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Ghaw A, Chunduri A, Chang A, Ortiz RJ, Kozlowska M, Kulkarni PP, Ferris CF. Dose-dependent LSD effects on cortical/thalamic and cerebellar activity: brain oxygen level-dependent fMRI study in awake rats. Brain Commun 2024; 6:fcae194. [PMID: 38863575 PMCID: PMC11166175 DOI: 10.1093/braincomms/fcae194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2024] [Revised: 04/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Lysergic acid diethylamide is a hallucinogen with complex neurobiological and behavioural effects. This is the first study to use MRI to follow functional changes in brain activity in response to different doses of lysergic acid diethylamide in fully awake, drug-naive rats. We hypothesized that lysergic acid diethylamide would show a dose-dependent increase in activity in the prefrontal cortex and thalamus while decreasing hippocampal activity. Female and male rats were given intraperitoneal injections of vehicle or lysergic acid diethylamide in doses of 10 or 100 µg/kg while fully awake during the imaging session. Changes in blood oxygen level-dependent signal were recorded over a 30-min window. Approximately 45-min post-injection data for resting-state functional connectivity were collected. All data were registered to rat 3D MRI atlas with 173 brain regions providing site-specific increases and decreases in global brain activity and changes in functional connectivity. Treatment with lysergic acid diethylamide resulted in a significant dose-dependent increase in negative blood oxygen level-dependent signal. The areas most affected were the primary olfactory system, prefrontal cortex, thalamus and hippocampus. This was observed in both the number of voxels affected in these brains regions and the changes in blood oxygen level-dependent signal over time. However, there was a significant increase in functional connectivity between the thalamus and somatosensory cortex and the cerebellar nuclei and the surrounding brainstem areas. Contrary to our hypothesis, there was an acute dose-dependent increase in negative blood oxygen level-dependent signal that can be interpreted as a decrease in brain activity, a finding that agrees with much of the behavioural data from preclinical studies. The enhanced connectivity between thalamus and sensorimotor cortices is consistent with the human literature looking at lysergic acid diethylamide treatments in healthy human volunteers. The unexpected finding that lysergic acid diethylamide enhances connectivity to the cerebellar nuclei raises an interesting question concerning the role of this brain region in the psychotomimetic effects of hallucinogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley Ghaw
- Center for Translational Neuroimaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Alisha Chunduri
- Center for Translational Neuroimaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Arnold Chang
- Center for Translational Neuroimaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Richard J Ortiz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA
| | - Milena Kozlowska
- Center for Translational Neuroimaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Praveen P Kulkarni
- Center for Translational Neuroimaging, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| | - Craig F Ferris
- Department of Psychology and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Northeastern University, Boston, MA 02115, USA
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2
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Bassi M, Bilel S, Tirri M, Corli G, Di Rosa F, Gregori A, Alkilany AM, Rachid O, Roda E, Zauli G, Locatelli CA, Marti M. Pharmaco-toxicological effects of the novel tryptamine hallucinogen 5-MeO-MiPT on motor, sensorimotor, physiological, and cardiorespiratory parameters in mice-from a human poisoning case to the preclinical evidence. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2024; 241:489-511. [PMID: 38214743 PMCID: PMC10884077 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-024-06526-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2023] [Accepted: 01/01/2024] [Indexed: 01/13/2024]
Abstract
RATIONALE The 5-methoxy-N-methyl-N-isopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-MiPT, known online as "Moxy") is a new psychedelic tryptamine first identified on Italian national territory in 2014. Its hallucinogen effects are broadly well-known; however, only few information is available regarding its pharmaco-toxicological effects. OBJECTIVES Following the seizure of this new psychoactive substances by the Arm of Carabinieri and the occurrence of a human intoxication case, in the current study we had the aim to characterize the in vivo acute effects of systemic administration of 5-MeO-MiPT (0.01-30 mg/kg i.p.) on sensorimotor (visual, acoustic, and overall tactile) responses, thermoregulation, and stimulated motor activity (drag and accelerod test) in CD-1 male mice. We also evaluated variation on sensory gating (PPI, prepulse inhibition; 0.01-10 mg/kg i.p.) and on cardiorespiratory parameters (MouseOx and BP-2000; 30 mg/kg i.p.). Lastly, we investigated the in silico ADMET (absorption, distribution, metabolism, excretion, toxicity) profile of 5-MeO-MiPT compared to 5-methoxy-N,N-diisopropyltryptamine (5-MeO-DIPT) and N,N-dimethyltryptamine (DMT). RESULTS This study demonstrates that 5-MeO-MiPT dose-dependently inhibits sensorimotor and PPI responses and, at high doses, induces impairment of the stimulated motor activity and cardiorespiratory changes in mice. In silico prediction shows that the 5-MeO-MiPT toxicokinetic profile shares similarities with 5-MeO-DIPT and DMT and highlights a cytochrome risk associated with this compound. CONCLUSIONS Consumption of 5-MeO-MiPT can affect the ability to perform activities and pose a risk to human health status, as the correspondence between the effects induced in mice and the symptoms occurred in the intoxication case suggests. However, our findings suggest that 5-MeO-MiPT should not be excluded from research in the psychiatric therapy field.
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Grants
- Effects of NPS: development of a multicentre research for the information enhancement of the Early Warning System Anti-Drug Policies Department, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy
- Implementation of the identification Anti-Drug Policies Department, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy
- study of the effects of NPS: Development of a multicentric research to strengthen the database of the National Monitoring Centre for Drug Addiction Anti-Drug Policies Department, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy
- the Early Warning System Anti-Drug Policies Department, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy
- FAR 2021 Università degli Studi di Ferrara
- FAR 2022 Università degli Studi di Ferrara
- Anti-Drug Policies Department, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Italy
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Bassi
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato Di Mortara 70, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato Di Mortara 70, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Micaela Tirri
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato Di Mortara 70, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Giorgia Corli
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato Di Mortara 70, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Fabiana Di Rosa
- Department of Scientific Investigation (RIS), Carabinieri, 00191, Rome, Italy
| | - Adolfo Gregori
- Department of Scientific Investigation (RIS), Carabinieri, 00191, Rome, Italy
| | - Alaaldin M Alkilany
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Ousama Rachid
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, QU Health, Qatar University, Doha, Qatar
| | - Elisa Roda
- Laboratory of Clinical & Experimental Toxicology, Pavia Poison Centre, National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri, IRCCS, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giorgio Zauli
- Research Department, King Khaled Eye Specialistic Hospital, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Carlo Alessandro Locatelli
- Laboratory of Clinical & Experimental Toxicology, Pavia Poison Centre, National Toxicology Information Centre, Toxicology Unit, Istituti Clinici Scientifici Maugeri, IRCCS, Pavia, Italy
| | - Matteo Marti
- Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine and LTTA Centre, University of Ferrara, Via Fossato Di Mortara 70, 44121, Ferrara, Italy.
- Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, Ferrara, Italy.
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3
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Bershad AK, de Wit H. Social Psychopharmacology: Novel Approaches to Treat Deficits in Social Motivation in Schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 2023; 49:1161-1173. [PMID: 37358825 PMCID: PMC10483474 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbad094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS Diminished social motivation is a negative symptom of schizophrenia and leads to severe functional consequences for many patients suffering from the illness. However, there are no effective medications available to treat this symptom. Despite the lack of approved treatments for patients, there is a growing body of literature on the effects of several classes of drugs on social motivation in healthy volunteers that may be relevant to patients. The aim of this review is to synthesize these results in an effort to identify novel directions for the development of medications to treat reduced social motivation in schizophrenia. STUDY DESIGN In this article, we review pharmacologic challenge studies addressing the acute effects of psychoactive drugs on social motivation in healthy volunteers and consider how these findings may be applied to deficits in social motivation in schizophrenia. We include studies testing amphetamines and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), opioids, cannabis, serotonergic psychedelics, antidepressants, benzodiazepines, and neuropeptides. STUDY RESULTS We report that amphetamines, MDMA, and some opioid medications enhance social motivation in healthy adults and may represent promising avenues of investigation in schizophrenia. CONCLUSIONS Given the acute effects of these drugs on behavioral and performance-based measures of social motivation in healthy volunteers, they may be particularly beneficial as an adjunct to psychosocial training programs in patient populations. It remains to be determined how these medications affect patients with deficits in social motivation, and in which contexts they may be most effectively administered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anya K Bershad
- Department of Psychiatry and Biobehavioral Sciences, University of California, Los Angeles Semel Institute for Neuroscience and Human Behavior, Los Angeles, CAUSA
| | - Harriet de Wit
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Neuroscience, University of Chicago, Chicago, ILUSA
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Kiilerich KF, Lorenz J, Scharff MB, Speth N, Brandt TG, Czurylo J, Xiong M, Jessen NS, Casado-Sainz A, Shalgunov V, Kjaerby C, Satała G, Bojarski AJ, Jensen AA, Herth MM, Cumming P, Overgaard A, Palner M. Repeated low doses of psilocybin increase resilience to stress, lower compulsive actions, and strengthen cortical connections to the paraventricular thalamic nucleus in rats. Mol Psychiatry 2023; 28:3829-3841. [PMID: 37783788 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-023-02280-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/04/2023]
Abstract
Psilocybin (a classic serotonergic psychedelic drug) has received appraisal for use in psychedelic-assisted therapy of several psychiatric disorders. A less explored topic concerns the use of repeated low doses of psychedelics, at a dose that is well below the psychedelic dose used in psychedelic-assisted therapy and often referred to as microdosing. Psilocybin microdose users frequently report increases in mental health, yet such reports are often highly biased and vulnerable to placebo effects. Here we establish and validate a psilocybin microdose-like regimen in rats with repeated low doses of psilocybin administration at a dose derived from occupancy at rat brain 5-HT2A receptors in vivo. The rats tolerated the repeated low doses of psilocybin well and did not manifest signs of anhedonia, anxiety, or altered locomotor activity. There were no deficits in pre-pulse inhibition of the startle reflex, nor did the treatment downregulate or desensitize the 5-HT2A receptors. However, the repeated low doses of psilocybin imparted resilience against the stress of multiple subcutaneous injections, and reduced the frequency of self-grooming, a proxy for human compulsive actions, while also increasing 5-HT7 receptor expression and synaptic density in the paraventricular nucleus of the thalamus. These results establish a well-validated regimen for further experiments probing the effects of repeated low doses of psilocybin. Results further substantiate anecdotal reports of the benefits of psilocybin microdosing as a therapeutic intervention, while pointing to a possible physiological mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kat F Kiilerich
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Joe Lorenz
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Malthe B Scharff
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Nikolaj Speth
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Tobias G Brandt
- Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Julia Czurylo
- Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Mengfei Xiong
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Naja S Jessen
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Agata Casado-Sainz
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Vladimir Shalgunov
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine and PET, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Celia Kjaerby
- Center for Translational Neuromedicine, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Grzegorz Satała
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Andrzej J Bojarski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Anders A Jensen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Matthias M Herth
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine and PET, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Paul Cumming
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Bern University Hospital, Bern, Switzerland
- School of Psychology and Counselling, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
| | - Agnete Overgaard
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Mikael Palner
- Neurobiology Research Unit, Copenhagen University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark.
