Magnesium in depression

Metals on the Menu-Analyzing the Presence, Importance, and Consequences

Metals are integral components of the natural environment, and their presence in the food supply is inevitable and complex. While essential metals such as sodium, potassium, magnesium, calcium, iron, zinc, and copper are crucial for various physiological functions and must be consumed through the diet, others, like lead, mercury, and cadmium, are toxic even at low concentrations and pose serious health risks. This study comprehensively analyzes the presence, importance, and consequences of metals in the food chain. We explore the pathways through which metals enter the food supply, their distribution across different food types, and the associated health implications. By examining current regulatory standards for maximum allowable levels of various metals, we highlight the importance of ensuring food safety and protecting public health. Furthermore, this research underscores the need for continuous monitoring and management of metal content in food, especially as global agricultural and food production practices evolve. Our findings aim to inform dietary recommendations, food fortification strategies, and regulatory policies, ultimately contributing to safer and more nutritionally balanced diets.

Dietary Magnesium Intake in Relation to Depression in Adults: A GRADE-Assessed Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-analysis of Epidemiologic Studies

CONTEXT

The relation of magnesium (Mg) intake with depression was previously investigated by meta-analyses. However, due to limited data, a dose-response analysis was not performed.

OBJECTIVE

Considering the recently published articles, a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis was conducted to summarize the relation of dietary Mg intake with depression in adults.

DATA SOURCES

Medline (PubMed), ISI Web of Science, Scopus, and Google Scholar were comprehensively searched up to August 2023.

DATA EXTRACTION

Observational studies that reported the relation of dietary Mg intake and depression in adults were included and their data were extracted.

DATA ANALYSIS

A total of 63 214 participants from 10 cross-sectional and 3 cohort studies were included in the current study. Pooling 15 effect sizes from 12 studies (including 50 275 participants) revealed that individuals with the highest Mg intake had a 34% lower risk of depression, compared with those with the lowest Mg intake (RR: 0.66; 95% CI: 0.57, 0.78). Moreover, the linear dose-response analysis revealed that each 100-mg/d increment in Mg intake was associated with a 7% reduced risk of depression (RR: 0.93; 95% CI: 0.90, 0.96). Additionally, based on nonlinear dose-response analysis, increasing Mg intake from 170 to 370 mg/d was associated with a reduced risk of depression. Analyses were also conducted on 9 studies (49 558 participants) with representative populations, and similar results were found in the meta-analysis (RR: 0.71; 95% CI: 0.61, 0.83) and linear (RR: 0.93; 95% CI: 0.90, 0.96) and nonlinear dose-response analysis.

CONCLUSION

The current study shows an inverse dose-dependent association between dietary Mg intakes and risk of depression in both a general and representative population of adults in a dose-response manner.

SYSTEMATIC REVIEW REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration no. CRD42024506570.

A randomized clinical trial investigating the impact of magnesium supplementation on clinical and biochemical measures in COVID-19 patients

BACKGROUND

This study sought to examine the impact of magnesium supplementation on clinical outcomes and biochemical factors among hospitalized patients with COVID-19.

METHODS

This double-blind, randomized clinical trial was conducted at Razi Hospital, Ahvaz, Iran, between September 2021 and March 2022. Participants aged 18-70 years with moderate disease severity were enrolled. Magnesium supplementation (300 mg daily) was administered to the intervention group, while the control group received a placebo. Clinical outcomes, including the need for oxygen therapy, oxygen saturation, respiratory rate, fever, hs-CRP and TNF-α levels, as well as quality of life and mental health, were assessed. Blood samples were collected to measure biochemical variables.

RESULTS

The main result was the count of individuals requiring oxygen therapy. Additional outcomes comprised of oxygen saturation, respiratory rate, fever, hs-CRP and TNF-α levels, as well as quality of life and mental health. Out of 64 participants, 60 completed the study. The results showed that magnesium supplementation significantly reduced the number of patients requiring oxygen therapy (9 vs. 14; P < 0.001). Moreover, the magnesium group demonstrated improved oxygen saturation compared to the control group (4.55 ± 2.35 vs. 1.8 ± 1.67; P < 0.001). Furthermore, we observed a noteworthy enhancement in the quality of life and depression score in the magnesium group. No significant differences were observed in respiratory rate, fever, hs-CRP, and TNF-α levels (P > 0.05).

CONCLUSION

The findings suggest that magnesium supplementation may have beneficial effects on clinical outcomes and arterial oxygen saturation in COVID-19 patients. More investigation is necessary to delve into its potential mechanisms and long-term effects on patient outcomes.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

This study is registered on Iranian Registry of Clinical Trials (IRCT) under identifier IRCT20210413050957N1. (The registration date: May 1, 2021).

Pathogenesis and treatment of depression: Role of diet in prevention and therapy

In recent years, there has been a significant increase in depression, which is related to, among other things, the COVID-19 pandemic. Depression can be fatal if not treated or if treated inappropriately. Depression is the leading cause of suicide attempts. The disease is multifactorial, and pharmacotherapy often fails to bring satisfactory results. Therefore, increasingly more importance is attached to the natural healing substances and nutrients in food, which can significantly affect the therapy process and prevention of depressive disorders. A proper diet is vital to preventing depression and can be a valuable addition to psychological and pharmacologic treatment. An inadequate diet may reduce the effectiveness of antidepressants or increase their side effects, leading to life-threatening symptoms. This study aimed to review the literature on the pathogenesis of the development and treatment of depression, with particular emphasis on dietary supplements and the role of nutrition in the prevention and treatment of depressive disorders.

Trace Elements Levels in Major Depressive Disorder-Evaluation of Potential Threats and Possible Therapeutic Approaches

The multifactorial etiology of major depressive disorder (MDD) includes biological, environmental, genetic, and psychological aspects. Recently, there has been an increasing interest in metallomic studies in psychiatry, aiming to evaluate the role of chosen trace elements in the MDD etiology as well as the progression of symptoms. This narrative review aims to summarize the available literature on the relationship between the concentration of chosen elements in the serum of patients with MDD and the onset and progression of this psychiatric condition. The authors reviewed PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus databases searching for elements that had been investigated so far and further evaluated them in this paper. Ultimately, 15 elements were evaluated, namely, zinc, magnesium, selenium, iron, copper, aluminium, cadmium, lead, mercury, arsenic, calcium, manganese, chromium, nickel, and phosphorus. The association between metallomic studies and psychiatry has been developing dynamically recently. According to the results of current research, metallomics might act as a potential screening tool for patients with MDD while at the same time providing an assessment of the severity of symptoms. Either deficiencies or excessive amounts of chosen elements might be associated with the progression of depressive symptoms or even the onset of the disease among people predisposed to MDD.

