the disease. Twenty-five miRs were differentially expressed in both aged Tg4-42 and aged wildtype mice while eight miRs were differentially expressed only in aged wildtype mice, and 33 only in aged Tg4-42 mice. No significant alteration in the miRNome was detected in young mice, which indicates that the changes observed in aged mice are down-stream effects of Aβ-induced pathology in the Tg4-42 mouse model for AD. Targets of those miRs were predicted using miRWalk. For miRs that were differentially expressed only in the Tg4-42 model, 128 targets could be identified, whereas 18 genes were targeted by miRs only differentially expressed in wildtype mice and 85 genes were targeted by miRs differentially expressed in both mouse models. Genes targeted by differentially expressed miRs in the Tg4-42 model were enriched for negative regulation of long-term synaptic potentiation, learning or memory, regulation of trans-synaptic signaling and modulation of chemical synaptic transmission obtained. This untargeted miR sequencing approach supports previous reports on the Tg4-42 mice as a valuable model for AD. Furthermore, it revealed miRs involved in AD, which can serve as biomarkers or therapeutic targets.

Long non-coding RNA NEAT1 mediates MPTP/MPP+-induced apoptosis via regulating the miR-124/KLF4 axis in Parkinson's disease

Accumulating evidence suggests that dysregulation of long non-coding RNAs is closely associated with various human diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). However, the role of nuclear-enriched abundant transcript 1 (NEAT1) in the PD process remains unclear. The number of TH+ cells was reduced, and the expression levels of NEAT1 and Krüppel-like factor 4 (KLF4) were increased in the midbrain of MPTP-HCl-treated mice. In addition, the expression of cleaved-caspase-3 (cleaved-casp-3) and Bax (apoptosis-related proteins) was increased, while the expression of Bcl-2 (anti-apoptotic protein) was reduced in MPTP-HCl-treated mice. The expression levels of NEAT1 and KLF4 were increased in MPP+-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Knockdown of NEAT1 promoted cell viability and decreased apoptosis in MPP+-treated SH-SY5Y cells, which could be reversed by upregulating KLF4. KLF4 was verified as a direct target of miR-124, and miR-124 could particularly bind to NEAT1. Downregulation of NEAT1 significantly increased cell viability and decreased apoptosis by regulating miR-124 expression in MPP+-treated SH-SY5Y cells. Additionally, interference of NEAT1 increased the number of TH+ cells and miR-124 expression, while reduced apoptosis and expression of KLF4 in vivo. NEAT1 knockdown increased cell viability and suppressed apoptosis in PD via regulating the miR-124/KLF4 axis, providing a promising avenue for the treatment of PD.

Serum microRNA expression levels in Turkish patients with Parkinson's disease

Objectives: To determine the serum expression levels of seven candidate microRNAs (miRNA); miR-19a, miR-19b, miR-29a, miR-29c, miR-181, miR-195 and miR-221 in Turkish patients with Parkinson's disease (PD) and explored their potential role in the diagnosis of PD. We further described the relationship between these miRNAs with the clinical findings and treatment of PD.Materials and methods: The study included 51 PD patients and 20 healthy controls. The clinical severity of disease was assessed using the Hoehn Yahr staging scale and the Unified Parkinson's Disease Rating Scale (UPDRS). Venous blood samples were taken after fasting for 12 h, then centrifuged. Obtained serum samples were stored until analysis of miRNA. In the laboratory, expression levels of these miRNAs were analyzed using a real-time PCR instrument. Receiver-operating characteristic analysis and area-under the-curve (AUC) was used to evaluate these miRNA levels as potential diagnostic biomarkers for PD.Results: miR-29c expression levels were increased significantly for PD patients compared to healthy controls. There were no significant differences in levels of other miRNAs between PD patients and controls. The AUC of miR-29c was 0.689. The sensitivity and specificity of this diagnostic test was 54.9% and 80.0%, respectively. miR-195 level was found to have a significant positive correlation only with age. Significant negative correlation was found between miR-29a level and UPDRS total score. miR-19b was found higher in ropinirole drug used group than that of pramipexole group.Conclusion: This study suggests that serum miR-29c expression level might be potential biomarker in the diagnosis of Turkish Parkinson patients.