- Clinical Physiology and Nuclear Medicine, Department of Clinical Research, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark.
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Odense University Hospital, Odense, Denmark.
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5
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Could psychedelic drugs have a role in the treatment of schizophrenia? Rationale and strategy for safe implementation. Mol Psychiatry 2023; 28:44-58. [PMID: 36280752 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01832-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 10/02/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a widespread psychiatric disorder that affects 0.5-1.0% of the world's population and induces significant, long-term disability that exacts high personal and societal cost. Negative symptoms, which respond poorly to available antipsychotic drugs, are the primary cause of this disability. Association of negative symptoms with cortical atrophy and cell loss is widely reported. Psychedelic drugs are undergoing a significant renaissance in psychiatric disorders with efficacy reported in several conditions including depression, in individuals facing terminal cancer, posttraumatic stress disorder, and addiction. There is considerable evidence from preclinical studies and some support from human studies that psychedelics enhance neuroplasticity. In this Perspective, we consider the possibility that psychedelic drugs could have a role in treating cortical atrophy and cell loss in schizophrenia, and ameliorating the negative symptoms associated with these pathological manifestations. The foremost concern in treating schizophrenia patients with psychedelic drugs is induction or exacerbation of psychosis. We consider several strategies that could be implemented to mitigate the danger of psychotogenic effects and allow treatment of schizophrenia patients with psychedelics to be implemented. These include use of non-hallucinogenic derivatives, which are currently the focus of intense study, implementation of sub-psychedelic or microdosing, harnessing of entourage effects in extracts of psychedelic mushrooms, and blocking 5-HT2A receptor-mediated hallucinogenic effects. Preclinical studies that employ appropriate animal models are a prerequisite and clinical studies will need to be carefully designed on the basis of preclinical and translational data. Careful research in this area could significantly impact the treatment of one of the most severe and socially debilitating psychiatric disorders and open an exciting new frontier in psychopharmacology.
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6
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Jaster AM, González-Maeso J. Automated Detection of Psychedelic-Induced Head-Twitch Response in Mice. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2687:65-76. [PMID: 37464163 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3307-6_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2023]
Abstract
Head-twitch response (HTR) allows for the detection and classification of behavior associated with serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) activation upon psychedelic administration in rodent models. This activation and functional output can be utilized to provide insights into molecular mechanisms associated with psychosis and to identify signaling processes related to existing and novel antipsychotic and psychedelic compounds. Here we describe the use of a magnetic ear tag reporter coupled with automated quantification and biphasic detection to identify HTR in mice treated with the classical psychedelic 1-(2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane (DOI).
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Affiliation(s)
- Alaina M Jaster
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, USA
| | - Javier González-Maeso
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, Richmond, VA, USA
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7
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Abstract
Experiences of psychedelics and psychosis were deeply entangled in scientific practices in the mid-20th century, from uses of psychedelic drugs that could model psychosis, to detailed phenomenological comparisons of endogenous and drug-induced madness. After the moral panic of the 1960s shut down psychedelic research, however, these two phenomena became disentangled. In the decades following, the science of psychosis transformed, shedding the language of psychoanalysis, and adopting the new scientific veneer of psychiatry. Today, as psychedelic science re-emerges, the research programs surrounding psychosis and psychedelics now stand in stark contrast. Here, I look closely at how these research programs respond to questions related to what is worth measuring, what is worth investigating, and how we ought to respond to these experiences. This comparison reveals radically different assumptions and values that guide each research paradigm and shape clinical practice. While psychedelic research often includes scales that seek to capture experiences of mysticism, meaningfulness, and ego dissolution, research related to psychosis focuses on the measurement of pathological symptoms and functioning. Research into psychosis primarily seeks universal and reductionist causal explanations and interventions, while psychedelic research embraces the importance of set and setting in shaping unique experiences. Responses to psychedelic crisis involve warmth, compassion, and support, while responses to psychotic experiences often involve restraint, seclusion, and weapons. I argue that these differences contain important lessons for psychiatry. However, as psychedelic research struggles to meet regulatory requirements and fit within the paradigm of evidence-based medicine, these differences may quickly dissolve.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phoebe Friesen
- Biomedical Ethics Unit, Department of Social Studies of Medicine, 5620McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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8
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Odland AU, Kristensen JL, Andreasen JT. Animal Behavior in Psychedelic Research. Pharmacol Rev 2022; 74:1176-1205. [PMID: 36180111 DOI: 10.1124/pharmrev.122.000590] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Psychedelic-assisted psychotherapy holds great promise in the treatment of mental health disorders. Research into 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) agonist psychedelic compounds has increased dramatically over the past two decades. In humans, these compounds produce drastic effects on consciousness, and their therapeutic potential relates to changes in the processing of emotional, social, and self-referential information. The use of animal behavior to study psychedelics is under debate, and this review provides a critical perspective on the translational value of animal behavior studies in psychedelic research. Acute activation of 5-HT2ARs produces head twitches and unique discriminative cues, disrupts sensorimotor gating, and stimulates motor activity while inhibiting exploration in rodents. The acute treatment with psychedelics shows discrepant results in conventional rodent tests of depression-like behaviors but generally induces anxiolytic-like effects and inhibits repetitive behavior in rodents. Psychedelics impair waiting impulsivity but show discrepant effects in other tests of cognitive function. Tests of social interaction also show conflicting results. Effects on measures of time perception depend on the experimental schedule. Lasting or delayed effects of psychedelics in rodent tests related to different behavioral domains appear to be rather sensitive to changes in experimental protocols. Studying the effects of psychedelics on animal behaviors of relevance to effects on psychiatric symptoms in humans, assessing lasting effects, publishing negative findings, and relating behaviors in rodents and humans to other more translatable readouts, such as neuroplastic changes, will improve the translational value of animal behavioral studies in psychedelic research. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Psychedelics like LSD and psilocybin have received immense interest as potential new treatments of psychiatric disorders. Psychedelics change high-order consciousness in humans, and there is debate about the use of animal behavior studies to investigate these compounds. This review provides an overview of the behavioral effects of 5-HT2AR agonist psychedelics in laboratory animals and discusses the translatability of the effects in animals to effects in humans. Possible ways to improve the utility of animal behavior in psychedelic research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna U Odland
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2100, Denmark
| | - Jesper L Kristensen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2100, Denmark
| | - Jesper T Andreasen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, 2100, Denmark
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9
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Duerler P, Vollenweider FX, Preller KH. A neurobiological perspective on social influence: Serotonin and social adaptation. J Neurochem 2022; 162:60-79. [PMID: 35274296 PMCID: PMC9322456 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2021] [Revised: 02/26/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Humans are inherently social beings. Being suggestible to each other's expectations enables pro-social skills that are crucial for social learning and adaptation. Despite its high relevance for psychiatry, the neurobiological mechanisms underlying social adaptation are still not well understood. This review therefore provides a conceptual framework covering various distinct mechanisms underlying social adaptation and explores the neuropharmacology - in particular the role of the serotonin (5-HT) system - modulating these mechanisms. This article therefore reviews empirical results on social influence processing and reconciles them with recent findings from psychedelic research on social processing to elucidate neurobiological and neuropharmacological underpinnings of social adaptation. Various computational, neurobiological, and neurochemical processes are involved in distinct mechanisms underlying social adaptation such as the multisensory process of social information integration that is crucial for the forming of self-representation and representations of social norms. This is again associated with self- and other-perception during social interactions as well as value-based decision making that guides our behaviour in daily interactions. We highlight the critical role of 5-HT in these processes and suggest that 5-HT can facilitate social learning and may represent an important target for treating psychiatric disorders characterized by impairments in social functioning. This framework also has important implications for psychedelic-assisted therapy as well as for the development of novel treatment approaches and future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Duerler
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Hospital for Psychiatry Zurich, Lenggstr. 31, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Franz X Vollenweider
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Hospital for Psychiatry Zurich, Lenggstr. 31, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Katrin H Preller
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, University Hospital for Psychiatry Zurich, Lenggstr. 31, Zurich, Switzerland
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10
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Chen ST, Hsieh CP, Lee MY, Chen LC, Huang CM, Chen HH, Chan MH. Betaine prevents and reverses the behavioral deficits and synaptic dysfunction induced by repeated ketamine exposure in mice. Biomed Pharmacother 2021; 144:112369. [PMID: 34715446 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2021.112369] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 10/19/2021] [Accepted: 10/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
As an N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor inhibitor, ketamine has become a popular recreational substance and currently is used to address treatment-resistant depression. Since heavy ketamine use is associated with persisting psychosis, cognitive impairments, and neuronal damage, the safety of ketamine treatment for depression should be concerned. The nutrient supplement betaine has been shown to counteract the acute ketamine-induced psychotomimetic effects and cognitive dysfunction through modulating NMDA receptors. This study aimed to determine whether the adjunctive or subsequent betaine treatment would improve the enduring behavioral disturbances and hippocampal synaptic abnormality induced by repeated ketamine exposure. Mice received ketamine twice daily for 14 days, either combined with betaine co-treatment or subsequent betaine post-treatment for 7 days. Thereafter, three-chamber social approach test, reciprocal social interaction, novel location/object recognition test, forced swimming test, and head-twitch response induced by serotonergic hallucinogen were monitored. Data showed that the enduring behavioral abnormalities after repeated ketamine exposure, including disrupted social behaviors, recognition memory impairments, and increased depression-like and hallucinogen-induced head-twitch responses, were remarkably improved by betaine co-treatment or post-treatment. Consistently, betaine protected and reversed the reduced hippocampal synaptic activity, such as decreases in field excitatory post-synaptic potentiation (fEPSP), long-term potentiation (LTP), and PSD-95 levels, after repeated ketamine treatment. These results demonstrated that both co-treatment and post-treatment with betaine could effectively prevent and reverse the adverse behavioral manifestations and hippocampal synaptic plasticity after repeated ketamine use, suggesting that betaine can be used as a novel adjunct therapy with ketamine for treatment-resistant depression and provide benefits for ketamine use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shao-Tsu Chen
- Department of Psychiatry, Tzu Chi University, 701, Section 3, Chung-Yang Road, Hualien, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Pin Hsieh
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Yi Lee
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Liao-Chen Chen
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Chien-Min Huang
- Animal Behavior Core National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, Miaoli, Taiwan
| | - Hwei-Hsien Chen
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Research, National Health Research Institutes, Miaoli, Taiwan; Animal Behavior Core National Health Research Institutes, 35 Keyan Road, Zhunan, Miaoli, Taiwan; Institute of Neuroscience, National Chengchi Uinversity, Taipei, Taiwan.
