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Lannon AS, Brocka M, Collins JM, Fitzgerald P, O'Mahony SM, Cryan JF, Moloney RD. A novel animal model for understanding secondary traumatic stress and visceral pain in male rats. Eur J Neurosci 2024; 60:3544-3556. [PMID: 38695253 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.16353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2023] [Revised: 03/15/2024] [Accepted: 03/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/06/2024]
Abstract
Empathetic relationships and the social transference of behaviours have been shown to occur in humans, and more recently through the development of rodent models, where both fear and pain phenotypes develop in observer animals. Clinically, observing traumatic events can induce 'trauma and stressor-related disorders' as defined in the DSM 5. These disorders are often comorbid with pain and gastrointestinal disturbances; however, our understanding of how gastrointestinal - or visceral - pain can be vicariously transmitted is lacking. Visceral pain originates from the internal organs, and despite its widespread prevalence, remains poorly understood. We established an observation paradigm to assess the impact of witnessing visceral pain. We utilised colorectal distension (CRD) to induce visceral pain behaviours in a stimulus rodent while the observer rodent observed. Twenty four hours post-observation, the observer rodent's visceral sensitivity was assessed using CRD. The observer rodents were found to have significant hyperalgesia as determined by lower visceral pain threshold and higher number of total pain behaviours compared with controls. The behaviours of the observer animals during the observation were found to be correlated with the behaviours of the stimulus animal employed. We found that observer animals had hypoactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, highlighted by reduced corticosterone at 90 minutes post-CRD. Using c-Fos immunohistochemistry we showed that observer animals also had increased activation of the anterior cingulate cortex, and decreased activation of the paraventricular nucleus, compared with controls. These results suggest that witnessing another animal in pain produces a behavioural phenotype and impacts the brain-gut axis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam S Lannon
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Ireland
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Marta Brocka
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Ireland
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - James M Collins
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Ireland
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland
| | | | - Siobhain M O'Mahony
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Ireland
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - John F Cryan
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Ireland
- Department of Anatomy and Neuroscience, University College Cork, Ireland
| | - Rachel D Moloney
- School of Pharmacy, University College Cork, Ireland
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Ireland
- APC Microbiome Ireland, University College Cork, Ireland
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Müller TE, Dos Santos MM, Ferreira SA, Claro MT, de Macedo GT, Fontana BD, Barbosa NV. Negative impacts of social isolation on behavior and neuronal functions are recovered after short-term social reintroduction in zebrafish. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2024; 134:111038. [PMID: 38810717 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2024.111038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 05/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/22/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Recently, social isolation measures were crucial to prevent the spread of the coronavirus pandemic. However, the lack of social interactions affected the population mental health and may have long-term consequences on behavior and brain functions. Here, we evaluated the behavioral, physiological, and molecular effects of a social isolation (SI) in adult zebrafish, and whether the animals recover such changes after their reintroduction to the social environment. Fish were submitted to 12 days of SI, and then reintroduced to social context (SR). Behavioral analyses to evaluate locomotion, anxiety-like and social-related behaviors were performed after SI protocol, and 3 and 6 days after SR. Cortisol and transcript levels from genes involved in neuronal homeostasis (c-fos, egr, bdnf), and serotonergic (5-HT) and dopaminergic (DA) neurotransmission (thp, th) were also measured. SI altered social behaviors in zebrafish such as aggression, social preference, and shoaling. Fish submitted to SI also presented changes in the transcript levels of genes related to neural activity, and 5-HT/DA signaling. Interestingly, most of the behavioral and molecular changes induced by SI were not found again 6 days after SR. Thus, we highlight that SR of zebrafish to their conspecifics played a positive role in social behaviors and in the expression of genes involved in different neuronal signaling pathways that were altered after 12 days of SI. This study brings unprecedented data on the effects of SR in the recovery from SI neurobehavioral alterations, and reinforces the role of zebrafish as a translational model for understanding the neurobiological mechanisms adjacent to SI and resocialization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Talise E Müller
- Laboratory of Toxicological Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil..
| | - Matheus M Dos Santos
- Laboratory of Toxicological Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Sabrina A Ferreira
- Laboratory of Toxicological Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Mariana T Claro
- Laboratory of Toxicological Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Gabriel T de Macedo
- Laboratory of Toxicological Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil
| | - Barbara D Fontana
- Department of Biological Sciences, Wayne State University, Detroit, MI 48202, USA
| | - Nilda V Barbosa
- Laboratory of Toxicological Biochemistry, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Center of Natural and Exact Sciences, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil.; Graduate Program in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Maria. 1000 Roraima Avenue, Santa Maria, RS 97105-900, Brazil..
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3
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Zhao M, Xu X, Xu H, Yang S, Li M, Wang W. The regulation of social factors on anxiety and microglial activity in nucleus accumbens of adolescent male mice: Influence of social interaction strategy. J Affect Disord 2024; 352:525-535. [PMID: 38403135 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2024.02.077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 02/27/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Adolescence is a period characterized by a high vulnerability to emotional disorders, which are modulated by biological, psychological, and social factors. However, the underlying mechanisms remain poorly understood. METHODS Combining physical or emotional social defeat stress (PS and ES) and pair or isolation rearing conditions, we investigated the effects of stress type and social support on emotional behavior and central immune molecules in adolescent mice, including anxiety, social fear, and social interaction strategies, as well as changes in microglia-specific molecules (ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba1) and a cluster of differentiation molecule 11b (CD11b)) in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), hippocampus (HIP), amygdala (AMY), and nucleus accumbens (NAc). RESULTS Mice exposed to both physical stress and isolated rearing condition exhibited the highest levels of anxiety, social fear, and microglial CD11b expression in the NAc. In terms of social support, pair-housing with siblings ameliorated social fear and NAc molecular changes in ES mice, but not in PS mice. The reason for the differential benefit from social support was attributed to the fact that ES mice exhibited more active and less passive social strategies in social environment compared to PS mice. Further, the levels of stress-induced social fear were positively associated with the expression of microglial CD11b in the NAc. CONCLUSION These findings offer extensive evidence regarding the intricate effects of multiple social factors on social anxiety and immune alteration in the NAc of adolescent mice. Additionally, they suggest potential behavioral and immune intervention strategies for anxiety-related disorders in adolescents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingyue Zhao
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xueping Xu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Beijing Key Laboratory of Learning and Cognition, College of Psychology, Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
| | - Hang Xu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Shuming Yang
- Division of Clinical Medicine, Zhongshan School of Medicine, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510062, China
| | - Man Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Faculty of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.