The Supplement of Magnesium Element to Inhibit Colorectal Tumor Cells

Magnesium ions are essential elements to the human body, with a daily intake of about 350 mg for an adult. Recently, a meta-analysis reported that magnesium ion intake is related to a reduced risk of colorectal tumors. In addition, implantation of biodegradable magnesium pins after colorectal tumor resection could potentially inhibit the residual tumor cells. These impressive results implied that magnesium ions possess inhibitory properties against colorectal carcinoma. However, this hypothesis has yet to be confirmed by experimental results. In this work, different concentrations of magnesium ions were modulated to investigate their inhibitory effects on cell viability through cell cycle arrest, subsequently inducing apoptosis by activating the caspase-3 pathway. The animal experiments revealed that magnesium injection restricted tumor growth after 3 weeks of treatment compared to the control group. According to the immunohistochemistry and transmission electron microscopy results, the remarkable effect may be attributed to promoting the apoptotic rate of tumor cells. The evidence highlights the potential for the clinical use of magnesium implants to inhibit the growth of residual cells after colorectal tumor surgery.

Nutrient deficiency profiles and depression: A latent class analysis study of American population

BACKGROUND

Research into the effects of nutrition on depression is often performed by examining the effects of singular nutrients and dietary styles (e.g.: vegan, Mediterranean). The present study is the first one to establish the effects of patterns of nutritional deficiency within the American population and examines their effects on depression.

METHODS

Data was drawn from National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). Latent class analysis was performed to identify homogeneous groups of nutrient deficiency. A 3-step analysis was performed to establish class-dependant differences in depression severity. BCH analysis revealed unique predictors of depression dependant on most probable class.

RESULTS

Analysis revealed 4 classes of nutrient deficiency. Magnesium and dietary fibre were the least endorsed. 'Nutrient deprived' individuals showed the highest depression severity (Mean = 4.137, SD = 0.337). Profiles were predicted by different socioeconomic and anthropogenic predictors with meeting minimum calories showing the strongest odds of not being nutrient deprived (OR between 5.44 and 11.11). Overall, age (β = -0.115, p ≤ 0.01) and income (β = -0.147, p ≤ 0.01) were the strongest protecting factors while being female (β = 0.128, p ≤ 0.01) and arthritis (β = 0.130, p ≤ 0.01) were the strongest risk factors.

LIMITATIONS

The study involved binary variables based on minimum daily intakes and did not account for positive effects of exceeding minimum recommended doses.

CONCLUSIONS

The study supports the notion of a negative relationship between good nutrition and depression. Finding unique risk factors for depression symptoms supports the utility of nutrient deficiency profiling.

The Presence of Blood-Brain Barrier Modulates the Response to Magnesium Salts in Human Brain Organoids

Magnesium (Mg) is fundamental in the brain, where it regulates metabolism and neurotransmission and protects against neuroinflammation. To obtain insights into the molecular basis of Mg action in the brain, we investigated the effects of Mg in human brain organoids, a revolutionary 3D model to study neurobiology and neuropathology. In particular, brain organoids derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells were cultured in the presence or in the absence of an in vitro-generated blood–brain barrier (BBB), and then exposed to 1 or 5 mM concentrations of inorganic and organic Mg salts (Mg sulphate (MgSO₄); Mg pidolate (MgPid)). We evaluated the modulation of NMDA and GABAergic receptors, and BDNF. Our data suggest that the presence of the BBB is essential for Mg to exert its effects on brain organoids, and that 5 mM of MgPid is more effective than MgSO₄ in increasing the levels of GABA receptors and BDNF, and decreasing those of NMDA receptor. These results might illuminate novel pathways explaining the neuroprotective role of Mg.

The Problem of Malnutrition Associated with Major Depressive Disorder from a Sex-Gender Perspective

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is an incapacitating condition characterized by loss of interest, anhedonia and low mood, which affects almost 4% of people worldwide. With rising prevalence, it is considered a public health issue that affects economic productivity and heavily increases health costs alone or as a comorbidity for other pandemic non-communicable diseases (such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes, inflammatory bowel diseases, etc.). What is even more noteworthy is the double number of women suffering from MDD compared to men. In fact, this sex-related ratio has been contemplated since men and women have different sexual hormone oscillations, where women meet significant changes depending on the age range and moment of life (menstruation, premenstruation, pregnancy, postpartum, menopause…), which seem to be associated with susceptibility to depressive symptoms. For instance, a decreased estrogen level promotes decreased activation of serotonin transporters. Nevertheless, sexual hormones are not the only triggers that alter neurotransmission of monoamines and other neuropeptides. Actually, different dietary habits and/or nutritional requirements for specific moments of life severely affect MDD pathophysiology in women. In this context, the present review aims to descriptively collect information regarding the role of malnutrition in MDD onset and course, focusing on female patient and especially macro- and micronutrient deficiencies (amino acids, ω3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω3 PUFAs), folate, vitamin B12, vitamin D, minerals…), besides providing evidence for future nutritional intervention programs with a sex-gender perspective that hopefully improves mental health and quality of life in women.

Chronic Stress and Oxidative Stress as Common Factors of the Pathogenesis of Depression and Alzheimer's Disease: The Role of Antioxidants in Prevention and Treatment

There is a growing body of scientific research showing the link between depression and dementia in Alzheimer’s disease (AD). The chronic stress contributes to the formation of oxidative stress in the parts of the brain involved in the development of depression and AD. The scientific literature reports the significant role of antioxidants, which are highly effective in treating these diseases. In this review, we have summarized the relationship between chronic stress, oxidative stress, and the changes in the brain they cause occurring in the brain. Among all the compounds showing antioxidant properties, the most promising results in AD treatment were observed for Vitamin E, coenzyme Q10 (CoQ10), melatonin, polyphenols, curcumin, and selenium. In case of depression treatment, the greatest potential was observed in curcumin, zinc, selenium, vitamin E, and saffron.

Exploring the Role of Nutraceuticals in Major Depressive Disorder (MDD): Rationale, State of the Art and Future Prospects

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a complex and common disorder, with many factors involved in its onset and development. The clinical management of this condition is frequently based on the use of some pharmacological antidepressant agents, together with psychotherapy and other alternatives in most severe cases. However, an important percentage of depressed patients fail to respond to the use of conventional therapies. This has created the urgency of finding novel approaches to help in the clinical management of those individuals. Nutraceuticals are natural compounds contained in food with proven benefits either in health promotion or disease prevention and therapy. A growing interest and economical sources are being placed in the development and understanding of multiple nutraceutical products. Here, we summarize some of the most relevant nutraceutical agents evaluated in preclinical and clinical models of depression. In addition, we will also explore less frequent but interest nutraceutical products which are starting to be tested, also evaluating future roads to cover in order to maximize the benefits of nutraceuticals in MDD.

Modulation of Gut Microbiota for the Prevention and Treatment of COVID-19

The gut microbiota is well known to exert multiple benefits on human health including protection from disease causing pathobiont microbes. It has been recognized that healthy intestinal microbiota is of great importance in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. Gut dysbiosis caused by various reasons is associated with severe COVID-19. Therefore, the modulation of gut microbiota and supplementation of commensal bacterial metabolites could reduce the severity of COVID-19. Many approaches have been studied to improve gut microbiota in COVID-19 including probiotics, bacterial metabolites, and prebiotics, as well as nutraceuticals and trace elements. So far, 19 clinical trials for testing the efficacy of probiotics and synbiotics in COVID-19 prevention and treatment are ongoing. In this narrative review, we summarize the effects of various approaches on the prevention and treatment of COVID-19 and discuss associated mechanisms.