| | - Ming-Huan Chan
- Institute of Neuroscience, National Chengchi Uinversity, Taipei, Taiwan; Research Center for Mind, Brain, and Learning, National Changchi University, 64, Section 2, Zhinan Road, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung, Taiwan.
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11
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Kristensen JL, Märcher-Rørsted E, Nykodemová J. An Improved, Scalable Synthesis of the Selective Serotonin 2A Receptor Agonist 25CN-NBOH. SYNOPEN 2021. [DOI: 10.1055/a-1524-4439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract4-{2-[(2-hydroxybenzyl)amino]ethyl}-2,5-dimethoxybenzonitrile (25CN-NBOH) was first reported as a potent and highly selective serotonin 2A receptor (5-HT2AR) agonist in 2014. The compound has since found extensive use as a pharmacological tool in a variety of in vivo and in vitro studies. In the present study, we present an improved and scalable synthesis of 25CN-NBOH making this compound readily available to the scientific community.
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de Abreu MS, Giacomini ACVV, Demin KA, Galstyan DS, Zabegalov KN, Kolesnikova TO, Amstislavskaya TG, Strekalova T, Petersen EV, Kalueff AV. Unconventional anxiety pharmacology in zebrafish: Drugs beyond traditional anxiogenic and anxiolytic spectra. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2021; 207:173205. [PMID: 33991579 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2021.173205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Anxiety is the most prevalent brain disorder and a common cause of human disability. Animal models are critical for understanding anxiety pathogenesis and its pharmacotherapy. The zebrafish (Danio rerio) is increasingly utilized as a powerful model organism in anxiety research and anxiolytic drug screening. High similarity between human, rodent and zebrafish molecular targets implies shared signaling pathways involved in anxiety pathogenesis. However, mounting evidence shows that zebrafish behavior can be modulated by drugs beyond conventional anxiolytics or anxiogenics. Furthermore, these effects may differ from human and/or rodent responses, as such 'unconventional' drugs may affect zebrafish behavior despite having no such profiles (or exerting opposite effects) in humans or rodents. Here, we discuss the effects of several putative unconventional anxiotropic drugs (aspirin, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), nicotine, naloxone and naltrexone) and their potential mechanisms of action in zebrafish. Emphasizing the growing utility of zebrafish models in CNS drug discovery, such unconventional anxiety pharmacology may provide important, evolutionarily relevant insights into complex regulation of anxiety in biological systems. Albeit seemingly complicating direct translation from zebrafish into clinical phenotypes, this knowledge may instead foster the development of novel CNS drugs, eventually facilitating innovative treatment of patients based on novel 'unconventional' targets identified in fish models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Murilo S de Abreu
- Bioscience Institute, University of Passo Fundo, Passo Fundo, Brazil; Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology and Neurobiology, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Moscow, Russia; The International Zebrafish Neuroscience Research Consortium (ZNRC), Slidell, LA, USA.
| | - Ana C V V Giacomini
- Bioscience Institute, University of Passo Fundo, Passo Fundo, Brazil; Postgraduate Program in Environmental Sciences, University of Passo Fundo, Passo Fundo, Brazil
| | - Konstantin A Demin
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov Medical Research Center, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia; Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - David S Galstyan
- Institute of Experimental Medicine, Almazov Medical Research Center, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia; Granov Scientific Research Center of Radiology and Surgical Technologies, Ministry of Healthcare of Russian Federation, St. Petersburg, Russia
| | - Konstantin N Zabegalov
- Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia; Neurobiology Program, Sirius University, Sochi, Russia
| | - Tatyana O Kolesnikova
- Institute of Translational Biomedicine, St. Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russia; School of Chemistry, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia; Neurobiology Program, Sirius University, Sochi, Russia
| | - Tamara G Amstislavskaya
- Scientific Research Institute of Neuroscience and Medicine, Novosibirsk, Russia; Novosibirsk State University, Novosibirsk, Russia
| | - Tatyana Strekalova
- Department of Psychiatry and Neuropsychology, School for Mental Health and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, Maastricht, Netherlands; Laboratory of Psychiatric Neurobiology, Institute of Molecular Medicine and Department of Normal Physiology, Sechenov 1st Moscow State Medical University, Moscow, Russia; Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Moscow, Russia; Department of Preventive Medicine, Maastricht Medical Center Annadal, Maastricht, Netherlands
| | - Elena V Petersen
- Laboratory of Cell and Molecular Biology and Neurobiology, Moscow Institute of Physics and Technology, Moscow, Russia
| | - Allan V Kalueff
- School of Pharmacy, Southwest University, Chongqing, China; School of Chemistry, Ural Federal University, Ekaterinburg, Russia; Neurobiology Program, Sirius University, Sochi, Russia.
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De Gregorio D, Popic J, Enns JP, Inserra A, Skalecka A, Markopoulos A, Posa L, Lopez-Canul M, Qianzi H, Lafferty CK, Britt JP, Comai S, Aguilar-Valles A, Sonenberg N, Gobbi G. Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) promotes social behavior through mTORC1 in the excitatory neurotransmission. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2021; 118:e2020705118. [PMID: 33495318 PMCID: PMC7865169 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2020705118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Clinical studies have reported that the psychedelic lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) enhances empathy and social behavior (SB) in humans, but its mechanism of action remains elusive. Using a multidisciplinary approach including in vivo electrophysiology, optogenetics, behavioral paradigms, and molecular biology, the effects of LSD on SB and glutamatergic neurotransmission in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) were studied in male mice. Acute LSD (30 μg/kg) injection failed to increase SB. However, repeated LSD (30 μg/kg, once a day, for 7 days) administration promotes SB, without eliciting antidepressant/anxiolytic-like effects. Optogenetic inhibition of mPFC excitatory neurons dramatically inhibits social interaction and nullifies the prosocial effect of LSD. LSD potentiates the α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA) and 5-HT2A, but not N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) and 5-HT1A, synaptic responses in the mPFC and increases the phosphorylation of the serine-threonine protein kinases Akt and mTOR. In conditional knockout mice lacking Raptor (one of the structural components of the mTORC1 complex) in excitatory glutamatergic neurons (Raptorf/f:Camk2alpha-Cre), the prosocial effects of LSD and the potentiation of 5-HT2A/AMPA synaptic responses were nullified, demonstrating that LSD requires the integrity of mTORC1 in excitatory neurons to promote SB. Conversely, in knockout mice lacking Raptor in GABAergic neurons of the mPFC (Raptorf/f:Gad2-Cre), LSD promotes SB. These results indicate that LSD selectively enhances SB by potentiating mPFC excitatory transmission through 5-HT2A/AMPA receptors and mTOR signaling. The activation of 5-HT2A/AMPA/mTORC1 in the mPFC by psychedelic drugs should be explored for the treatment of mental diseases with SB impairments such as autism spectrum disorder and social anxiety disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo De Gregorio
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1;
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A3
| | - Jelena Popic
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A3
| | - Justine P Enns
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - Antonio Inserra
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - Agnieszka Skalecka
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A3
| | - Athanasios Markopoulos
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - Luca Posa
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - Martha Lopez-Canul
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | - He Qianzi
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
| | | | - Jonathan P Britt
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1B1
| | - Stefano Comai
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1
- Division of Neuroscience, Vita Salute San Raffaele University, 20132 Milan, Italy
| | | | - Nahum Sonenberg
- Department of Biochemistry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A3;
| | - Gabriella Gobbi
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, Department of Psychiatry, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada, H3A 1A1;
- Department of Neuroscience, Carleton University, Ottawa, ON, Canada, K1S 5B6
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14
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Effects of combined 5-HT 2A and cannabinoid receptor modulation on a schizophrenia-related prepulse inhibition deficit in mice. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:1643-1655. [PMID: 32095916 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05485-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex (PPI) is disrupted in several psychiatric disorders including schizophrenia. Understanding PPI pharmacology may help elucidate the pathophysiology of these disorders and lead to better treatments. Given the advantages of multi-target approaches for complex mental illnesses treatment, we have investigated the interaction between receptors known to modulate PPI (5-HT1A and 5-HT2A) and the neuromodulatory endocannabinoid system. OBJECTIVES To investigate serotonin and cannabinoid receptor (CBR) co-modulation in a model of PPI disruption relevant to schizophrenia METHODS: Male Swiss mice were pretreated with WIN 55,212-2 (CBR agonist), rimonabant (CB1R inverse agonist), 8-OH-DPAT (5-HT1A/7 agonist), and volinanserin (5-HT2A antagonist) or with a combination of a cannabinoid and a serotonergic drug. PPI disruption was induced by acute administration of MK-801. RESULTS WIN 55,212-2 and rimonabant did not change PPI nor block MK-801-induced deficits. 8-OH-DPAT increased PPI in control mice and, in a higher dose, inhibited MK-801-induced impairments. Volinanserin also increased PPI in control and MK-801-treated mice, presenting an inverted U-shaped dose-response curve. Co-administration of either cannabinoid ligand with 8-OH-DPAT did not change PPI; however, the combination of volinanserin with rimonabant increased PPI in both control and MK-801-exposed mice. CONCLUSIONS WIN 55,212-2 and rimonabant had similar effects in PPI. Moreover, serotonin and cannabinoid receptors interact to modulate PPI. While co-modulation of CBR and 5-HT1A receptors did not change PPI, a beneficial effect of 5-HT2A and CB1R antagonist combination was detected, possibly mediated through potentiation of 5-HT2A blockade effects by concomitant CB1R blockade.