| | - Weiwen Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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Evans-Strong A, Walton N, Blandino K, Roper ATC, Donaldson ST, Lewis M, Maguire J. Witnessed trauma exposure induces fear in mice through a reduction in endogenous neurosteroid synthesis. J Neuroendocrinol 2024; 36:e13378. [PMID: 38482748 PMCID: PMC11091913 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Revised: 02/17/2024] [Accepted: 02/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024]
Abstract
Neurosteroids have been implicated in the pathophysiology of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Allopregnanolone is reduced in subsets of individuals with PTSD and has been explored as a novel treatment strategy. Both direct trauma exposure and witnessed trauma are risk factors for PTSD; however, the role of neurosteroids in the behavioral outcomes of these unique experiences has not been explored. Here, we investigate whether observational fear is associated with a reduced capacity for endogenous neurosteroidogenesis and the relationship with behavioral outcomes. We demonstrated that mice directly subjected to a threat (foot shocks) and those witnessing the threat have decreased plasma levels of allopregnanolone. The expression of a key enzyme involved in endogenous neurosteroid synthesis, 5α-reductase type 2, is decreased in the basolateral amygdala, which is a major emotional processing hub implicated in PTSD. We demonstrated that genetic knockdown or pharmacological inhibition of 5α-reductase type 2 exaggerates the behavioral expression of fear in response to witnessed trauma, whereas oral treatment with an exogenous, synthetic neuroactive steroid gamma-aminobutyric acid-A receptor positive allosteric modulator with molecular pharmacology similar to allopregnanolone (SGE-516 [tool compound]) decreased the behavioral response to observational fear. These data implicate impaired endogenous neurosteroidogenesis in the pathophysiology of threat exposure, both direct and witnessed. Further, these data suggest that treatment with exogenous 5α-reduced neurosteroids or targeting endogenous neurosteroidogenesis may be beneficial for the treatment of individuals with PTSD, whether resulting from direct or witnessed trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aidan Evans-Strong
- Neuroscience Department, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Najah Walton
- Neuroscience Department, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Katrina Blandino
- Neuroscience Department, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Abigail T C Roper
- Developmental and Brain Sciences Program, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - S Tiffany Donaldson
- Developmental and Brain Sciences Program, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Mike Lewis
- Sage Therapeutics, Inc, Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jamie Maguire
- Neuroscience Department, Tufts University School of Medicine, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Liu X, Liu R, Sun YX, Wang HL, Wang H, Wang T, Ma YN, Li XX, Wang Q, Su YA, Li JT, Si TM. Dorsal CA3 overactivation mediates witnessing stress-induced recognition memory deficits in adolescent male mice. Neuropsychopharmacology 2024:10.1038/s41386-024-01848-9. [PMID: 38504012 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-024-01848-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2023] [Revised: 02/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/07/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Witnessing violent or traumatic events is common during childhood and adolescence and could cause detrimental effects such as increased risks of psychiatric disorders. This stressor could be modeled in adolescent laboratory animals using the chronic witnessing social defeat (CWSD) paradigm, but the behavioral consequences of CWSD in adolescent animals remain to be validated for cognitive, anxiety-like, and depression-like behaviors and, more importantly, the underlying neural mechanisms remain to be uncovered. In this study, we first established the CWSD model in adolescent male mice and found that CWSD impaired cognitive function and increased anxiety levels and that these behavioral deficits persisted into adulthood. Based on the dorsal-ventral functional division in hippocampus, we employed immediate early gene c-fos immunostaining after behavioral tasks and found that CWSD-induced cognition deficits were associated with dorsal CA3 overactivation and anxiety-like behaviors were associated with ventral CA3 activity reduction. Indeed, chemogenetic activation and inhibition of dorsal CA3 neurons mimicked and reversed CWSD-induced recognition memory deficits (not anxiety-like behaviors), respectively, whereas both inhibition and activation of ventral CA3 neurons increased anxiety-like behaviors in adolescent mice. Finally, chronic administration of vortioxetine (a novel multimodal antidepressant) successfully restored the overactivation of dorsal CA3 neurons and the cognitive deficits in CWSD mice. Together, our findings suggest that dorsal CA3 overactivation mediates CWSD-induced recognition memory deficits in adolescent male mice, shedding light on the pathophysiology of adolescent CWSD-induced adverse effects and providing preclinical evidence for early treatment of stress-induced cognitive deficits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Liu
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Rui Liu
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Ya-Xin Sun
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Hong-Li Wang
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Han Wang
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Ting Wang
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Yu-Nu Ma
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Xue-Xin Li
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Yun-Ai Su
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Ji-Tao Li
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China.
| | - Tian-Mei Si
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, NHC Key Laboratory of Mental Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China.