Magnesium in Ketamine Administration in Treatment-Resistant Depression

Relationship between depression and magnesium levels is reported. This observational study examined whether serum magnesium concentration change over time of ketamine treatment course, also whether association between magnesium concentrations and treatment response measured with Montgomery-Åsberg Depression Rating Scale (MADRS) score occurs. Moreover, interlink between changes in Young Mania Rating Scale (YMRS) score, somatic comorbidities, and magnesium concentration was studied. Inpatients with major depressive disorder or bipolar disorder were rated weekly by clinician using MADRS and YMRS. Magnesium levels assessments were carried out weekly, before start of ketamine treatment and then every second infusion and one week after last ketamine infusion. The concentration of Mg²⁺ ions differs depending on the measurement. The Mg²⁺ concentration in pre-measurement was significantly higher than in measurement after five infusions (p = 0.031) and after seven infusions (p = 0.003). No significant correlation was observed between changes in magnesium serum levels and MADRS or YMRS. The concentration of Mg²⁺ ion in course of the treatment was not associated with somatic comorbidities. The study supports data for role of magnesium in treatment-resistant depression, particularly related to ketamine treatment, but provides no clear evidence of straightforward association between magnesium serum concentration and treatment response or comorbidity.

Magnesium: Biochemistry, Nutrition, Detection, and Social Impact of Diseases Linked to Its Deficiency

Magnesium plays an important role in many physiological functions. Habitually low intakes of magnesium and in general the deficiency of this micronutrient induce changes in biochemical pathways that can increase the risk of illness and, in particular, chronic degenerative diseases. The assessment of magnesium status is consequently of great importance, however, its evaluation is difficult. The measurement of serum magnesium concentration is the most commonly used and readily available method for assessing magnesium status, even if serum levels have no reliable correlation with total body magnesium levels or concentrations in specific tissues. Therefore, this review offers an overview of recent insights into magnesium from multiple perspectives. Starting from a biochemical point of view, it aims at highlighting the risk due to insufficient uptake (frequently due to the low content of magnesium in the modern western diet), at suggesting strategies to reach the recommended dietary reference values, and at focusing on the importance of detecting physiological or pathological levels of magnesium in various body districts, in order to counteract the social impact of diseases linked to magnesium deficiency.

Impact of Supplementation and Nutritional Interventions on Pathogenic Processes of Mood Disorders: A Review of the Evidence

This narrative review was conducted using searches of the PubMed/Medline and Google Scholar databases from inception to November 2019. Clinical trials and relevant articles were identified by cross-referencing major depressive disorder (and/or variants) with the following terms: folate, homocysteine, S-adenosylmethionine (SAMe), L-acetylcarnitine, alpha-lipoic acid, N-acetylcysteine, L-tryptophan, zinc, magnesium, vitamin D, omega-3 fatty acids, coenzyme Q10, and inositol. Manual reviews of references were also performed using article reference lists. Abnormal levels of folate, homocysteine, and SAMe have been shown to be associated with a higher risk of depression. Numerous studies have demonstrated antidepressant activity with L-methylfolate and SAMe supplementation in individuals with depression. Additionally, the amino acids L-acetylcarnitine, alpha-lipoic acid, N-acetylcysteine, and L-tryptophan have been implicated in the development of depression and shown to exert antidepressant effects. Other agents with evidence for improving depressive symptoms include zinc, magnesium, omega-3 fatty acids, and coenzyme Q10. Potential biases and differences in study designs within and amongst the studies and reviews selected may confound results. Augmentation of antidepressant medications with various supplements targeting nutritional and physiological factors can potentiate antidepressant effects. Medical foods, particularly L-methylfolate, and other supplements may play a role in managing depression in patients with inadequate response to antidepressant therapies.

Investigation of Effects of Two Chronic Stress Protocols on Depression-Like Behaviors and Brain Mineral Levels in Female Rats: an Evaluation of 7-Day Immobilization Stress

We aimed to investigate the effects of two different chronic immobilization stress protocols on depression-related behaviors and brain mineral levels. Adult female Wistar albino rats were divided into 3 groups as follows (n = 10/group): control, immobilization stress-1 (45 min daily for 7 days), and immobilization stress-2 (45 min twice a day for 7 day). Stress-related behavior was evaluated by means of the forced swimming test (FST) and open field test (OFT). Minerals were analyzed using an inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. In the FST, swimming and immobility were significantly lower in the immobilization stress-1 and immobilization stress-2 groups. The climbing duration of the immobilization stress-2 group was higher than the control group. In the OFT, percentage of time spent in the central area was significantly lower in the immobilization stress-1 and immobilization stress-2 groups. Values of latency to center area, rearing, and grooming did not significantly differ between groups. In the immobilization stress-1 group, zinc was lower, and iron, copper, and manganese were higher than the control group. In the immobilization stress-2 group, copper and manganese were higher, and phosphate was lower than the control group. Our results showed that depression-related behaviors were more dominant in the immobilization stress-1 group. A decrease in the brain zinc level was valid only for the immobilization stress-1 group. These results point to the role of low brain zinc levels in the pathophysiology of depression.

Is Magnesium Supplementation an Effective Nutritional Method to Reduce Stress in Domestic Pigs? A Systematic Review

In commercial pig production, stressful events are common and can have detrimental impacts on the pig's health and welfare, as well as on the performance of the farm. Supplementary magnesium may reduce stress, and subsequent harmful and aggressive behaviors, that occur during stressful events, such as regrouping. However, reports on the efficacy of this treatment are mixed. We aimed to systematically review the studies in which magnesium was given to pigs to examine the effects on measures of stress. Of the 16 studies included in the final corpus, 10 reported at least one statistically significant beneficial effect of supplementary magnesium on reducing stress. However, two studies found that magnesium significantly increased stress suggesting supplementary dietary magnesium may be harmful in some cases. Overall, there are a limited number of studies investigating the possible effect of magnesium on reducing stress in pigs, and although results were varied, the majority found beneficial effects of supplementary magnesium.

The Way to a Human's Brain Goes Through Their Stomach: Dietary Factors in Major Depressive Disorder

Globally, more than 250 million people are affected by depression (major depressive disorder; MDD), a serious and debilitating mental disorder. Currently available treatment options can have substantial side effects and take weeks to be fully effective. Therefore, it is important to find safe alternatives, which act more rapidly and in a larger number of patients. While much research on MDD focuses on chronic stress as a main risk factor, we here make a point of exploring dietary factors as a somewhat overlooked, yet highly promising approach towards novel antidepressant pathways. Deficiencies in various groups of nutrients often occur in patients with mental disorders. These include vitamins, especially members of the B-complex (B6, B9, B12). Moreover, an imbalance of fatty acids, such as omega-3 and omega-6, or an insufficient supply with minerals, including magnesium and zinc, are related to MDD. While some of them are relevant for the synthesis of monoamines, others play a crucial role in inflammation, neuroprotection and the synthesis of growth factors. Evidence suggests that when deficiencies return to normal, changes in mood and behavior can be, at least in some cases, achieved. Furthermore, supplementation with dietary factors (so called "nutraceuticals") may improve MDD symptoms even in the absence of a deficiency. Non-vital dietary factors may affect MDD symptoms as well. For instance, the most commonly consumed psychostimulant caffeine may improve behavioral and molecular markers of MDD. The molecular structure of most dietary factors is well known. Hence, dietary factors may provide important molecular tools to study and potentially help treat MDD symptoms. Within this review, we will discuss the role of dietary factors in MDD risk and symptomology, and critically discuss how they might serve as auxiliary treatments or preventative options for MDD.