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Langova V, Vales K, Horka P, Horacek J. The Role of Zebrafish and Laboratory Rodents in Schizophrenia Research. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:703. [PMID: 33101067 PMCID: PMC7500259 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Schizophrenia is a severe disorder characterized by positive, negative and cognitive symptoms, which are still not fully understood. The development of efficient antipsychotics requires animal models of a strong validity, therefore the aims of the article were to summarize the construct, face and predictive validity of schizophrenia models based on rodents and zebrafish, to compare the advantages and disadvantages of these models, and to propose future directions in schizophrenia modeling and indicate when it is reasonable to combine these models. The advantages of rodent models stem primarily from the high homology between rodent and human physiology, neurochemistry, brain morphology and circuitry. The advantages of zebrafish models stem in the high fecundity, fast development and transparency of the embryo. Disadvantages of both models originate in behavioral repertoires not allowing specific symptoms to be modeled, even when the models are combined. Especially modeling the verbal component of certain positive, negative and cognitive symptoms is currently impossible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronika Langova
- Translational Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Prague, Czechia.,Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Karel Vales
- Translational Neuroscience, National Institute of Mental Health, Prague, Czechia
| | - Petra Horka
- Institute for Environmental Studies, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czechia
| | - Jiri Horacek
- Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Prague, Czechia.,Brain Electrophysiology, National Institute of Mental Health, Prague, Czechia
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16
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García-Bea A, Miranda-Azpiazu P, Muguruza C, Marmolejo-Martinez-Artesero S, Diez-Alarcia R, Gabilondo AM, Callado LF, Morentin B, González-Maeso J, Meana JJ. Serotonin 5-HT 2A receptor expression and functionality in postmortem frontal cortex of subjects with schizophrenia: Selective biased agonism via G αi1-proteins. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2019; 29:1453-1463. [PMID: 31734018 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2019.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 10/17/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Serotonin 5-HT2A receptors (5-HT2ARs) have been implicated in schizophrenia. However, postmortem studies on 5-HT2ARs expression and functionality in schizophrenia are scarce. The 5-HT2AR mRNA and immunoreactive protein expression were evaluated in postmortem tissue from dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) of antipsychotic-free (n = 18) and antipsychotic-treated (n = 9) subjects with schizophrenia, and matched controls (n = 27). Functional coupling of 5-HT2AR to G-proteins was tested by measuring the activation induced by the agonist (±)-2,5-dimethoxy-4-iodoamphetamine hydrochloride ((±)DOI) in antibody-capture [35S]GTPγS scintillation proximity assays (SPA). In antipsychotic-free schizophrenia subjects, 5-HT2AR mRNA expression and protein immunoreactivity in total homogenates was similar to controls. In contrast, in antipsychotic-treated schizophrenia subjects, lower mRNA expression (60±9% vs controls) and a trend to reduced protein immunoreactivity (86±5% vs antipsychotic-free subjects) just in membrane-enriched fractions was observed. [35S]GTPγS SPA revealed a significant ~6% higher stimulation of Gαi1-protein by (±)DOI in schizophrenia, whereas activation of the canonical Gαq/11-protein pathway by (±)DOI remained unchanged. Expression of Gαi1- and Gαq/11-proteins did not differ between groups. Accordingly, in rats chronically treated with clozapine, but not with haloperidol, a 30-40% reduction was observed in 5-HT2AR mRNA expression, 5-HT2AR protein immunoreactivity and [3H]ketanserin binding in brain cortical membranes. Overall, the data suggest a supersensitive 5-HT2AR signaling through inhibitory Gαi1-proteins in schizophrenia. Together with previous results, a dysfunctional pro-hallucinogenic agonist-sensitive 5-HT2AR conformation in postmortem DLPFC of subjects with schizophrenia is proposed. Atypical antipsychotic treatment would contribute to counterbalance this 5-HT2AR supersensitivity by reducing receptor expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aintzane García-Bea
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - Patricia Miranda-Azpiazu
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain
| | - Carolina Muguruza
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain
| | | | - Rebeca Diez-Alarcia
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain; Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Spain
| | - Ane M Gabilondo
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain; Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Spain
| | - Luis F Callado
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain; Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Spain
| | - Benito Morentin
- Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Spain; Basque Institute of Legal Medicine, Spain
| | - Javier González-Maeso
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, Virginia Commonwealth University School of Medicine, VA, USA
| | - J Javier Meana
- Department of Pharmacology, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, 48940 Leioa, Bizkaia, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental, CIBERSAM, Spain; Biocruces Bizkaia Health Research Institute, Spain.
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17
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Popik P, Krawczyk M, Kuziak A, Bugno R, Hogendorf A, Staroń J, Nikiforuk A. Serotonin type 5A receptor antagonists inhibit D-lysergic acid diethylamide discriminatory cue in rats. J Psychopharmacol 2019; 33:1447-1455. [PMID: 31452444 DOI: 10.1177/0269881119867603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Like other psychedelics, D-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) affects numerous serotonin receptors, and according to the current dogma, the 5-HT2A receptors are considered the main target for its hallucinogenic effects. LSD, however, also displays agonistic activity at the 5-HT5A receptors, which mediate some of LSD-induced behavioural effects. METHODS Using male Sprague Dawley rats, we examined the effects of 5-HT2A and 5-HT5A receptor antagonists on LSD-induced stimulus control in the two-lever drug discrimination test using a FR10 schedule of reinforcement. RESULTS In animals trained to discriminate 0.08 mg/kg LSD from vehicle 15 minutes after injection, LSD produced dose-related increases in response, with an ED50 (±95% confidence limits) of 0.0384 (± 0.025-0.051) mg/kg). LSD-like responses were observed when the training dose of LSD was given 5-30 but not 90 minutes before the test. Confirming earlier reports, the 5-HT antagonist ketanserin (2 mg/kg) attenuated the LSD response in 50% of rats, and due to pretreatment with 0.2 and 2 mg/kg MDL 100907, 63% and 67% of animals, respectively, failed to select the LSD lever. We then investigated the effects of two 5-HT5A receptor antagonists, and we found that 56% and 60% of rats pretreated with 3 and 10 mg/kg SB 699551, respectively, failed to select the LSD lever. Due to pretreatment with 0.01 mg/kg ASP 5736, 58% of rats did not select the LSD lever. This dose also reduced the response rate but not the number of rats failing to complete the test. CONCLUSIONS The present results suggest that antagonists of the 5-HT5A receptor may inhibit subjective effects of LSD in rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Piotr Popik
- Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Martyna Krawczyk
- Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agata Kuziak
- Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Ryszard Bugno
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Adam Hogendorf
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Jakub Staroń
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Nikiforuk
- Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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Abstract
OBJECTIVE Psilocybin is a serotonin receptor agonist with a therapeutic potential for treatment-resistant depression and other psychiatric illnesses. We investigated whether the administration of psilocybin had an antidepressant-like effect in a rat model of depression. METHODS Using the Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rat model of depression, we assessed the antidepressant-like effect of psilocin and psilocybin, measured as a reduction in immobility time in the forced swim test (FST). We measured locomotor activity in an open field test (OFT) to control for stimulant properties of the drugs. We performed a set of experiments to test different doses, treatment paradigms, and timing of the tests in relation to the drug administration. RESULTS Psilocin and psilocybin showed no effect on immobility, struggling, or swimming behaviour in the FST and no effect on locomotor activity in the OFT. FSL rats did show significantly more immobility than their control strain, the Flinders Resistant Line, as expected. CONCLUSION Psilocin and psilocybin showed no antidepressant-like effect in the FSL rats, despite a positive effect in humans. This suggests that other animal models of depression and other behavioural tests may be more appropriate for translational studies in the effects of psilocybin.