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Bridgeland-Stephens L, Thorpe SKS, Chappell J. Potential resilience treatments for orangutans ( Pongo spp.): Lessons from a scoping review of interventions in humans and other animals. Anim Welf 2023; 32:e77. [PMID: 38487448 PMCID: PMC10937215 DOI: 10.1017/awf.2023.97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Revised: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 11/02/2023] [Indexed: 03/17/2024]
Abstract
Wild orangutans (Pongo spp.) rescued from human-wildlife conflict must be adequately rehabilitated before being returned to the wild. It is essential that released orangutans are able to cope with stressful challenges such as food scarcity, navigating unfamiliar environments, and regaining independence from human support. Although practical skills are taught to orangutans in rehabilitation centres, post-release survival rates are low. Psychological resilience, or the ability to 'bounce back' from stress, may be a key missing piece of the puzzle. However, there is very little knowledge about species-appropriate interventions which could help captive orangutans increase resilience to stress. This scoping review summarises and critically analyses existing human and non-human animal resilience literature and provides suggestions for the development of interventions for orangutans in rehabilitation. Three scientific databases were searched in 2021 and 2023, resulting in 63 human studies and 266 non-human animal studies. The first section brings together human resilience interventions, identifying common themes and assessing the applicability of human interventions to orangutans in rehabilitation. The second section groups animal interventions into categories of direct stress, separation stress, environmental conditions, social stress, and exercise. In each category, interventions are critically analysed to evaluate their potential for orangutans in rehabilitation. The results show that mild and manageable forms of intervention have the greatest potential benefit with the least amount of risk. The study concludes by emphasising the need for further investigation and experimentation, to develop appropriate interventions and measure their effect on the post-release survival rate of orangutans.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jackie Chappell
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK
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Barbetti M, Vilella R, Naponelli V, Bilotti I, Magistrati M, Dallabona C, Ielpo D, Andolina D, Sgoifo A, Savi M, Carnevali L. Repeated witness social stress causes cardiomyocyte contractile impairment and intracellular Ca 2+ derangement in female rats. Physiol Behav 2023; 271:114339. [PMID: 37625474 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2023.114339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2023] [Revised: 07/14/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
The impact of psychosocial stressors on cardiovascular health in women is of growing interest in both the popular and scientific literature. Rodent models are useful for providing direct experimental evidence of the adverse cardiovascular consequences of psychosocial stressors, yet studies in females are scarce. Here, we investigated the effects of repeated exposure to witness social defeat stress (WS) on cardiomyocyte contractile function and intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis in young adult wild-type Groningen female rats. Female rats bore witness to an aggressive social defeat episode between two males for nine consecutive days or were exposed to a control procedure. Stress-related behaviors were assessed during the first and last WS/control exposure. Twenty-four hours after the last exposure, plasma corticosterone levels were measured, and cardiomyocytes were isolated for analyses of contractile properties and Ca2+ transients, and expression levels of proteins involved in intracellular Ca2+dynamics. The results show an impairment of the intrinsic cardiac mechanical properties and prolonged intracellular Ca2+decay in WS female rats showing social stress-related behavioral (larger amounts of burying behavior) and neuroendocrine (elevated plasma corticosterone levels) phenotypes. Further, the results implicate alterations in the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase/phospholamban complex in the contractile defects described in cardiomyocytes of WS female rats. In conclusion, this study highlights the utility of the WS model as an ethologically relevant social stressor for investigating pathophysiological processes that occur in the heart of female subjects and may increase vulnerability to social stress-related cardiovascular risk.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Barbetti
- Stress Physiology Lab, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Rocchina Vilella
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Valeria Naponelli
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Iolanda Bilotti
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Martina Magistrati
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Cristina Dallabona
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Donald Ielpo
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Department of Psychology and Center "Daniel Bovet", Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Diego Andolina
- IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Department of Psychology and Center "Daniel Bovet", Sapienza University, Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Sgoifo
- Stress Physiology Lab, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Monia Savi
- Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Luca Carnevali
- Stress Physiology Lab, Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma, Parma, Italy.
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Xue B, Ma YY, Zhu JY, Mu Y, Li YH, Shen F, Liang J, Zhang JJ. Chronic social comparison elicits depression- and anxiety-like behaviors and alterations in brain-derived neurotrophic factor expression in male rats. Anim Cogn 2023; 26:1505-1519. [PMID: 37302101 DOI: 10.1007/s10071-023-01798-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 06/03/2023] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Social comparison is a fundamental human characteristic; however, long-term social comparison may induce psychological stress and can lead to depression and anxiety. Recent studies have shown that nonhuman primates compare themselves with others; however, no studies have investigated whether social comparisons exist among rodents. In the present study, we established a rat model of social comparison. This model was subsequently used to examine the effects of the differential environment of a partner on depression- and anxiety-like behaviors in male rats, as well as to assess the changes in serum, medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), and dorsal hippocampus brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels induced by long-term social comparison. Compared to rats whose partners were exposed to the same environment, rats whose partners were exposed to two combined enriched environmental stimuli for 14 days showed significantly decreased social novelty preference and sucrose consumption. No anxiety-like behaviors were observed. Rats whose partners were exposed to one enriched environment for 31 days showed significantly increased immobility time in the forced swimming test, and significantly decreased time spent in the center area in the open-field test. Further, rats whose partners were exposed to one enriched environment for 31 days showed lower BDNF levels in the mPFC and dorsal hippocampus, but not following partner exposure for 14 days. These results suggest that social comparisons exist in rats and can induce psychosocial stress and other negative affect. This model will not only provide the possibility to reveal the neurobiological basis of the emotional impact of social comparison, but could also be used to confirm the conservative evolutionary characteristics of social comparison as a behavioral attribute.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bing Xue
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yin-Yan Ma
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jie-Ying Zhu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yan Mu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yong-Hui Li
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Fang Shen
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jing Liang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jian-Jun Zhang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China.
- Shanxi Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Encephalopathy, National International Joint Research Center for Molecular Chinese Medicine, Shanxi University of Chinese Medicine, Jinzhong, China.
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China.