Possibility of magnesium supplementation for supportive treatment in patients with COVID-19

Magnesium as an enzymatic activator is essential for various physiological functions such as cell cycle, metabolic regulation, muscle contraction, and vasomotor tone. A growing body of evidence supports that magnesium supplementation (mainly magnesium sulfate and magnesium oxide) prevents or treats various types of disorders or diseases related to respiratory system, reproductive system, nervous system, digestive system, and cardiovascular system as well as kidney injury, diabetes and cancer. The ongoing pandemic coronavirus disease 19 (COVID-19) characterized by respiratory tract symptoms with different degrees of important organ and tissue damages has attracted global attention. Particularly, effective drugs are still lacking in the COVID-19 therapy. In this review, we find and summarize the effectiveness of magnesium supplementation on the disorders or diseases, and provide a reference to the possibility of magnesium supplementation for supportive treatment in patients with COVID-19.

The Role and the Effect of Magnesium in Mental Disorders: A Systematic Review

Introduction: Magnesium is an essential cation involved in many functions within the central nervous system, including transmission and intracellular signal transduction. Several studies have shown its usefulness in neurological and psychiatric diseases. Furthermore, it seems that magnesium levels are lowered in the course of several mental disorders, especially depression. Objectives: In this study, we wish to evaluate the presence of a relationship between the levels of magnesium and the presence of psychiatric pathology as well as the effectiveness of magnesium as a therapeutic supplementation. Methods: A systematic search of scientific records concerning magnesium in psychiatric disorders published from 2010 up to March 2020 was performed. We collected a total of 32 articles: 18 on Depressive Disorders (DD), four on Anxiety Disorders (AD), four on Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), three on Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), one on Obsessive–Compulsive Disorder (OCD), one on Schizophrenia (SCZ) and one on Eating Disorders (ED). Results: Twelve studies highlighted mainly positive results in depressive symptoms. Seven showed a significant correlation between reduced plasma magnesium values and depression measured with psychometric scales. Two papers reported improved depressive symptoms after magnesium intake, two in association with antidepressants, compared to controls. No significant association between magnesium serum levels and panic or Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) patients, in two distinct papers, was found. In two other papers, a reduced Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale (HAM-A) score in depressed patients correlated with higher levels of magnesium and beneficial levels of magnesium in stressed patients was found. Two papers reported low levels of magnesium in association with ADHD. Only one of three papers showed lower levels of magnesium in ASD. ED and SCZ reported a variation in magnesium levels in some aspects of the disease. Conclusion: The results are not univocal, both in terms of the plasma levels and of therapeutic effects. However, from the available evidence, it emerged that supplementation with magnesium could be beneficial. Therefore, it is necessary to design ad hoc clinical trials to evaluate the efficacy of magnesium alone or together with other drugs (antidepressants) in order to establish the correct use of this cation with potential therapeutic effects.

The Relationship between Selected Bioelements and Depressiveness Associated with Testosterone Deficiency Syndrome in Aging Men

Background and Objectives: Abnormal concentrations of bioelements (magnesium, manganese, chromium, copper, zinc) have been associated with physical and emotional dysfunctions, including depression. This association, however, has not been analyzed in testosterone deficiency syndrome (TDS) or patients with depressiveness, i.e., when individual symptoms do not form the picture of a full-syndrome depressive disorder. This study aimed to assess the relationship between concentrations of selected bioelements and the incidence of depressive symptoms in men aged 50 years and older with a concurrent testosterone deficiency syndrome. Material and Methods: Blood samples were taken from 314 men; the mean age of the population was 61.36 ± 6.38 years. Spectrophotometric method for biochemical analysis of magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), chromium (Cr), copper (Cu), and zinc (Zn) was used. The diagnosis of testosterone deficiency syndrome (TDS) was based on the total testosterone (TT), free testosterone (FT), estradiol (E2), and dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate (DHEAS) levels by ELISA. Each participant completed the Androgen Deficiency in Aging Male (ADAM) questionnaire, as well as the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-Ia) measuring the severity of depressive symptoms. Results: Emotional disturbances manifested as depressive symptoms were diagnosed in 28.7% of all participants and testosterone deficiency syndrome in 49.3%. In the TDS group, the analysis showed a significant correlation between the level of manganese (R = 0.225, p = 0.005) and chromium (R = 0.185, p = 0.021) with the incidence of depression. Conclusions: The results of our study demonstrated a relationship between manganese and chromium concentrations with the incidence of depression in men aged 50 years and older with a concurrent testosterone deficiency syndrome. This may indicate that there is a correlation between these bioelements, as well as emotional disorders manifested as depressive symptoms in aging men with a diagnosed testosterone deficiency.

Legume and nut consumption in relation to depression, anxiety and psychological distress in Iranian adults

PURPOSE

Although considerable research has been devoted to the link between consumption of legume and nuts and metabolic abnormalities, few studies have examined legume and nut consumption in relation to psychological disorders. The current study aimed to examine the association of legume and nut consumption with depression, anxiety and psychological distress in Iranian adults.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study was carried out among 3172 adult participants aged 18-55 years. Assessment of legume and nut consumption was conducted using a validated dish-based 106-item semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaire. The Iranian validated version of Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) was used to examine psychological health. Scores of 8 or more on either subscale in the questionnaire were considered to indicate the presence of depression or anxiety. Data on psychological distress were collected using the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ), in which the score of 4 or more was considered as having psychological distress.

RESULTS

The mean age of participants was 36.5 ± 7.9 years. In the fully adjusted model, men in the top quintile of legume and nut consumption were 66% less likely to be anxious than those in the bottom quintile (OR 0.34; 95% CI 0.14-0.82). However, such significant relationship was not observed among women (OR 1.06; 95% CI 0.63-1.77). We failed to find any other significant association between legume and nut consumption and depression or psychological distress after adjustment for potential confounders either in men or women.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that consumption of legume and nuts was associated with lower odds of anxiety in men, but not in women. No other significant association was seen among participants. Legume and nut consumption might be promising and, along with medications, could be used to prevent, control or delay psychological disorders.

Antidepressant and antinociceptive activities in animal models and in vitro assessment of the anti-thyroid activity of bis(DL-pyroglutamate)magnesium complex

BACKGROUND

Magnesium is an essential element related with biochemistry of the brain and different types of depression have been associated with its deficiency.

METHODS

The structure of a novel magnesium bis(DL-pyroglutamate) (Mg(DL-pGlu)2) was elucidated by X-ray crystallography. Wistar rats were used in the in vivo experiments. The antidepressant-like effect was assessed by the forced swim test (FST) and the antinociceptive activity was evaluated using hot plate test. In both, non-specific effects were evaluated by the open field test. Anti-thyroid activity was examined using Lang's method. Albumin binding behavior was evaluated by 3D fluorescence spectroscopy.