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19
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Johnson MW, Hendricks PS, Barrett FS, Griffiths RR. Classic psychedelics: An integrative review of epidemiology, therapeutics, mystical experience, and brain network function. Pharmacol Ther 2019; 197:83-102. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2018.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 120] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
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20
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Bayne T, Carter O. Dimensions of consciousness and the psychedelic state. Neurosci Conscious 2018; 2018:niy008. [PMID: 30254752 PMCID: PMC6146157 DOI: 10.1093/nc/niy008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2018] [Revised: 06/06/2018] [Accepted: 07/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
It has often been suggested in the popular and academic literature that the psychedelic state qualifies as a higher state of consciousness relative to the state of normal waking awareness. This article subjects this proposal to critical scrutiny, focusing on the question of what it would mean for a state of consciousness to be 'higher'. We begin by considering the contrast between conscious contents and conscious global states. We then review the changes in conscious global state associated with psychedelic drug use, focusing on the effects of two serotonergic hallucinogens: psilocybin and lysergic acid diethylamide. Limiting our review to findings obtained from lab-based experiments and reported in peer-reviewed journals, we prioritize the more common and reliably induced effects obtained through subjective questionnaires and psychophysical measures. The findings are grouped into three broad categories (sensory perception, cognitive function, and experiences of unity) and demonstrate that although certain aspects of consciousness are improved or enhanced in the psychedelic state, many of the functional capacities that are associated with consciousness are seriously compromised. Psychedelic-induced states of consciousness are indeed remarkable in many ways, but it is inappropriate to regard them as 'higher' states of consciousness. The fact that psychedelics affect different aspects of consciousness in fundamentally different ways provides evidence against the unidimensional (or 'level-based') view of consciousness, and instead provides strong support for a multidimensional conception of conscious states. The final section of the article considers the implications of this analysis for two prominent theories of consciousness: the Global Workspace Theory and Integrated Information Theory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim Bayne
- School of Philosophical, Historical and International Studies, 20 Chancellors Walk, Monash University, VIC, Australia
| | - Olivia Carter
- School of Psychological Sciences, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC, Australia
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21
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Schmidt A, Müller F, Lenz C, Dolder PC, Schmid Y, Zanchi D, Lang UE, Liechti ME, Borgwardt S. Acute LSD effects on response inhibition neural networks. Psychol Med 2018; 48:1464-1473. [PMID: 28967351 DOI: 10.1017/s0033291717002914] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent evidence shows that the serotonin 2A receptor (5-hydroxytryptamine2A receptor, 5-HT2AR) is critically involved in the formation of visual hallucinations and cognitive impairments in lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD)-induced states and neuropsychiatric diseases. However, the interaction between 5-HT2AR activation, cognitive impairments and visual hallucinations is still poorly understood. This study explored the effect of 5-HT2AR activation on response inhibition neural networks in healthy subjects by using LSD and further tested whether brain activation during response inhibition under LSD exposure was related to LSD-induced visual hallucinations. METHODS In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study, LSD (100 µg) and placebo were administered to 18 healthy subjects. Response inhibition was assessed using a functional magnetic resonance imaging Go/No-Go task. LSD-induced visual hallucinations were measured using the 5 Dimensions of Altered States of Consciousness (5D-ASC) questionnaire. RESULTS Relative to placebo, LSD administration impaired inhibitory performance and reduced brain activation in the right middle temporal gyrus, superior/middle/inferior frontal gyrus and anterior cingulate cortex and in the left superior frontal and postcentral gyrus and cerebellum. Parahippocampal activation during response inhibition was differently related to inhibitory performance after placebo and LSD administration. Finally, activation in the left superior frontal gyrus under LSD exposure was negatively related to LSD-induced cognitive impairments and visual imagery. CONCLUSION Our findings show that 5-HT2AR activation by LSD leads to a hippocampal-prefrontal cortex-mediated breakdown of inhibitory processing, which might subsequently promote the formation of LSD-induced visual imageries. These findings help to better understand the neuropsychopharmacological mechanisms of visual hallucinations in LSD-induced states and neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Schmidt
- Department of Psychiatry (UPK),University of Basel,Basel,Switzerland
| | - F Müller
- Department of Psychiatry (UPK),University of Basel,Basel,Switzerland
| | - C Lenz
- Department of Psychiatry (UPK),University of Basel,Basel,Switzerland
| | - P C Dolder
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research,University of Basel, University Hospital Basel,Basel,Switzerland
| | - Y Schmid
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research,University of Basel, University Hospital Basel,Basel,Switzerland
| | - D Zanchi
- Department of Psychiatry (UPK),University of Basel,Basel,Switzerland
| | - U E Lang
- Department of Psychiatry (UPK),University of Basel,Basel,Switzerland
| | - M E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology,Department of Biomedicine and Department of Clinical Research,University of Basel, University Hospital Basel,Basel,Switzerland
| | - S Borgwardt
- Department of Psychiatry (UPK),University of Basel,Basel,Switzerland
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22
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McFadden LM, Cordie R, Livermont T, Johansen A. Behavioral and Serotonergic Changes in the Frontal Cortex Following Methamphetamine Self-Administration. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2018; 21:758-763. [PMID: 29762664 PMCID: PMC6070086 DOI: 10.1093/ijnp/pyy044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2017] [Revised: 04/11/2018] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Methamphetamine use is associated with a variety of negative health outcomes, including psychosis. The frontal cortex serotonin receptors are thought to contribute to psychosis-like behaviors. This study investigated changes in serotonergic markers in the frontal cortex following methamphetamine self-administration and hallucinogenic drug-induced behavior. METHODS Consistent with previously published studies, freely cycling male and female rats were allowed to self-administer methamphetamine (males: 0.12 mg/infusion; females: 0.09 mg/infusion) or saline (10 µL) for 7 days. On the day following self-administration or following 10 days of extinction training, animals were given the serotonin 2A/2C agonist, 1-(2,5-Dimethoxy-4-iodophenyl)-2-aminopropane hydrochloride (2 mg/kg, i.p.), and head twitches were analyzed. Autoradiography was also used to assess serotonin receptors and transporters in the frontal cortex following self-administration. RESULTS Methamphetamine self-administration led to an increase in DOI-induced head-twitch behavior compared to saline only on the day following self-administration. Increases in serotonin receptors in the orbitofrontal cortex and decreases in serotonin transporters in the orbitofrontal cortex and infralimbic cortex were observed following methamphetamine self-administration as assessed by autoradiography. CONCLUSIONS Methamphetamine self-administration was associated with serotonergic alterations in the frontal cortex, which may underlie behavioral changes related to methamphetamine-associated psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa M McFadden
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota,Correspondence: Lisa M. McFadden, PhD, University of South Dakota, 414 E. Clark St., Vermillion, SD 57069 ()
| | - Rebecca Cordie
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota
| | - Tamee Livermont
- Division of Basic Biomedical Sciences, University of South Dakota, Vermillion, South Dakota
| | - Andrew Johansen
- School of Dentistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
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Abstract
BACKGROUND A resurgence of neurobiological and clinical research is currently underway into the therapeutic potential of serotonergic or 'classical' psychedelics, such as the prototypical psychedelic drug lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin (4-phosphoryloxy-N,Ndimethyltryptamine), and ayahuasca - a betacarboline- and dimethyltryptamine (DMT)-containing Amazonian beverage. The aim of this review is to introduce readers to the similarities and dissimilarities between psychedelic states and night dreams, and to draw conclusions related to therapeutic applications of psychedelics in psychiatry. METHODS Research literature related to psychedelics and dreaming is reviewed, and these two states of consciousness are systematically compared. Relevant conclusions with regard to psychedelicassisted therapy will be provided. RESULTS Common features between psychedelic states and night dreams include perception, mental imagery, emotion activation, fear memory extinction, and sense of self and body. Differences between these two states are related to differential perceptual input from the environment, clarity of consciousness and meta-cognitive abilities. Therefore, psychedelic states are closest to lucid dreaming which is characterized by a mixed state of dreaming and waking consciousness. CONCLUSION The broad overlap between dreaming and psychedelic states supports the notion that psychedelics acutely induce dreamlike subjective experiences which may have long-term beneficial effects on psychosocial functioning and well-being. Future clinical studies should examine how therapeutic outcome is related to the acute dreamlike effects of psychedelics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rainer Kraehenmann
- Neuropsychopharmacology and Brain Imaging, Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, Faculty of Medicine, University of Zurich, Zurich. Switzerland
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Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Twamley B, Westphal F, Elliott SP, Wallach J, Stratford A, Klein LM, McCorvy JD, Nichols DE, Halberstadt AL. Return of the lysergamides. Part IV: Analytical and pharmacological characterization of lysergic acid morpholide (LSM-775). Drug Test Anal 2018; 10:310-322. [PMID: 28585392 PMCID: PMC6230476 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2017] [Revised: 05/31/2017] [Accepted: 06/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) is perhaps one of the best-known psychoactive substances and many structural modifications of this prototypical lysergamide have been investigated. Several lysergamides were recently encountered as 'research chemicals' or new psychoactive substances (NPS). Although lysergic acid morpholide (LSM-775) appeared on the NPS market in 2013, there is disagreement in the literature regarding the potency and psychoactive properties of LSM-775 in humans. The present investigation attempts to address the gap of information that exists regarding the analytical profile and pharmacological effects of LSM-775. A powdered sample of LSM-775 was characterized by X-ray crystallography, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS), high mass accuracy electrospray MS/MS, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) diode array detection, HPLC quadrupole MS, and GC solid-state infrared analysis. Screening for receptor affinity and functional efficacy revealed that LSM-775 acts as a nonselective agonist at 5-HT1A and 5-HT2A receptors. Head twitch studies were conducted in C57BL/6J mice to determine whether LSM-775 activates 5-HT2A receptors and produces hallucinogen-like effects in vivo. LSM-775 did not induce the head twitch response unless 5-HT1A receptors were blocked by pretreatment with the antagonist WAY-100,635 (1 mg/kg, subcutaneous). These findings suggest that 5-HT1A activation by LSM-775 masks its ability to induce the head twitch response, which is potentially consistent with reports in the literature indicating that LSM-775 is only capable of producing weak LSD-like effects in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Pierce V. Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Brendan Twamley
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Folker Westphal
- Section Narcotics/Toxicology, State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Jason Wallach
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Landon M. Klein
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - John D. McCorvy
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - David E. Nichols
- Division of Chemical Biology and Medicinal Chemistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Adam L. Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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25
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The central serotonin2B receptor as a new pharmacological target for the treatment of dopamine-related neuropsychiatric disorders: Rationale and current status of research. Pharmacol Ther 2018; 181:143-155. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2017.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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26
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Abstract
This chapter reviews what is known about the therapeutic uses of the serotonergic or classic hallucinogens, i.e., psychoactive drugs such as LSD and psilocybin that exert their effects primarily through agonist activity at serotonin 2A (5HT2A) receptors. Following a review of the history of human use and scientific study of these drugs, the data from clinical research are summarized, including extensive work on the use of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of alcoholism and other addictions, studies of the use of LSD and psilocybin to relieve distress concerning death, particularly in patients with advanced or terminal cancer, and more limited data concerning the use of classic hallucinogens to treat mood and anxiety disorders. A survey of possible mechanisms of clinically relevant effects is provided. The well-established safety of classic hallucinogens is reviewed. To provide a clinical perspective, case summaries are provided of two individuals who received treatment in recent controlled trials of psilocybin: one being treated for alcoholism, the other suffering from anxiety and depression related to fear of death due to a cancer diagnosis. Although promising early phase research conducted from the 1950s through the early 1970s was discontinued before firm conclusions could be reached concerning the efficacy of any of the classic hallucinogens for any clinical condition, the research that was conducted in that era strongly suggests that classic hallucinogens have clinically relevant effects, particularly in the case of LSD treatment of alcoholism. In the past decade, clinical trials have resumed investigating the effects of classic hallucinogens in the treatment of existential distress in the face of cancer, and in the treatment of addictions including alcoholism and nicotine addiction. The studies that have been completed to date are not sufficient to establish efficacy, but the outcomes have been very encouraging, and larger trials, up to and including phase 3, are now underway or being planned. Although research has elucidated many of the acute neurobiological and psychological effects of classic hallucinogens on humans, animals, and in vitro systems, the mechanisms of clinically relevant persisting effects remain poorly understood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael P Bogenschutz
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York City, USA.