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9
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Pate BS, Bouknight SJ, Harrington EN, Mott SE, Augenblick LM, Smiley CE, Morgan CG, Calatayud BM, Martínez-Muñiz GA, Thayer JF, Wood SK. Site-Specific knockdown of microglia in the locus coeruleus regulates hypervigilant responses to social stress in female rats. Brain Behav Immun 2023; 109:190-203. [PMID: 36682513 PMCID: PMC11195023 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2023.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 01/11/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2023] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Women are at increased risk for psychosocial stress-related anxiety disorders, yet mechanisms regulating this risk are unknown. Psychosocial stressors activate microglia, and the resulting neuroimmune responses that females exhibit heightened sensitivity to may serve as an etiological factor in their elevated risk. However, studies examining the role of microglia during stress in females are lacking. METHODS Microglia were manipulated in the stress-sensitive locus coeruleus (LC) of female rats in the context of social stress in two ways. First, intra-LC lipopolysaccharide (LPS; 0 or 3 μg/side, n = 5-6/group), a potent TLR4 agonist and microglial activator, was administered. One hour later, rats were exposed to control or an aggressive social defeat encounter between two males (WS, 15-min). In a separate study, females were treated with intra-LC or intra-central amygdala mannosylated liposomes containing clodronate (m-CLD; 0 or 25 μg/side, n = 13-14/group), a compound toxic to microglia. WS-evoked burying, cardiovascular responses, and sucrose preference were measured. Brain and plasma cytokines were quantified, and cardiovascular telemetry assessed autonomic balance. RESULTS Intra-LC LPS augmented the WS-induced burying response and increased plasma corticosterone and interleukin-1β (IL-1β). Further, the efficacy and selectivity of microinjected m-CLD was fully characterized. In the context of WS, intra-LC m-CLD attenuated the hypervigilant burying response during WS as well as the accumulation of intra-LC IL-1β. Intra-central amygdala m-CLD had no effect on WS-evoked behavior. CONCLUSIONS These studies highlight an innovative method for depleting microglia in a brain region specific manner and indicate that microglia in the LC differentially regulate hypervigilant WS-evoked behavioral and autonomic responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany S Pate
- Department of Exercise Science, Arnold School of Public Health, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA; Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Samantha J Bouknight
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Evelynn N Harrington
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Sarah E Mott
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Lee M Augenblick
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Cora E Smiley
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA; WJB Dorn VA Medical Center, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Christopher G Morgan
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Brittney M Calatayud
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Gustavo A Martínez-Muñiz
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Julian F Thayer
- Department of Psychological Science, University of California, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Susan K Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA; WJB Dorn VA Medical Center, Columbia, SC, USA.
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10
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Li Y, Guo Q, Huang J, Wang Z. Antidepressant Active Ingredients From Chinese Traditional Herb Panax Notoginseng: A Pharmacological Mechanism Review. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:922337. [PMID: 35795547 PMCID: PMC9252462 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.922337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is one of the most common mental illnesses in the world and is highly disabling, lethal, and seriously endangers social stability. The side effects of clinical drugs used to treat depression are obvious, and the onset time is longer. Therefore, there is a great demand for antidepressant drugs with better curative effects, fewer side effects, and shorter onset time. Panax notoginseng, a Chinese herbal medication, has been used to treat depression for thousands of years and shown to have a therapeutic effect on depression. This review surveyed PubMed’s most recent 20 years of research on Panax notoginseng’s use for treating depression. We mainly highlight animal model research and outlined the pathways influenced by medicines. We provide a narrative review of recent empirical evidence of the anti-depressive effects of Panax Notoginseng and novel ideas for developing innovative clinical antidepressants with fewer side effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanwei Li
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Formula-pattern Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qingwan Guo
- Interdisciplinary Institute for Personalized Medicine, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Junqing Huang
- Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Formula-pattern Research Center, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Junqing Huang, ; Ziying Wang,
| | - Ziying Wang
- Interdisciplinary Institute for Personalized Medicine, School of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Junqing Huang, ; Ziying Wang,
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11
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Carneiro de Oliveira PE, Carmona IM, Casarotto M, Silveira LM, Oliveira ACB, Canto-de-Souza A. Mice Cohabiting With Familiar Conspecific in Chronic Stress Condition Exhibit Methamphetamine-Induced Locomotor Sensitization and Augmented Consolation Behavior. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:835717. [PMID: 35517576 PMCID: PMC9062221 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.835717] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Recognizing and sharing emotions are essential for species survival, but in some cases, living with a conspecific in distress condition may induce negative emotional states through empathy-like processes. Studies have reported that stressors promote psychiatric disorders in both, those who suffer directly and who witness these aversive episodes, principally whether social proximity is involved. However, the mechanisms underlying the harmful outcomes of emotional contagion need more studies, mainly in the drug addiction-related behaviors. Here, we investigated the relevance of familiarity and the effects of cohabitation with a partner submitted to chronic stress in the anxiety-like, locomotor sensitization, and consolation behaviors. Male Swiss mice were housed in pairs during different periods to test the establishment of familiarity and the stress-induced anxiety behavior in the elevated plus maze. Another cohort was housed with a conspecific subjected to repeated restraint stress (1 h/day) for 14 days. During chronic restraint the allogrooming was measured and after the stress period mice were tested in the open field for evaluation of anxiety and locomotor cross-sensitization induced by methamphetamine. We found that familiarity was established after 14 days of cohabitation and the anxiogenic behavior appeared after 14 days of stress. Repeated restraint stress also increased anxiety in the open field test and induced locomotor cross-sensitization in the stressed mice and their cagemates. Cagemates also exhibited an increase in the consolation behavior after stress sessions when compared to control mice. These results indicate that changes in drug abuse-related, consolation, and affective behaviors may be precipitated through emotional contagion in familiar conspecifics.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Isabela Miranda Carmona
- Psychobiology Group/Department of Psychology/CECH - Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil.,Joint Graduate Program in Physiological Sciences UFSCar/UNESP, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Mariana Casarotto
- Psychobiology Group/Department of Psychology/CECH - Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Lara Maria Silveira
- Psychobiology Group/Department of Psychology/CECH - Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Psychology, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Anna Cecília Bezerra Oliveira
- Psychobiology Group/Department of Psychology/CECH - Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil.,Joint Graduate Program in Physiological Sciences UFSCar/UNESP, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
| | - Azair Canto-de-Souza