RESULTS

For the Mg(DL-pGlu)2 complex (30 mg/kg), the FST test on Wistar rats revealed a decrease of 22% in the immobility time and an increment of 106% in the swimming time. The compound alters neither the locomotor activity nor the body weight after chronic administration. At the same dose, it showed antinociceptive activity, increasing the response latency. It blocks iodination reactions generating a charge transfer complex with iodine hence indicating anti-thyroid activity (Kc = 45366.5 ± 29 M-1). Albumin 3D fluorescence spectroscopy experiments showed intensity increase of peak A and decrease of peak B.

CONCLUSIONS

The results showed that the new compound produced a lowering of the immobility time and an increment of the swimming ability of the rats. The compound is able to increase the response latency in 70.0%, to capture iodine (anti-thyroid activity) and to interact with albumin through covalent type of interaction of the free NH groups.

Total and ionized calcium and magnesium are significantly lowered in drug-naïve depressed patients: effects of antidepressants and associations with immune activation

Major depressive disorder (MDD) is associated with alterations in calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg), as well as circulating pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines. Anti-inflammatory drugs are commonly used as adjuvant treatments for MDD. However, no studies examined the effects of a combinatorial treatment with sertraline and ketoprofen, an anti-inflammatory drug, on Ca and Mg levels in MDD. The present study examined a) differences in both cations between drug-naïve MDD patients and controls, and b) the effects of sertraline and ketoprofen on Ca and Mg (both total and ionized). In the same patients, we also examined the associations between both cations and IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-18, IFN-γ, TGF-β1, zinc, and indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). Clinical improvement was assessed using the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II) at baseline and after follow up for 2 months. Serum Ca and Mg (total and ionized) were significantly lower in MDD patients as compared with controls, while treatment significantly increased calcium but decreased magnesium levels. There were significant and inverse correlations between the BDI-II scores from baseline to endpoint and Ca (both total and ionized), but not Mg, levels. The effects of calcium on the BDI-II score remained significant after considering the effects of zinc, IDO and an immune activation z unit-weighted composite score based on the sum of all cytokines. There was a significant and inverse association between this immune activation index and calcium levels from baseline to endpoint. In conclusion, lowered levels of both cations play a role in the pathophysiology of major depression. Antidepressant-induced increases in Ca are associated with clinical efficacy and attenuation of the immune response. The suppressant effect of antidepressants on Mg levels is probably a side effect of those drugs. New antidepressant treatments should be developed that increase the levels both Ca and Mg. Graphical abstract.

Major depressive disorder is associated with changes in a cluster of serum and urine biomarkers

Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a heterogeneous disorder with a considerable symptomatic overlap with other psychiatric and somatic disorders. This study aims at providing evidence for association of a set of serum and urine biomarkers with MDD. We analyzed urine and serum samples of 40 MDD patients and 47 age- and sex-matched controls using 40 potential MDD biomarkers (21 serum biomarkers and 19 urine biomarkers). All participants were of Caucasian origin. We developed an algorithm to combine the heterogeneity at biomarker level. This method enabled the identification of correlating biomarkers based on differences in variation and distribution between groups, combined the outcome of the selected biomarkers, and calculated depression probability scores (the "bio depression score"). Phenotype permutation analysis showed a significant discrimination between MDD and euthymic (control) subjects for biomarkers in urine (P < .001), in serum (P = .02) and in the combined serum plus urine result (P < .001). Based on this algorithm, a combination of 8 urine biomarkers and 9 serum biomarkers were identified to correlate with MDD, enabling an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.955 in a Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) analysis. Selection of either urine biomarkers or serum biomarkers resulted in AUC values of 0.907 and 0.853, respectively. Internal cross-validation (5-fold) confirmed the association of this set of biomarkers with MDD.

A Direct Quantitative Analysis of Erythrocyte Intracellular Ionized Magnesium in Physiological and Pathological Conditions

Magnesium (Mg²⁺) is an endogenous cation that is involved in many essential biological reactions. Abnormal Mg²⁺ metabolisms in the body affect important physiological and pathological processes. However, most endogenous Mg²⁺ markers fail to represent body Mg²⁺ status; they are disadvantageous in terms of representational capacity, applied range, operational convenience, etc. In this article, we evaluated some of the most popular Mg²⁺ marker candidates. A logical model of the blood Mg²⁺ compartments was established, which consisted of unstable Mg²⁺ pools, representative Mg²⁺ pools, and conserved Mg²⁺ pools. These pools were based on the metabolic efficiency of Mg²⁺ in an acute Mg²⁺ intake test. The results of this study showed that only the erythrocyte intracellular ionized Mg²⁺ (RBC [Mg²⁺]_i), a representative Mg²⁺ pool, could effectively represent abnormal body Mg²⁺ metabolisms in various conditions, including dietary Mg²⁺ adjustments, aging and metabolic syndrome. These results suggest that RBC [Mg²⁺]_i might be a widely applicable marker of body Mg²⁺ levels. On unified technology platform and evaluation system, this research compared the representative capacities of RBC [Mg²⁺]_i, plasma Mg²⁺ concentration (plasma [Mg²⁺]), erythrocyte intracellular total Mg (RBC [Mg]_total) and Mg retention in rats and mice under various Mg²⁺-metabolism-related physiological and pathological conditions. Our technique for the direct quantitative analysis of RBC [Mg²⁺]_i may prove valuable for basic physiological research, dietary Mg²⁺ regulation, as well as clinical monitoring/intervention of Mg²⁺-metabolism-related pathology.

The Association between Serum Magnesium Levels and Depression in an Adult Primary Care Population

Depression is common, places a large burden on the patient, their family and community, and is often difficult to treat. Magnesium supplementation is associated with improved depressive symptoms, but because the mechanism is unknown, it is unclear whether serum magnesium levels act as a biological predictor of the treatment outcome. Therefore, we sought to describe the relationship between serum magnesium and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ, a measure of depression) scores. A cross-sectional analysis of medical records from 3604 adults (mean age 62 years; 42% men) seen in primary care clinics between 2015 and 2018, with at least one completed PHQ were included. The relationship between serum magnesium and depression using univariate analyses showed a significant effect when measured by the PHQ-2 (−0.19 points/mg/dL; 95% CI −0.31, −0.07; P = 0.001) and the PHQ-9 (−0.93 points/mg/dL; 95% CI −1.81, −0.06; P = 0.037). This relationship was strengthened after adjusting for covariates (age, gender, race, time between serum magnesium and PHQ tests, and presence of diabetes and chronic kidney disease) (PHQ-2: −0.25 points/mg/dL; 95% CI −3.33, −0.09; P < 0.001 and PHQ-9: −1.09 95% CI −1.96 −0.21; P = 0.015). For adults seen in primary care, lower serum magnesium levels are associated with depressive symptoms, supporting the use of supplemental magnesium as therapy. Serum magnesium may help identify the biological mechanism of depressive symptoms and identify patients likely to respond to magnesium supplementation.

Dietary magnesium intake and risk of depression

BACKGROUND

Depression is an important public health problem. The aim of the present study is to examine the association of dietary magnesium intake with risk of depression.