| | - Stephen Ross
- Department of Psychiatry, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York City, USA
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28
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Abstract
Psilocybin has recently attracted a great deal of attention as a clinical research and therapeutic tool. The aim of this paper is to bridge two major knowledge gaps regarding its behavioural pharmacology - sex differences and the underlying receptor mechanisms. We used psilocin (0.25, 1 and 4 mg/kg), an active metabolite of psilocybin, in two behavioural paradigms - the open-field test and prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle reaction. Sex differences were evaluated with respect to the phase of the female cycle. The contribution of serotonin receptors in the behavioural action was tested in male rats with selective serotonin receptor antagonists: 5-HT1A receptor antagonist (WAY100635 1 mg/kg), 5-HT2A receptor antagonist (MDL100907 0.5 mg/kg), 5-HT2B receptor antagonist (SB215505 1 mg/kg) and 5-HT2C receptor antagonist (SB242084 1 mg/kg). Psilocin induced dose-dependent inhibition of locomotion and suppression of normal behaviour in rats (behavioural serotonin syndrome, impaired PPI). The effects were more pronounced in male rats than in females. The inhibition of locomotion was normalized by 5-HT1A and 5-HT2B/C antagonists; however, PPI was not affected significantly by these antagonists. Our findings highlight an important issue of sex-specific reactions to psilocin and that apart from 5-HT2A-mediated effects 5-HT1A and 5-HT2C/B receptors also play an important role. These findings have implications for recent clinical trials.
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29
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Differential effects of antipsychotic and propsychotic drugs on prepulse inhibition and locomotor activity in Roman high- (RHA) and low-avoidance (RLA) rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2017; 234:957-975. [PMID: 28154892 PMCID: PMC5492384 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-017-4534-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Animal models with predictive and construct validity are necessary for developing novel and efficient therapeutics for psychiatric disorders. OBJECTIVES We have carried out a pharmacological characterization of the Roman high- (RHA-I) and low-avoidance (RLA-I) rat strains with different acutely administered propsychotic (DOI, MK-801) and antipsychotic drugs (haloperidol, clozapine), as well as apomorphine, on prepulse inhibition (PPI) of startle and locomotor activity (activity cages). RESULTS RHA-I rats display a consistent deficit of PPI compared with RLA-I rats. The typical antipsychotic haloperidol (dopamine D2 receptor antagonist) reversed the PPI deficit characteristic of RHA-I rats (in particular at 65 and 70 dB prepulse intensities) and reduced locomotion in both strains. The atypical antipsychotic clozapine (serotonin/dopamine receptor antagonist) did not affect PPI in either strain, but decreased locomotion in a dose-dependent manner in both rat strains. The mixed dopamine D1/D2 agonist, apomorphine, at the dose of 0.05 mg/kg, decreased PPI in RHA-I, but not RLA-I rats. The hallucinogen drug DOI (5-HT2A agonist; 0.1-1.0 mg/kg) disrupted PPI in RLA-I rats in a dose-dependent manner at the 70 dB prepulse intensity, while in RHA-I rats, only the 0.5 mg/kg dose impaired PPI at the 80 dB prepulse intensity. DOI slightly decreased locomotion in both strains. Finally, clozapine attenuated the PPI impairment induced by the NMDA receptor antagonist MK-801 only in RLA-I rats. CONCLUSIONS These results add experimental evidence to the view that RHA-I rats represent a model with predictive and construct validity of some dopamine and 5-HT2A receptor-related features of schizophrenia.
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30
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De Gregorio D, Comai S, Posa L, Gobbi G. d-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) as a Model of Psychosis: Mechanism of Action and Pharmacology. Int J Mol Sci 2016; 17:E1953. [PMID: 27886063 PMCID: PMC5133947 DOI: 10.3390/ijms17111953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
d-Lysergic Acid Diethylamide (LSD) is known for its hallucinogenic properties and psychotic-like symptoms, especially at high doses. It is indeed used as a pharmacological model of psychosis in preclinical research. The goal of this review was to understand the mechanism of action of psychotic-like effects of LSD. We searched Pubmed, Web of Science, Scopus, Google Scholar and articles' reference lists for preclinical studies regarding the mechanism of action involved in the psychotic-like effects induced by LSD. LSD's mechanism of action is pleiotropic, primarily mediated by the serotonergic system in the Dorsal Raphe, binding the 5-HT2A receptor as a partial agonist and 5-HT1A as an agonist. LSD also modulates the Ventral Tegmental Area, at higher doses, by stimulating dopamine D₂, Trace Amine Associate receptor 1 (TAAR₁) and 5-HT2A. More studies clarifying the mechanism of action of the psychotic-like symptoms or psychosis induced by LSD in humans are needed. LSD's effects are mediated by a pleiotropic mechanism involving serotonergic, dopaminergic, and glutamatergic neurotransmission. Thus, the LSD-induced psychosis is a useful model to test the therapeutic efficacy of potential novel antipsychotic drugs, particularly drugs with dual serotonergic and dopaminergic (DA) mechanism or acting on TAAR₁ receptors.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Antipsychotic Agents/pharmacology
- Behavior, Animal/drug effects
- Disease Models, Animal
- Dopamine/metabolism
- Dopamine/pharmacology
- Dorsal Raphe Nucleus/drug effects
- Dorsal Raphe Nucleus/metabolism
- Dorsal Raphe Nucleus/physiopathology
- Drug Evaluation, Preclinical
- Hallucinogens/metabolism
- Hallucinogens/pharmacology
- Humans
- Lysergic Acid Diethylamide/metabolism
- Lysergic Acid Diethylamide/pharmacology
- Psychotic Disorders/drug therapy
- Psychotic Disorders/metabolism
- Psychotic Disorders/physiopathology
- Rats
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT1A/metabolism
- Receptor, Serotonin, 5-HT2A/metabolism
- Receptors, Dopamine/metabolism
- Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled/metabolism
- Receptors, Glutamate/metabolism
- Serotonin Receptor Agonists/metabolism
- Serotonin Receptor Agonists/pharmacology
- Synaptic Transmission/drug effects
- Ventral Tegmental Area/drug effects
- Ventral Tegmental Area/metabolism
- Ventral Tegmental Area/physiopathology
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Affiliation(s)
- Danilo De Gregorio
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Stefano Comai
- Division of Neuroscience, San Raffaele Scientific Institute and Vita-Salute University, 20132 Milan, Italy.
| | - Luca Posa
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada.
| | - Gabriella Gobbi
- Neurobiological Psychiatry Unit, McGill University, Montreal, QC H3A 1A1, Canada.