- Psychobiology Group/Department of Psychology/CECH - Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil.,Joint Graduate Program in Physiological Sciences UFSCar/UNESP, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil.,Graduate Program in Psychology, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil.,Neuroscience and Behavioral Institute, Ribeirão Preto, Brazil
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12
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Wang W, Liu WZ, Wang ZL, Duan DX, Wang XY, Liu SJ, Wang ZJ, Xing GG, Xing Y. Spinal microglial activation promotes perioperative social defeat stress-induced prolonged postoperative pain in a sex-dependent manner. Brain Behav Immun 2022; 100:88-104. [PMID: 34808295 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2021.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2021] [Revised: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 11/13/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Prolonged postsurgical pain, which is associated with multiple risk factors in the perioperative stage, is a common medical and social problem worldwide. Suitable animal models should be established to elucidate the mechanisms underlying the perioperative prolonged postsurgical pain. In this study, standard and modified social defeat stress mice models, including chronic social defeat stress (CSDS), chronic nondiscriminatory social defeat stress (CNSDS) and vicarious social defeat stress (VSDS), were applied to explore the effect of perioperative social defeat stress on postsurgical pain in male and female mice. Our results showed that exposure to preoperative CSDS could induce prolonged postsurgical pain in defeated mice regardless of susceptibility or resilience differentiated by the social interaction test. Similar prolongation of incision-induced mechanical hypersensitivity was also observed in both sexes upon exposing to CNSDS or VSDS in the preoperative period. Moreover, we found that using the modified CNSDS or VSDS models at different recovery stages after surgery could still promote abnormal pain without sex differences. Further studies revealed the key role of spinal microglial activation in the stress-induced transition from acute to prolonged postoperative pain in male but not female mice. Together, these data indicate that perioperative social defeat stress is a vital risk factor for developing prolonged postoperative pain in both sexes, but the promotion of stress-induced prolonged postoperative pain by spinal microglial activation is sexually dimorphic in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wang Wang
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China; The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Wei-Zhen Liu
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China; The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Zi-Liang Wang
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China; The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Dong-Xiao Duan
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Xue-Yun Wang
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China; The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Shi-Jin Liu
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China; The Academy of Medical Sciences of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Zhi-Ju Wang
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China
| | - Guo-Gang Xing
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences and Neuroscience Research Institute, Peking University, Beijing 100191, China.
| | - Ying Xing
- Department of Physiology and Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou 450001, Henan, China.
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13
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Chun EK, Donovan M, Liu Y, Wang Z. Behavioral, neurochemical, and neuroimmune changes associated with social buffering and stress contagion. Neurobiol Stress 2022; 16:100427. [PMID: 35036478 PMCID: PMC8749234 DOI: 10.1016/j.ynstr.2022.100427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2021] [Revised: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/02/2022] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Social buffering can provide protective effects on stress responses and their subsequent negative health outcomes. Although social buffering is beneficial for the recipient, it can also have anxiogenic effects on the provider of the social buffering - a phenomena referred to as stress contagion. Social buffering and stress contagion usually occur together, but they have traditionally been studied independently, thus limiting our understanding of this dyadic social interaction. In the present study, we examined the effects of preventative social buffering and stress contagion in socially monogamous prairie voles (Microtus ochrogaster). We tested the hypothesis that this dynamic social interaction is associated with coordinated alterations in behaviors, neurochemical activation, and neuroimmune responses. To do so, adult male prairie voles were stressed via an acute immobilization restraint tube (IMO) either alone (Alone) or with their previously pair-bonded female partner (Partner) in the cage for 1 h. In contrast, females were placed in a cage containing either an empty IMO tube (Empty) or one that contained their pair-bonded male (Partner). Anxiety-like behavior was tested on the elevated plus maze (EPM) following the 60-mins test and brain sections were processed for neurochemical/neuroimmune marker labeling for all subjects. Our data indicate that females in the Partner group were in contact with and sniffed the IMO tube more, showed fewer anxiety-like behaviors, and had a higher level of oxytocin expression in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN) compared to the Empty group females. Males in the Partner group had lower levels of anxiety-like behavior during the EPM test, greater activation of corticotropin-releasing hormone expressing neurons in the PVN, lower activation of serotonin neurons in the dorsal raphe, and lower levels of microgliosis in the nucleus accumbens. Taken together, these data suggest brain region- and neurochemical-specific alterations as well as neuroinflammatory changes that may be involved in the regulation of social buffering and stress contagion behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen K. Chun
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Meghan Donovan
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
- Rocky Mountain Mental Illness Research Education and Clinical Center, Rocky Mountain Regional VA Medical Center, 1700 N Wheeling St, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, CO, 80045, USA
| | - Yan Liu
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Zuoxin Wang
- Department of Psychology and Program in Neuroscience, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
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14
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Hollis F, Pope BS, Gorman-Sandler E, Wood SK. Neuroinflammation and Mitochondrial Dysfunction Link Social Stress to Depression. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2022; 54:59-93. [PMID: 35184261 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2021_300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder is a debilitating mental illness and a leading cause of global disease burden. While many etiological factors have been identified, social stress is a highly prevalent causative factor for the onset of depression. Unfortunately, rates of depression continue to increase around the world, and the recent COVID-19 pandemic has further exacerbated this mental health crisis. Though several therapeutic strategies are available, nearly 50% of patients who receive treatment never reach remission. The exact mechanisms by which social stress exposure promotes the development of depression are unclear, making it challenging to develop novel and more effective therapeutics. However, accumulating evidence points to a role for stress-induced neuroinflammation, particularly in treatment-resistant patients. Moreover, recent evidence has expanded the concept of the pathogenesis of depression to mitochondrial dysfunction, suggesting that the combined effects of social stress on mitochondria and inflammation may synergize to facilitate stress-related depression. In this chapter, we review evidence for neuroinflammation and mitochondrial dysfunction in the pathogenesis of social stress-induced depression and discuss these in the context of novel therapeutic targets for the treatment of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Hollis
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Brittany S Pope
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
- Department of Exercise Science, University of South Carolina Arnold School of Public Health, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Erin Gorman-Sandler
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA
| | - Susan K Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC, USA.