METHODS

We assessed the association between dietary magnesium intake and risk of depression in a nationally representative sample of 17,730 adults from the 2007-2014 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Magnesium intake was assessed by 24 h dietary recalls. Depression was assessed using the Patient Health Questionnaire-9. Logistic regression and restricted cubic spline models were applied to assess the relationship between dietary magnesium intake and risk of depression.

RESULTS

Dietary magnesium intake was inversely associated with risk of depression, and the multivariate adjusted odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of depression for the highest vs lowest category of dietary magnesium intake was 0.47(0.34-0.66). In subgroup analysis, dietary magnesium intake was inversely associated with risk of depression among women whereas no association was found among man. The inverse association between dietary magnesium intake and risk of depression was statistically significant among all age groups. A linear relationship (P_{for nonlinearity} = 0.34) was found between dietary magnesium intake and risk of depression in dose-response analysis.

LIMITATIONS

This was a cross-sectional study, thus causality cannot be inferred. In addition, data was based on self-reports.

CONCLUSIONS

Dietary magnesium intake was inversely associated with the risk of depression in a linear manner, which still needs to be confirmed by larger prospective studies.

Effects of Magnesium Supplementation on Unipolar Depression: A Placebo-Controlled Study and Review of the Importance of Dosing and Magnesium Status in the Therapeutic Response

Animal studies using tests and models have demonstrated that magnesium exerts an antidepressant effect. The literature contains few studies in humans involving attempts to augment antidepressant therapy with magnesium ions. The purpose of our study was to assess the efficacy and safety of antidepressant treatment, in combination with magnesium ions. A total of 37 participants with recurrent depressive disorder who developed a depressive episode were included in this study. As part of this double-blind study, treatment with the antidepressant fluoxetine was accompanied with either magnesium ions (120 mg/day as magnesium aspartate) or placebo. During an 8-week treatment period, each patient was monitored for any clinical abnormalities. Moreover, serum fluoxetine and magnesium levels were measured, and pharmaco-electroencephalography was performed. The fluoxetine + magnesium and fluoxetine + placebo groups showed no significant differences in either Hamilton Depression Rating Scale (HDRS) scores or serum magnesium levels at any stage of treatment. Multivariate statistical analysis of the whole investigated group showed that the following parameters increased the odds of effective treatment: lower baseline HDRS scores, female gender, smoking, and treatment augmentation with magnesium. The parameters that increased the odds of remission were lower baseline HDRS scores, shorter history of disease, the presence of antidepressant-induced changes in the pharmaco-EEG profile at 6 h after treatment, and the fact of receiving treatment augmented with magnesium ions. The limitation of this study is a small sample size.

Dietary intake of magnesium and the risk of epilepsy in middle-aged and older Finnish men: A 22-year follow-up study in a general population

OBJECTIVES

Magnesium may play an important role in the prevention or treatment of epilepsy. We aimed to examine the association between dietary intake of magnesium and the incidence of epilepsy in middle-aged Finnish men in a prospective setting. As a secondary analysis, we also considered a possible association between dietary intake of magnesium and inflammation in subjects with epilepsy.

METHODS

The study included 2442 men, ages 42 to 60 y, from the prospective Kuopio Ischaemic Heart Disease Risk Factor Study who were free of epilepsy at baseline between 1984 and 1989. Dietary intake of magnesium was assessed with a 4-d food record. The hospital discharge diagnosis of epilepsy was used as an outcome variable.

RESULTS

During the average follow-up period of 22.4 y, 74 men (3%) developed epilepsy. Those who followed the recommended dietary intake (>350 mg/d) of magnesium had a lower risk of epilepsy (hazard ratio [HR]: 0.52; confidence interval [CI], 0.28-0.99; P = 0.045) after multivariate adjustments. However, the risk was not significant after adjustment for C-reactive protein (CRP). We also found that CRP concentration was directly associated with the risk of epilepsy (HR: 1.24; CI, 1.00-1.54; P = 0.048). This association was attenuated after adjustment for dietary intake of magnesium and no longer significantly associated with the risk of epilepsy (HR: 1.22; CI, 0.99-1.52; P = 0.07).

CONCLUSIONS

A higher dietary intake of magnesium was associated with lower incident epilepsy, and this association was slightly mediated by CRP. Further studies are required to identify the potential mechanisms.

Magnesium and mood disorders: systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Magnesium (Mg2+) has received considerable attention with regards to its potential role in the pathophysiology of the mood disorders, but the available evidence seems inconclusive.AimsTo review and quantitatively summarise the human literature on Mg2+ intake and Mg2+ blood levels in the mood disorders and the effects of Mg2+ supplements on mood.

METHOD

Systematic review and meta-analyses.

RESULTS

Adherence to a Mg2+-rich diet was negatively associated with depression in cross-sectional (odds ratio = 0.66) but not in prospective studies. Mg2+ levels in bodily fluids were on average higher in patients with a mood disorder (Hedge's g = 0.19), but only in patients treated with antidepressants and/or mood stabilisers. There was no evident association between Mg2+ levels and symptom severity. Mg2+ supplementation was associated with a decline in depressive symptoms in uncontrolled (g = -1.60) but not in placebo-controlled trials (g = -0.21).

CONCLUSION

Our results provide little evidence for the involvement of Mg2+ in the mood disorders.Declaration of interestNone.

Alternate healthy eating index and risk of depression: A meta-analysis and systemematic review

Objective: The alternate healthy eating index has been associated with depression. However, results reported in the literature are inconsistent. The present meta-analysis determined the association between the AHEI or AHEI-2010 and depression in adults without chronic disease.Methods: Nine electronic databases and the reference lists of identified studies were systematically searched for studies published up to December 2016. Articles examining the association between depression and the AHEI or AHEI-2010 in adults were included.Results: We identified eight observational studies with 10 effect sizes involving a total of 38,360 participants. When both the AHEI and AHEI-2010 were considered, the dietary index score was associated with a significant reduction in depression risk (odds ratio OR=0.70, 95% confidence interval CI=0.57-0.87). However, the subgroup analysis indicated that the AHEI-2010 (OR=0.69, 95% CI=0.56-0.89), but not the AHEI (OR=0.60, 95% CI=0.30-1.17), was significantly associated with reduced odds of depression. The heterogeneity among the included studies was significantly high (Q=48.9, P<0.01, I²=81.60%).Discussion: Our findings suggest that the AHEI-2010 is associated with a reduction in depression risk. However, well-designed randomized controlled trials must be conducted to confirm the causal relationship between the AHEI-2010 and depression.

Investigation of Cryptococcus neoformans magnesium transporters reveals important role of vacuolar magnesium transporter in regulating fungal virulence factors

Cryptococcus neoformans is an important opportunistic fungal pathogen in humans. Recent studies have demonstrated that metals are critical factors for the regulation of fungal virulence in hosts. In this study, we systemically investigated the function of C. neoformans magnesium transporters in controlling the intracellular Mg balance and virulence-associated factors. We identified three Mg transporters in C. neoformans: Mgt1, Mgt2, and Mgt3. While we could not detect a Mg²⁺ -related growth phenotype in mgt1 and mgt3 knockout strains, a GAL7p-Mgt2 strain showed significant Mg-dependent growth defects in the presence of glucose. Further analysis demonstrated that MGT2 is a homolog of MNR2 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which is localized to the vacuolar membrane and participates in intracellular Mg transport. Interestingly, a transcriptome analysis showed that Mgt2 influenced the expression of 19 genes, which were independent of Mg²⁺ . We showed that melanin synthesis in C. neoformans required Mg²⁺ and Mgt2, and that capsule production was negatively regulated by Mg²⁺ and Mgt2. Repressing the expression of MGT2-induced capsule, which resulted in an increased fungal burden in the lungs. Cumulatively, this study sets the stage for further evaluation of the important role of Mg homeostasis in the regulation of melanin and capsule in C. neoformans.