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31
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Cope ZA, Halberstadt AL, van Enkhuizen J, Flynn AD, Breier M, Swerdlow NR, Geyer MA, Young JW. Premature responses in the five-choice serial reaction time task reflect rodents' temporal strategies: evidence from no-light and pharmacological challenges. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2016; 233:3513-25. [PMID: 27534540 PMCID: PMC5023490 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-016-4389-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The five-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRTT) is regularly used to study attention and impulsivity. In the 5-CSRTT, rodents initiate a trial, then after an inter-trial interval (ITI), a light appears in one of five holes. Responding in the lit vs. unlit hole reflects attention (accuracy), while responding prematurely before a light appears is suggested to reflect impulsivity/response disinhibition. Comparison of rat and mouse 5-CSRTT performance has raised questions on the validity of premature responses as measuring impulsivity/response inhibition. To minimize effort, rodents may use a temporal strategy, enabling their "timing" of the ITI, minimizing the need to attend during this delay. Greater reliance on this strategy could result in premature responses due to "guesses" if their timing was poor/altered. OBJECTIVES To assess the degree to which rats and/or mice utilize a temporal strategy, we challenged performance using infrequent no-light trials during 5-CSRTT performance. RESULTS Even when no light appeared when one was expected, rats responded ~60 % compared to ~40 % in mice, indicating a greater reliance on a temporal strategy by rats than by mice. Consistent with this hypothesis, rats made more premature responses than mice. Additional studies using a temporal discrimination task and a 5-CSRTT variant demonstrated that delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol, the active ingredient in cannabis, slowed temporal perception and reduced premature responses. CONCLUSIONS These data provide behavioral and pharmacological evidence indicating that premature responses are heavily influenced by temporal perception. Hence, they may reflect an aspect of waiting impulsivity, but not response disinhibition, an important distinction for translational clinical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zackary A. Cope
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804
| | - Adam L. Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804,Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Jordy van Enkhuizen
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804,Division of Pharmacology, Utrecht Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, Utrecht University, Universiteitsweg 99, 3584 CG Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | - Aaron D. Flynn
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804
| | - Michelle Breier
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804
| | - Neal R. Swerdlow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804
| | - Mark A. Geyer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804,Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA
| | - Jared W. Young
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804,Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA,Correspondence: Jared W. Young, Ph.D., Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, California, 92093-0804, Tel: +1 619 543 3582, Fax: +1 619 735 9205,
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32
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Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Westphal F, Stratford A, Elliott SP, Hoang K, Wallach J, Halberstadt AL. Return of the lysergamides. Part I: Analytical and behavioural characterization of 1-propionyl-d-lysergic acid diethylamide (1P-LSD). Drug Test Anal 2016; 8:891-902. [PMID: 26456305 PMCID: PMC4829483 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2015] [Revised: 08/20/2015] [Accepted: 08/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
1-Propionyl-d-lysergic acid diethylamide hemitartrate (1P-LSD) has become available as a 'research chemical' in the form of blotters and powdered material. This non-controlled derivative of d-lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) has previously not been described in the published literature despite being closely related to 1-acetyl-LSD (ALD-52), which was developed in the 1950s. This study describes the characterization of 1P-LSD in comparison with LSD using various chromatographic and mass spectrometric methods, infrared and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. An important feature common to LSD and other serotonergic hallucinogens is that they produce 5-HT2A -receptor activation and induce the head-twitch response (HTR) in rats and mice. In order to assess whether 1P-LSD displays LSD-like properties and activates the 5-HT2A receptor, male C57BL/6 J mice were injected with vehicle (saline) or 1P-LSD (0.025-0.8 mg/kg, IP) and HTR assessed for 30 min using magnetometer coil recordings. It was found that 1P-LSD produced a dose-dependent increase in HTR counts, and that it had ~38% (ED50 = 349.6 nmol/kg) of the potency of LSD (ED50 = 132.8 nmol/kg). Furthermore, HTR was abolished when 1P-LSD administration followed pretreatment with the selective 5-HT2A receptor antagonist M100907 (0.1 mg/kg, SC), which was consistent with the concept that the behavioural response was mediated by activation of the 5-HT2A receptor. These results indicate that 1P-LSD produces LSD-like effects in mice, consistent with its classification as a serotonergic hallucinogen. Nevertheless, the extent to which 1P-LSD might show psychoactive effects in humans similar to LSD remains to be investigated. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
| | - Pierce V. Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Folker Westphal
- State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Section Narcotics/Toxicology, Mühlenweg 166, D-24116 Kiel, Germany
| | | | - Simon P. Elliott
- ROAR Forensics, Malvern Hills Science Park, Geraldine Road, WR14 3SZ, UK
| | - Khoa Hoang
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Jason Wallach
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Philadelphia College of Pharmacy, University of the Sciences, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Adam L. Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804, USA
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Tófoli LF, de Araujo DB. Treating Addiction: Perspectives from EEG and Imaging Studies on Psychedelics. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF NEUROBIOLOGY 2016; 129:157-85. [PMID: 27503452 DOI: 10.1016/bs.irn.2016.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Despite reports of apparent benefits, social and political pressure beginning in the late 1960s effectively banned scientific inquiry into psychedelic substances. Covert examination of psychedelics persisted through the 1990s; the turn of the century and especially the past 10 years, however, has seen a resurgent interest in psychedelic substances (eg, LSD, ayahuasca, psilocybin). This chapter outlines relevant EEG and brain imaging studies evaluating the effects of psychedelics on the brain. This chapter also reviews evidence of the use of psychedelics as adjunct therapy for a number of psychiatric and addictive disorders. In particular, psychedelics appear to have efficacy in treating depression and alcohol-use disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- L F Tófoli
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil.
| | - D B de Araujo
- Brain Institute/Hospital Universitario Onofre Lopes, UFRN, Natal, Brazil
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34
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Cronenwett WJ. Schizophrenia Pharmacology: Past, Present, and Future Targets for Intervention. FOCUS (AMERICAN PSYCHIATRIC PUBLISHING) 2016; 14:308-314. [PMID: 31975811 PMCID: PMC6526787 DOI: 10.1176/appi.focus.20160009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The first medication for schizophrenia was discovered serendipitously. Years later, it was shown that the medication worked by blocking dopamine, and to this date, all available antipsychotic medications also work by blocking dopamine. They differ, however, in many other respects. The so-called first-generation medications have a wide range of receptor affinities, but in all cases, they have a higher affinity for dopamine receptors than for serotonin receptors. In contrast, so-called second-generation medications have a higher affinity for serotonin receptors than for dopamine receptors. A third category of medication acts as a partial agonist at the dopamine receptor. It is likely that a fourth category will also become available and these medications will act as agonists at the N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor, although clinical trials thus far have struggled to demonstrate efficacy. In addition to medications that treat symptoms of psychosis, medications are under development to directly target some of the more fundamental aspects of cognition that are impaired in schizophrenia, including memory, sensory processing, attention, and executive function. Several promising strategies are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Will J Cronenwett
- Dr. Cronenwett is with the Stone Mental Health Center, Northwestern Memorial Hospital, and the Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago (e-mail: )
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35
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Brandt SD, Kavanagh PV, Dowling G, Talbot B, Westphal F, Meyer MR, Maurer HH, Halberstadt AL. Analytical characterization of N,N-diallyltryptamine (DALT) and 16 ring-substituted derivatives. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:115-126. [PMID: 27100373 DOI: 10.1002/dta.1974] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2016] [Revised: 03/01/2016] [Accepted: 03/02/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Many N,N-dialkylated tryptamines show psychoactive properties in humans and the number of derivatives involved in multidisciplinary areas of research has grown over the last few decades. Whereas some derivatives form the basis of a range of medicinal products, others are predominantly encountered as recreational drugs, and in some cases, the areas of therapeutic and recreational use can overlap. In recent years, 5-methoxy-N,N-diallyltryptamine (5-MeO-DALT) has appeared as a new psychoactive substance (NPS) and 'research chemical' whereas 4-acetoxy-DALT and the ring-unsubstituted DALT have only been detected very recently. Strategies pursued in the authors' laboratories included the preparation and biological evaluation of previously unreported N,N-diallyltryptamines (DALTs). This report describes the analytical characterization of 17 DALTs. Fifteen DALTs were prepared by a microwave-accelerated Speeter and Anthony procedure following established procedures developed previously in the authors' laboratories. In addition to DALT, the substances included in this study were 2-phenyl-, 4-acetoxy-, 4-hydroxy-, 4,5-ethylenedioxy-, 5-methyl-, 5-methoxy-, 5-methoxy-2-methyl-, 5-ethoxy-, 5-fluoro-, 5-fluoro-2-methyl-, 5-chloro-, 5-bromo-, 5,6-methylenedioxy-, 6-fluoro-, 7-methyl, and 7-ethyl-DALT, respectively. The DALTs were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), gas chromatography (GC) quadrupole and ion trap (EI/CI) mass spectrometry (MS), low and high mass accuracy MS/MS, photodiode array detection, and GC solid-state infrared analysis, respectively. A comprehensive collection of spectral data was obtained that are provided to research communities who face the challenge of encountering newly emerging substances where analytical data are not available. These data are also relevant to researchers who might wish to explore the clinical and non-clinical uses of these substances. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK.,The Alexander Shulgin Research Institute, 1483 Shulgin Road, Lafayette, CA, 94549, USA
| | - Pierce V Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Geraldine Dowling
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James's Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Brian Talbot
- School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Trinity College Dublin, Dublin 2, Ireland
| | - Folker Westphal
- State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Section Narcotics/Toxicology, D-24116, Kiel, Germany
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, D-69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hans H Maurer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Saarland University, D-66421, Homburg (Saar), Germany
| | - Adam L Halberstadt
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093-0804, USA
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36
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Abstract
Psychedelics (serotonergic hallucinogens) are powerful psychoactive substances that alter perception and mood and affect numerous cognitive processes. They are generally considered physiologically safe and do not lead to dependence or addiction. Their origin predates written history, and they were employed by early cultures in many sociocultural and ritual contexts. After the virtually contemporaneous discovery of (5R,8R)-(+)-lysergic acid-N,N-diethylamide (LSD)-25 and the identification of serotonin in the brain, early research focused intensively on the possibility that LSD and other psychedelics had a serotonergic basis for their action. Today there is a consensus that psychedelics are agonists or partial agonists at brain serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptors, with particular importance on those expressed on apical dendrites of neocortical pyramidal cells in layer V. Several useful rodent models have been developed over the years to help unravel the neurochemical correlates of serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine 2A receptor activation in the brain, and a variety of imaging techniques have been employed to identify key brain areas that are directly affected by psychedelics. Recent and exciting developments in the field have occurred in clinical research, where several double-blind placebo-controlled phase 2 studies of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy in patients with cancer-related psychosocial distress have demonstrated unprecedented positive relief of anxiety and depression. Two small pilot studies of psilocybin-assisted psychotherapy also have shown positive benefit in treating both alcohol and nicotine addiction. Recently, blood oxygen level-dependent functional magnetic resonance imaging and magnetoencephalography have been employed for in vivo brain imaging in humans after administration of a psychedelic, and results indicate that intravenously administered psilocybin and LSD produce decreases in oscillatory power in areas of the brain's default mode network.