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15
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Tuakli-Wosornu YA, Amick M, Guiora AN, Lowe SR. Athlete abuse hurts everyone: vicarious and secondary traumatic stress in sport. Br J Sports Med 2021; 56:119-120. [PMID: 34610913 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2021-104715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yetsa A Tuakli-Wosornu
- Department of Chronic Disease Epidemiology, Yale University School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA .,Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, USA
| | - Michael Amick
- Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Amos N Guiora
- S.J. Quinney College of Law, The University of Utah College of Law, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Sarah R Lowe
- Department of Social and Behavioral Sciences, Yale University School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
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16
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Barchiesi R, Chanthongdee K, Domi E, Gobbo F, Coppola A, Asratian A, Toivainen S, Holm L, Augier G, Xu L, Augier E, Heilig M, Barbier E. Stress-induced escalation of alcohol self-administration, anxiety-like behavior, and elevated amygdala Avp expression in a susceptible subpopulation of rats. Addict Biol 2021; 26:e13009. [PMID: 33565224 DOI: 10.1111/adb.13009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2020] [Revised: 01/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Comorbidity between alcohol use and anxiety disorders is associated with more severe symptoms and poorer treatment outcomes than either of the conditions alone. There is a well-known link between stress and the development of these disorders, with post-traumatic stress disorder as a prototypic example. Post-traumatic stress disorder can arise as a consequence of experiencing traumatic events firsthand and also after witnessing them. Here, we used a model of social defeat and witness stress in rats, to study shared mechanisms of stress-induced anxiety-like behavior and escalated alcohol self-administration. Similar to what is observed clinically, we found considerable individual differences in susceptibility and resilience to the stress. Both among defeated and witness rats, we found a subpopulation in which exposure was followed by emergence of increased anxiety-like behavior and escalation of alcohol self-administration. We then profiled gene expression in tissue from the amygdala, a key brain region in the regulation of stress, alcohol use, and anxiety disorders. When comparing "comorbid" and resilient socially defeated rats, we identified a strong upregulation of vasopressin and oxytocin, and this correlated positively with the magnitude of the alcohol self-administration and anxiety-like behavior. A similar trend was observed in comorbid witness rats. Together, our findings provide novel insights into molecular mechanisms underpinning the comorbidity of escalated alcohol self-administration and anxiety-like behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Barchiesi
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
| | - Kanat Chanthongdee
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital Mahidol University Thailand
| | - Esi Domi
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
| | - Francesco Gobbo
- Centre for Discovery Brain Sciences University of Edinburgh UK
| | - Andrea Coppola
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
| | - Anna Asratian
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
| | - Sanne Toivainen
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
| | - Lovisa Holm
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
| | - Gaelle Augier
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
| | - Li Xu
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
- Psychosomatic Medicine Center Sichuan Provincial People's Hospital, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China Chengdu China
| | - Eric Augier
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
| | - Markus Heilig
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
| | - Estelle Barbier
- Center for Social and Affective Neuroscience, Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences Linköping University Sweden
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17
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Lopez J, Bagot RC. Defining Valid Chronic Stress Models for Depression With Female Rodents. Biol Psychiatry 2021; 90:226-235. [PMID: 33965195 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2021.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 03/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Women are twice as likely to experience depression than men, yet until recently, preclinical studies in rodents have focused almost exclusively on males. As interest in sex differences and sex-specific mechanisms of stress susceptibility increases, chronic stress models for inducing depression-relevant behavioral and physiological changes in male rodents are being applied to females, and several new models have emerged to include both males and females, yet not all models have been systematically validated in females. An increasing number of researchers seek to include female rodents in their experimental designs, asking the question "what is the ideal chronic stress model for depression in females?" We review criteria for assessing female model validity in light of key research questions and the fundamental distinction between studying sex differences and studying both sexes. In overviewing current models, we explore challenges inherent to establishing an ideal female chronic stress model, with particular emphasis on the need for standardization and adoption of validated behavioral tests sensitive to stress effects in females. Taken together, these considerations will empower female chronic stress models to provide a better understanding of stress susceptibility and allow the development of efficient sex-specific treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joëlle Lopez
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, Canada
| | - Rosemary C Bagot
- Department of Psychology, McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, Canada; Ludmer Centre for Neuroinformatics and Mental Health, Montréal, Quebec, Canada.
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18
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Shakil S, Masjoan Juncos JX, Mariappan N, Zafar I, Amudhan A, Amudhan A, Aishah D, Siddiqui S, Manzoor S, Santana CM, Rumbeiha WK, Salim S, Ahmad A, Ahmad S. Behavioral and Neuronal Effects of Inhaled Bromine Gas: Oxidative Brain Stem Damage. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:6316. [PMID: 34204780 PMCID: PMC8231550 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22126316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2021] [Revised: 06/02/2021] [Accepted: 06/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The risk of accidental bromine (Br2) exposure to the public has increased due to its enhanced industrial use. Inhaled Br2 damages the lungs and the heart; however, adverse effects on the brain are unknown. In this study, we examined the neurological effects of inhaled Br2 in Sprague Dawley rats. Rats were exposed to Br2 (600 ppm for 45 min) and transferred to room air and cage behavior, and levels of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) in plasma were examined at various time intervals. Bromine exposure resulted in abnormal cage behavior such as head hitting, biting and aggression, hypervigilance, and hyperactivity. An increase in plasma GFAP and brain 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) content also was observed in the exposed animals. Acute and delayed sympathetic nervous system activation was also evaluated by assessing the expression of catecholamine biosynthesizing enzymes, tryptophan hydroxylase (TrpH1 and TrpH2), and tyrosine hydroxylase (TyrH), along with an assessment of catecholamines and their metabolites. TyrH was found to be increased in a time-dependent manner. TrpH1 and TrpH2 were significantly decreased upon Br2 exposure in the brainstem. The neurotransmitter content evaluation indicated an increase in 5-HT and dopamine at early timepoints after exposure; however, other metabolites were not significantly altered. Taken together, our results predict brain damage and autonomic dysfunction upon Br2 exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shazia Shakil
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Juan Xavier Masjoan Juncos
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Nithya Mariappan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Iram Zafar
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Apoorva Amudhan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Archita Amudhan
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Duha Aishah
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Simmone Siddiqui
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Shajer Manzoor
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Cristina M. Santana
- Veterinary Diagnostic and Production Animal Medicine, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA;
| | - Wilson K. Rumbeiha
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
| | - Samina Salim
- Department of Pharmacological & Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77004, USA;
| | - Aftab Ahmad
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
| | - Shama Ahmad
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; (S.S.); (J.X.M.J.); (N.M.); (I.Z.); (A.A.); (A.A.); (D.A.); (S.S.); (S.M.); (A.A.)