Magnesium bioavailability from mineral waters with different mineralization levels in comparison to bread and a supplement

The aim of the present study was to compare the magnesium bioavailability from four mineral waters with different types of mineralization (e.g. SO₄^2-, HCO₃⁻, calcium) with the magnesium bioavailability from bread and from a magnesium supplement. A single-center, randomized, controlled trial with a crossover design with 22 healthy men and women was conducted at the Institute of Food Science and Human Nutrition, Leibniz University Hannover, Germany. The participants consumed the six test products providing 100 mg of magnesium each on six examination days with a one-week washout phase in between. The primary outcome variables were the 24 h urinary magnesium excretion, the 24 h urinary magnesium/creatinine ratio, and the area under the curve of serum magnesium levels for 10 h (AUC_0-10h). No significant differences among groups were observed for either 24 h urinary magnesium excretion or 24 h urinary magnesium/creatinine ratio. Likewise, statistical group comparisons of AUC_0-10h for serum magnesium levels revealed no significant differences among the treatment groups. Accordingly, given equivalent magnesium availability from all test products, neither SO₄^2- content nor the content of HCO₃⁻ or of calcium influenced the bioavailability of magnesium. Thus, mineral water with higher concentrations of magnesium constitutes a calorie-free magnesium source that contributes to optimal magnesium supply.

Depression comorbidity in migraine

Migraine and Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) are highly prevalent conditions that can lead to significant disability. These conditions are often comorbid, and several studies shed light on the underlying reasons for this comorbidity. The purpose of this review article is to have a closer look at the epidemiology, pathophysiology, genetic and environmental factors, temporal association, treatment options, and prognosis of patients suffering from both conditions, to allow a better understanding of what factors underlie this comorbidity. Studies show that patients with migraine are 2-4-times more likely to develop lifetime MDD, predominantly due to similar underlying pathophysiologic and genetic mechanisms. There appears to be a bidirectional temporal association between the two conditions, although longitudinal studies are needed to determine this more definitively. Quality-of-life and health-related outcomes are worse for patients that suffer from both conditions. Thus, a careful assessment of the patient with access to appropriate resources and follow-up is paramount. Future studies in genetics and brain imaging will be helpful in further elucidating the underlying mechanisms in these comorbid conditions, which will hopefully lead to better treatment options.

Ionized magnesium in plasma and erythrocytes for the assessment of low magnesium status in alcohol dependent patients

BACKGROUND

Studies on the homeostasis of magnesium in alcohol-dependent patients have often been characterized by low hypomagnesemia detection rates. This may be due to the fact that the content of magnesium in blood serum constitutes only 1% of the average magnesium level within the human body. However, the concentration of ionized magnesium is more physiologically important and makes up 67% of the total magnesium within a human organism. There are no data concerning the determination of the ionized fraction of magnesium in patients addicted to alcohol and its influence on mental health status.

METHODS

This study included 100 alcohol-dependent patients and 50 healthy subjects. The free magnesium fraction was determined using the potentiometric method by means of using ion-selective electrodes. The total magnesium level was determined by using a biochemical Indiko Plus analyzer. In this study, different psychometric scales were applied.

RESULTS

Our results confirm the usefulness of ionized magnesium concentrations in erythrocytes and plasma as a diagnostic parameter of low magnesium status in alcohol-dependent patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The lower the concentration of ionized magnesium, the worse the quality of life an alcohol-dependent person might experience. In the case of total magnesium, no such correlation was determined.

Role of magnesium supplementation in the treatment of depression: A randomized clinical trial

Current treatment options for depression are limited by efficacy, cost, availability, side effects, and acceptability to patients. Several studies have looked at the association between magnesium and depression, yet its role in symptom management is unclear. The objective of this trial was to test whether supplementation with over-the-counter magnesium chloride improves symptoms of depression. An open-label, blocked, randomized, cross-over trial was carried out in outpatient primary care clinics on 126 adults (mean age 52; 38% male) diagnosed with and currently experiencing mild-to-moderate symptoms with Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9) scores of 5–19. The intervention was 6 weeks of active treatment (248 mg of elemental magnesium per day) compared to 6 weeks of control (no treatment). Assessments of depression symptoms were completed at bi-weekly phone calls. The primary outcome was the net difference in the change in depression symptoms from baseline to the end of each treatment period. Secondary outcomes included changes in anxiety symptoms as well as adherence to the supplement regimen, appearance of adverse effects, and intention to use magnesium supplements in the future. Between June 2015 and May 2016, 112 participants provided analyzable data. Consumption of magnesium chloride for 6 weeks resulted in a clinically significant net improvement in PHQ-9 scores of -6.0 points (CI -7.9, -4.2; P<0.001) and net improvement in Generalized Anxiety Disorders-7 scores of -4.5 points (CI -6.6, -2.4; P<0.001). Average adherence was 83% by pill count. The supplements were well tolerated and 61% of participants reported they would use magnesium in the future. Similar effects were observed regardless of age, gender, baseline severity of depression, baseline magnesium level, or use of antidepressant treatments. Effects were observed within two weeks. Magnesium is effective for mild-to-moderate depression in adults. It works quickly and is well tolerated without the need for close monitoring for toxicity.

Alterations of Hair and Nail Content of Selected Trace Elements in Nonoccupationally Exposed Patients with Chronic Depression from Different Geographical Regions

The aim of this study was to determine if altered levels of selected trace elements manifest themselves during chronic depression. To identify elements strongly associated with chronic depression, relationships between the elemental contents of hair and nails and the interelement correlations were checked. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry and ion chromatography were used to evaluate the contents of Zn, Cu, Co, Pb, Mn, and Fe in hair and nail samples from a total of 415 subjects (295 patients and 120 healthy volunteers). The study included logistic regression models to predict the probability of chronic depression. To investigate possible intercorrelations among the studied elements, the scaled principal component analysis was used. The research has revealed differences in TE levels in the group of depressed men and women in comparison to the healthy subjects. Statistically significant differences in both hair and nails contents of several elements were observed. Our study also provides strong evidence that the intermediary metabolism of certain elements is age- and gender-dependent. Zn, Mn, Pb, and Fe contents in hair/nails seem to be strongly associated with chronic depression. We found no statistically significant residence-related differences in the contents of studied elements in nonoccupationally exposed patients and healthy subjects.