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Affiliation(s)
- David E Nichols
- Eschelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina
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Krebs MO. Thérèse Lempérière : ses travaux sur les psychotropes et perspectives actuelles. ANNALES MEDICO-PSYCHOLOGIQUES 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.amp.2015.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Rietveld L, van der Hoek T, van Beek MHCT, Schellekens AFA. Familial liability for metoprolol-induced psychosis. Gen Hosp Psychiatry 2015; 37:620.e5-6. [PMID: 26184855 DOI: 10.1016/j.genhosppsych.2015.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2015] [Revised: 06/19/2015] [Accepted: 06/22/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Beta-blockers are commonly used in the treatment of hypertension and cardiac arrhythmias. The incidence of neuropsychiatric side effects is generally low. This case report shows the potential familial liability of a metoprolol-induced psychosis. METHOD We report a case of metoprolol-induced psychosis. Potential pharmocogenetic factors mediating this familial metoprolol-induced psychosis are discussed. RESULTS A middle-aged man developed psychosis after starting metoprolol, which diminished after ceasing the medication. Two of his family members experienced similar symptoms after using metoprolol. All family members were genotyped as CYP2D6*4 allele carriers indicating reduced CYP2D6 enzyme activity. CONCLUSION The case presented here suggests a potential familial liability for metoprolol- induced psychosis. Pharmacokinetic mechanisms are hypothesized to mediate this familial liability through genetic variation in the CYP2D6 genotype. A family history of psychotic symptoms after treatment with beta-blockers should be taken into account, when prescribing this beta-blocker.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Rietveld
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Department of Psychiatry, Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
| | - T van der Hoek
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Department of Psychiatry, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Mental Health Organization (MHO) GGZ Oost Brabant Land van Cuijk en Noord Limburg, Boxmeer, The Netherlands
| | - M H C T van Beek
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Department of Psychiatry, Nijmegen, the Netherlands
| | - A F A Schellekens
- Radboud University Medical Centre, Department of Psychiatry, Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Donders Institute for Brain Cognition and Behaviour, Centre for Neuroscience, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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Acute Effects of Lysergic Acid Diethylamide in Healthy Subjects. Biol Psychiatry 2015; 78:544-53. [PMID: 25575620 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.11.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 258] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2014] [Revised: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/11/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND After no research in humans for >40 years, there is renewed interest in using lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) in clinical psychiatric research and practice. There are no modern studies on the subjective and autonomic effects of LSD, and its endocrine effects are unknown. In animals, LSD disrupts prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle response, and patients with schizophrenia exhibit similar impairments in PPI. However, no data are available on the effects of LSD on PPI in humans. METHODS In a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study, LSD (200 μg) and placebo were administered to 16 healthy subjects (8 women, 8 men). Outcome measures included psychometric scales; investigator ratings; PPI of the acoustic startle response; and autonomic, endocrine, and adverse effects. RESULTS Administration of LSD to healthy subjects produced pronounced alterations in waking consciousness that lasted 12 hours. The predominant effects induced by LSD included visual hallucinations, audiovisual synesthesia, and positively experienced derealization and depersonalization phenomena. Subjective well-being, happiness, closeness to others, openness, and trust were increased by LSD. Compared with placebo, LSD decreased PPI. LSD significantly increased blood pressure, heart rate, body temperature, pupil size, plasma cortisol, prolactin, oxytocin, and epinephrine. Adverse effects produced by LSD completely subsided within 72 hours. No severe acute adverse effects were observed. CONCLUSIONS In addition to marked hallucinogenic effects, LSD exerts methylenedioxymethamphetamine-like empathogenic mood effects that may be useful in psychotherapy. LSD altered sensorimotor gating in a human model of psychosis, supporting the use of LSD in translational psychiatric research. In a controlled clinical setting, LSD can be used safely, but it produces significant sympathomimetic stimulation.
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Baumeister D, Tojo LM, Tracy DK. Legal highs: staying on top of the flood of novel psychoactive substances. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2015; 5:97-132. [PMID: 26240749 PMCID: PMC4521440 DOI: 10.1177/2045125314559539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
There has been growing clinical, public, and media awareness and concern about the availability and potential harmfulness of so-called 'legal highs', which are more appropriately called new or novel psychoactive substances (NPS). A cat-and-mouse process has emerged wherein unknown chemists and laboratories are producing new, and as yet nonproscribed, compounds for human consumption; and as soon as they are banned, which they inevitably are, slightly modified analogues are produced to circumvent new laws. This rapidly changing environment, 81 new substances were identified in 2013 alone, has led to confusion for clinicians, psychopharmacologists, and the public at large. Our difficulties in keeping up with the process has had a two-fold negative effect: the danger of ignoring what is confusing; and the problem that some of the newer synthesized compounds appear ever more potent. This review aims to circumscribe a quick moving and growing field, and to categorize NPS into five major groups based upon their 'parent' compounds: stimulants similar to cocaine, amphetamines and ecstasy; cannabinoids; benzodiazepine based drugs; dissociatives similar to ketamine and phencyclidine (PCP); and those modelled after classic hallucinogens such as LSD and psilocybin. Pharmacodynamic actions, subjective and physical effects, harmfulness, risk of dependency and, where appropriate, putative clinical potentials are described for each class. Clinicians might encounter NPS in various ways: anecdotal reportage; acute intoxication; as part of a substance misuse profile; and as a precipitant or perpetuating factor for longer-term physical and psychological ill health. Current data are overall limited, and much of our knowledge and treatment strategies are based upon those of the 'parent' compound. There is a critical need for more research in this field, and for professionals to make themselves more aware of this growing issue and how it might affect those we see clinically and try to help: a brave new world of so-called 'psychonauts' consuming NPS will also need informed 'psychotherapeutonauts'. The paper should serve as a primer for clinicians and interested readers, as well as provide a framework into which to place the new substances that will inevitably be synthesized in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Baumeister
- Department of Psychology, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London, UK
| | - Luis M Tojo
- Stress, Psychiatry and Immunology Lab, Department of Psychological Medicine, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London, UK
| | - Derek K Tracy
- Consultant Psychiatrist and Associate Clinical Director, Oxleas NHS Foundation Trust, Princess Royal University Hospital, and Cognition, Schizophrenia and Imaging Laboratory, Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College, London BR6 8NY, UK
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Baumeister D, Barnes G, Giaroli G, Tracy D. Classical hallucinogens as antidepressants? A review of pharmacodynamics and putative clinical roles. Ther Adv Psychopharmacol 2014; 4:156-69. [PMID: 25083275 PMCID: PMC4104707 DOI: 10.1177/2045125314527985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Hallucinogens have been part of spiritual practice for millennia, but controversy surrounding their mind-manifesting effects led to their proscription by the mid-20th century, largely without evidence of harm or toxicity and despite nascent data suggesting therapeutic utility in treating depressive illnesses. This review explores their pharmacodynamic actions and the current limited data on their clinic effectiveness. These drugs appear to exert their psychedelic effects through their agonist or partial agonist activity at the serotonergic 5-HT2A receptor, though they also have affinity for other metabotropic serotonin receptors. Hallucinogen binding affects a wide range of intracellular signalling pathways, the precise nature of which remains incompletely understood. They alter the serotonergic tone of brainstem raphe nuclei that project through the brain; they interact with receptors in the prefrontal cortex altering connectivity patterns and intracellular functioning; and they disrupt inhibitory control of sensory input via the thalamus to the cortex. The serotonergic system has long been implicated in anxiety and depressive disorders, and is a major target of most existing antidepressants. Classical hallucinogens alter the functioning of this system, but not in the same way current medications do: whilst there are identified receptors and neurotransmitter pathways through which hallucinogens could therein produce therapeutic effects, the neurobiology of this remains speculative at this time. There is currently an extremely limited but growing literature on hallucinogen safety and clinical application. The drugs appear well tolerated by healthy controls and clinical populations, and the rapid tolerance to repeated administration might reduce the possibility of dependency. Clinical trials reported over the past decade have generally shown positive therapeutic potential, but they are notably few in number. Legislative policy has had a freezing effect on evaluation of these compounds, a better understanding of which might improve our knowledge of the processes involved in consciousness, the neuropathology of depression, and potentially open up new pharmacological therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Baumeister
- Consultant Psychiatrist, Oxleas NHS Foundation Trust, Princess Royal University Hospital, Orpington, BR6 8NY, UK and Cognition, Schizophrenia and Imaging Laboratory, Department of Psychosis Studies, the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
| | - Georgina Barnes
- Stress, Psychiatry and Immunology Lab, Institute of Psychiatry, Department of Psychological Medicine, Kings College London, London, UK
| | - Giovanni Giaroli
- Cognition, Schizophrenia and Imaging Laboratory, Department of Psychosis Studies, the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
| | - Derek Tracy
- Cognition, Schizophrenia and Imaging Laboratory, Department of Psychosis Studies, the Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, UK
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Martin DA, Marona-Lewicka D, Nichols DE, Nichols CD. Chronic LSD alters gene expression profiles in the mPFC relevant to schizophrenia. Neuropharmacology 2014; 83:1-8. [PMID: 24704148 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.03.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/13/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2014] [Accepted: 03/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Chronic administration of lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) every other day to rats results in a variety of abnormal behaviors. These build over the 90 day course of treatment and can persist at full strength for at least several months after cessation of treatment. The behaviors are consistent with those observed in animal models of schizophrenia and include hyperactivity, reduced sucrose-preference, and decreased social interaction. In order to elucidate molecular changes that underlie these aberrant behaviors, we chronically treated rats with LSD and performed RNA-sequencing on the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), an area highly associated with both the actions of LSD and the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and other psychiatric illnesses. We observed widespread changes in the neurogenetic state of treated animals four weeks after cessation of LSD treatment. QPCR was used to validate a subset of gene expression changes observed with RNA-Seq, and confirmed a significant correlation between the two methods. Functional clustering analysis indicates differentially expressed genes are enriched in pathways involving neurotransmission (Drd2, Gabrb1), synaptic plasticity (Nr2a, Krox20), energy metabolism (Atp5d, Ndufa1) and neuropeptide signaling (Npy, Bdnf), among others. Many processes identified as altered by chronic LSD are also implicated in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia, and genes affected by LSD are enriched with putative schizophrenia genes. Our results provide a relatively comprehensive analysis of mPFC transcriptional regulation in response to chronic LSD, and indicate that the long-term effects of LSD may bear relevance to psychiatric illnesses, including schizophrenia.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A Martin
- Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, USA
| | - Danuta Marona-Lewicka
- Molecular Pharmacology and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - David E Nichols
- Molecular Pharmacology and Medicinal Chemistry, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
| | - Charles D Nichols
- Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, New Orleans, LA, USA.
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Abstract
Psychosis is an abnormal mental state characterized by disorganization, delusions and hallucinations. Animal models have become an increasingly important research tool in the effort to understand both the underlying pathophysiology and treatment of psychosis. There are multiple animal models for psychosis, with each formed by the coupling of a manipulation and a measurement. In this manuscript we do not address the diseases of which psychosis is a prominent comorbidity. Instead, we summarize the current state of affairs and future directions for animal models of psychosis. To accomplish this, our manuscript will first discuss relevant behavioral and electrophysiological measurements. We then provide an overview of the different manipulations that are combined with these measurements to produce animal models. The strengths and limitations of each model will be addressed in order to evaluate its cross-species comparability.
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