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19
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Pérez-Manrique A, Gomila A. Emotional contagion in nonhuman animals: A review. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS. COGNITIVE SCIENCE 2021; 13:e1560. [PMID: 33951303 PMCID: PMC9285817 DOI: 10.1002/wcs.1560] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Emotional contagion, the emotional state‐matching of an individual with another, seems to be crucial for many social species. In recent years evidence on emotional contagion in different animal species has accumulated. However, despite its adaptative advantages and its presumed simplicity, the study and direct demonstration of this phenomenon present more complexities than previously thought. For these reasons, a review of the literature on emotional contagion in nonhuman species is timely to integrate current findings. In this paper thus, we carry out a comprehensive review of the most relevant studies on emotional contagion in animals and discuss the main problems and challenges of the field. We conclude that more research is needed to broaden our understanding of the mechanisms and functions of emotional contagion and the extent to which this process is present in a wide variety of species. Furthermore, the comparative study of emotional contagion would benefit from the use of systematized paradigms including both behavioral and physiological measures and the simultaneous recording of the responses of the interacting individuals to reliably assess an emotional state‐matching between them and reliable controls. This article is categorized under:Cognitive Biology > Evolutionary Roots of Cognition Psychology > Comparative Psychology Psychology > Emotion and Motivation
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Pérez-Manrique
- Department of Psychology, Human Evolution and Cognition Group (EvoCog), UIB, IFISC, Associated Unit to CSIC, Palma, Spain
| | - Antoni Gomila
- Department of Psychology, Human Evolution and Cognition Group (EvoCog), UIB, IFISC, Associated Unit to CSIC, Palma, Spain
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Peen NF, Duque-Wilckens N, Trainor BC. Convergent neuroendocrine mechanisms of social buffering and stress contagion. Horm Behav 2021; 129:104933. [PMID: 33465346 PMCID: PMC7965339 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2021.104933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2020] [Revised: 01/06/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2021] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Social interactions play a key role in modulating the impact of stressful experiences. In some cases, social interactions can result in social buffering, the process in which the presence of one individual reduces the physiological and behavioral impact of stress in another individual. On the other hand, there is growing evidence that a key initiating factor of social buffering behaviors is the initiation of an anxiogenic state in the individual that was not directly exposed to the stress. This is referred to as stress contagion (a form of emotion contagion). Both processes involve the transmission of social information, suggesting that contagion and buffering could share similar neural mechanisms. In general, mechanistic studies of contagion and buffering are considered separately, even though behavioral studies show that a degree of contagion is usually necessary for social buffering behaviors to occur. Here we consider the extent to which the neuropeptides corticotropin releasing hormone and oxytocin are involved in contagion and stress buffering. We also assess the importance that frontal cortical areas such as the anterior cingulate cortex and infralimbic cortex play in these behavioral processes. We suggest that further work that directly compares neural mechanisms during stress contagion and stress buffering will be important for identifying what appear to be distinct but overlapping circuits mediating these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natanja F Peen
- Department of Neurobiology, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences (GELIFES), University of Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands; Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, CA. USA
| | - Natalia Duque-Wilckens
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, CA. USA; Departments of Physiology and Large Animal Clinical Sciences, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI. USA
| | - Brian C Trainor
- Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, CA. USA.
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21
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Understanding stress: Insights from rodent models. CURRENT RESEARCH IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2021; 2:100013. [PMID: 36246514 PMCID: PMC9559100 DOI: 10.1016/j.crneur.2021.100013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2021] [Accepted: 05/08/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Through incorporating both physical and psychological forms of stressors, a variety of rodent models have provided important insights into the understanding of stress physiology. Rodent models also have provided significant information with regards to the mechanistic basis of the pathophysiology of stress-related disorders such as anxiety disorders, depressive illnesses, cognitive impairment and post-traumatic stress disorder. Additionally, rodent models of stress have served as valuable tools in the area of drug screening and drug development for treatment of stress-induced conditions. Although rodent models do not accurately reproduce the biochemical or physiological parameters of stress response and cannot fully mimic the natural progression of human disorders, yet, animal research has provided answers to many important scientific questions. In this review article, important studies utilizing a variety of stress models are described in terms of their design and apparatus, with specific focus on their capabilities to generate reliable behavioral and biochemical read-out. The review focusses on the utility of rodent models by discussing examples in the literature that offer important mechanistic insights into physiologically relevant questions. The review highlights the utility of rodent models of stress as important tools for advancing the mission of scientific research and inquiry. Stressful life events may lead to the onset of severe psychopathologies in humans. Rodents may model many features of stress exposure in human populations. Induction of stress via pharmacological and psychological manipulations alter rodent behavior. Mechanistic rodent studies reveal key molecular targets critical for new therapeutic targets.