Influence of magnesium supplementation on movement side effects related to typical antipsychotic treatment in rats

Chronic use of typical antipsychotic haloperidolis related to movement disturbances such as parkinsonism, akathisia and tardive dyskinesia which have been related to excitotoxicity in extrapyramidal brain areas, requiring their prevention and treatment. In the current study we evaluated the influence of the magnesium on prevention (for 28days before-), reversion (for 12days after-) and concomitant supplementation on haloperidol-induced movement disorders in rats. Sub-chronic haloperidol was related to orofacial dyskinesia (OD) and catalepsy development, increased generation of reactive species (RS) and levels of protein carbonyl (PC) in cortex, striatum and substantia nigra (SN) in all experimental protocols. When provided preventatively, Mg reduced the increase of OD and catalepsy time 14 and 7days after haloperidol administration, respectively. When supplemented after haloperidol-induced OD establishment, Mg reversed this behavior after 12days, while catalepsy was reversed after 6days of Mg supplementation.When Mg was concomitantly supplemented with haloperidol administration, OD and catalepsy were prevented. Moreover, Mg supplementation was able to prevent the RS generation in both cortex and SN, reducing PC levels in all brain areas evaluated. When supplemented after haloperidol, Mg reversed RS generation in cortex and striatum, decreasing PC levels in SN and striatum.The co-administration of haloperidol and Mg supplementation prevented RS generation in cortex, striatum and SN, and PC levels in the SN.These outcomes indicate that Mg supplementation may be a useful alternative to prevent movement disturbances resulting of classic antipsychotic pharmacotherapy as haloperidol.

Effects of zinc and magnesium supplements on postpartum depression and anxiety: A randomized controlled clinical trial

Postpartum anxiety and depression are prevalent disorders. The authors of this study aimed to determine the effects of zinc and magnesium supplements on depressive symptoms and anxiety in postpartum women referred to three governmental, educational hospitals in Tabriz, Iran during 2014-2015. In this triple-blind, randomized, controlled clinical trial, the participants were randomly assigned to the zinc sulfate, magnesium sulfate, and placebo groups (n = 33 per group). The intervention groups received a 27-mg zinc sulfate tablet or 320-mg magnesium sulfate tablet per day for 8 weeks, whereas the control group received a placebo tablet each day during the same period. The Edinburgh Postnatal Depression Scale and the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory were completed before and 8 weeks after the intervention. Blood samples were drawn from each participant to determine serum levels of zinc and magnesium before intervention at 48 hours after delivery. Also, a 24-hour dietary questionnaire was used during the first and last 3 days of the intervention. Adjusting for baseline scores as well as zinc and magnesium serum levels, no significant difference was observed between groups 8 weeks after delivery in mean scores of depressive symptoms (p = .553), state anxiety (p = .995), and trait anxiety (p = .234). This study concluded magnesium and zinc did not reduce postpartum anxiety and depressive symptoms.

Zinc in the Glutamatergic Theory of Depression

Depression is a serious psychiatric illness that affects millions of people worldwide. Weeks of antidepressant therapy are required to relieve depressive symptoms, and new drugs are still being extensively researched. The latest studies have shown that in depression, there is an imbalance between the main excitatory (glutamatergic) and inhibitory (GABAergic) systems. Administration of antagonists of the glutamatergic system, including zinc, has shown an antidepressant effect in preclinical as well as clinical studies. Zinc inhibits the NMDA receptor via its binding site located on one of its subunits. This is thought to be the main mechanism explaining the antidepressant properties of zinc. In the present review, a link between zinc and the glutamatergic system is discussed in the context of depressive disorder.

Dietary magnesium intake and the incidence of depression: A 20-year follow-up study

BACKGROUND

Depression is a major global public health concern. The aetiology of depression is partly unclear; however, intake of nutrients, such as magnesium, have been suggested to affect depressive symptoms and modify depression risk.

METHODS

This research is a part of the Kuopio Ischemic Heart Disease Risk Factor (KIHD) Study, conducted on a sample of 2320 Eastern Finnish men aged 42-61 years old at the baseline. Magnesium intake was assessed by a 4-day food record. Hospital discharge diagnosis of unipolar depressive disorder was used as an outcome variable.

RESULTS

Participants in the middle tertile of dietary magnesium intake had a statistically significantly decreased risk of getting a hospital discharge diagnosis of depression compared to participants in the lowest tertile of magnesium intake (HR 0.49, CI 0.25-0.95, P=0.035) in the prospective setting after multivariable adjustments. In addition, an inverse association between magnesium intake and the risk of depression was found when the combined middle and highest tertiles of magnesium intake were compared with the lowest tertile (HR 0.53, CI 0.29-0.95, P=0.033).

LIMITATIONS

Our findings may not be generalizable to individuals below middle-age or women. Moreover, we were unable to consider cases with mild depression in the longitudinal setting.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this study suggest that magnesium intake may have an effect on the risk to develop depression. Further studies are needed to investigate whether sufficient magnesium intake could have implications for prevention or treatment of depression.

Has a mixture of amino acids and micronutrients influence on glucose metabolism and dietary fatty acid pattern in chronic psychosocially stressed persons? A pilot study

Brain food, e.g. L-tryptophan, antioxidative substances, B vitamins and magnesium are thought to be beneficial for obesity, inflammation and insulin resistance. In the present pilot study we hypothesised that a specific amino acid mixture with micronutrients improves the cardiometabolic situation of chronically stressed persons. Cardiovascular and metabolic parameters were analysed as per protocol in 32 patients. Chronic stress disorders in the same patients were assessed by a psychological neurological questionnaire (PNF). After dietary intervention a reduction of the fasting serum insulin concentrations occurred in the treatment group. An association was found between PNF values, insulin concentrations at baseline and an insulin reduction after 12 weeks. The results support the use of our specific dietary supplement for improved stress management and a decrease in metabolic dysfunction.

Alterations of Bio-elements, Oxidative, and Inflammatory Status in the Zinc Deficiency Model in Rats

Our previous study showed that dietary zinc restriction induces depression-like behavior with concomitant up-regulation of the N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR). Because metal ions, oxidative stress, and inflammation are involved in depression/NMDAR function, in the present study, bio-elements (zinc, copper, iron, magnesium, and calcium), oxidative (thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances; protein carbonyl content), and inflammatory (IL-1α, IL-1β) factors were measured in serum, hippocampus (Hp), and prefrontal cortex (PFC) of male Sprague-Dawley rats subjected to a zinc-adequate (ZnA) (50 mg Zn/kg) or a zinc-deficient (ZnD) (3 mg Zn/kg) diet for 4 or 6 weeks. Both periods of dietary zinc restriction reduced serum zinc and increased serum iron levels. At 4 weeks, lowered zinc level in the PFC and Hp as well as lowered iron level in the PFC of the ZnD rats was observed. At 6 weeks, however, iron level was increased in the PFC of these rats. Although at 6 weeks zinc level in the PFC did not differ between the ZnA and ZnD rats, extracellular zinc concentration after 100 mM KCl stimulation was reduced in the PFC of the ZnD rats and was accompanied by increased extracellular iron and glutamate levels (as measured by the in vivo microdialysis). The examined oxidative and inflammatory parameters were generally enhanced in the tissue of the ZnD animals. The obtained data suggest dynamic redistribution of bio-elements and enhancement of oxidative/inflammatory parameters after dietary zinc restriction, which may have a link with depression-like behavior/NMDAR function/neurodegeneration.