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22
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Zoladz PR. Animal models for the discovery of novel drugs for post-traumatic stress disorder. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2020; 16:135-146. [PMID: 32921163 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2020.1820982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Existing pharmacological treatments for PTSD are limited and have been used primarily because of their effectiveness in other psychiatric conditions. To generate novel, PTSD specific pharmacotherapy, researchers must utilize animal models to assess the efficacy of experimental drugs. AREAS COVERED This review includes a discussion of factors that should be considered when developing an animal model of PTSD, as well as descriptions of the most commonly used models. Researchers have utilized physical stressors, psychological stressors, or a combination of the two to induce PTSD-like physiological and behavioral sequelae in animals. Such models have provided researchers with a valuable tool to examine the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the condition. EXPERT OPINION PTSD is a heterogeneous disorder that manifests as different symptom clusters in different individuals. Thus, there cannot be a one-size-fits-all approach to modeling the disorder in animals. Preclinical investigators must adopt a concentrated effort aimed at modeling specific PTSD subtypes and the distinct symptom profiles that result from specific types of human trauma. Moreover, researchers have focused so much on modeling a single PTSD syndrome in animals that studies examining only specific facets of the disorder are largely ignored. Future research employing animal models of PTSD requires greater focus on the nuances of PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip R Zoladz
- Psychology Program, the School of Health and Behavioral Sciences, Ohio Northern University , Ada, OH, USA
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23
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Nakatake Y, Furuie H, Yamada M, Kuniishi H, Ukezono M, Yoshizawa K, Yamada M. The effects of emotional stress are not identical to those of physical stress in mouse model of social defeat stress. Neurosci Res 2020; 158:56-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2019.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 10/09/2019] [Accepted: 10/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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24
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Warren BL, Mazei-Robison MS, Robison AJ, Iñiguez SD. Can I Get a Witness? Using Vicarious Defeat Stress to Study Mood-Related Illnesses in Traditionally Understudied Populations. Biol Psychiatry 2020; 88:381-391. [PMID: 32228871 PMCID: PMC7725411 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2020.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 01/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/06/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The chronic social defeat stress model has been instrumental in shaping our understanding of neurobiology relevant to affect-related illnesses, including major depressive disorder. However, the classic chronic social defeat stress procedure is limited by its exclusive application to adult male rodents. We have recently developed a novel vicarious social defeat stress procedure wherein one mouse witnesses the physical defeat bout of a conspecific from the safety of an adjacent compartment. This witness mouse develops a similar behavioral phenotype to that of the mouse that physically experiences social defeat stress, modeling multiple aspects of major depressive disorder. Importantly, this new procedure allows researchers to perform vicarious social defeat stress in males or females and in juvenile mice, which typically are excluded from classic social defeat experiments. Here we discuss several recent advances made using this procedure and how its application provides a new preclinical approach to study the neurobiology of psychological stress-induced phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brandon L Warren
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | | | - Alfred J Robison
- Department of Physiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan
| | - Sergio D Iñiguez
- Department of Psychology, The University of Texas at El Paso, El Paso, Texas.
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Martinez-Muniz GA, Wood SK. Sex Differences in the Inflammatory Consequences of Stress: Implications for Pharmacotherapy. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2020; 375:161-174. [PMID: 32759370 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.120.266205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Women are at significantly greater risk of developing stress-related disorders such as depression. The increased risk begins during puberty and continues throughout life until menopause, suggesting a role for ovarian hormones in this increased susceptibility. Importantly, inflammation has been gaining momentum in its role in the pathogenesis of depression. Herein, clinical and preclinical studies have been reviewed to better understand how sex differences within the immune system may contribute to exaggerated risk of depression in females. First, studies that investigate the ability of psychologic stress episodes to engage the inflammatory systems both in the brain and periphery are reviewed with a special focus on sex-specific effects. Moreover, studies are discussed that identify whether imbalanced inflammatory milieu contributes to the development of depression in males versus females and whether these effects are regulated by estradiol. Importantly, we propose a locus coeruleus-norepinephrine-cytokine circuit as a conduit through which stress could increase stress susceptibly in females. Finally, the anti-inflammatory capacity of traditional and nontraditional antidepressants is investigated, with the goal of providing a better understanding of pharmacotherapeutics to enhance strategies to personalize antidepressant treatments between the sexes. The studies reviewed herein strongly support the need for further studies to elucidate whether females are especially sensitive to anti-inflammatory compounds as adjuvants to traditional therapies. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Women have hve an increased risk of developing stress-related disorders such as depression. In this review, literature from clinical and preclinical studies are integrated to define sex differences in stress-induced inflammatory responses as a potential source for the etiology of sex differences in depressive disorders. Moreover, the anti-inflammatory capacity of traditional and nontraditional antidepressants is reviewed to inform on potential pharmacotherapeutic strategies to personalize antidepressant therapy in a sex-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo A Martinez-Muniz
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina and Dorn Veterans Administration Medical Center, Columbia, South Carolina
| | - Susan K Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina and Dorn Veterans Administration Medical Center, Columbia, South Carolina
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26
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Verbitsky A, Dopfel D, Zhang N. Rodent models of post-traumatic stress disorder: behavioral assessment. Transl Psychiatry 2020; 10:132. [PMID: 32376819 PMCID: PMC7203017 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-020-0806-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2019] [Revised: 03/17/2020] [Accepted: 04/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Although the etiology and expression of psychiatric disorders are complex, mammals show biologically preserved behavioral and neurobiological responses to valent stimuli which underlie the use of rodent models of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a complex phenotype that is difficult to model in rodents because it is diagnosed by patient interview and influenced by both environmental and genetic factors. However, given that PTSD results from traumatic experiences, rodent models can simulate stress induction and disorder development. By manipulating stress type, intensity, duration, and frequency, preclinical models reflect core PTSD phenotypes, measured through various behavioral assays. Paradigms precipitate the disorder by applying physical, social, and psychological stressors individually or in combination. This review discusses the methods used to trigger and evaluate PTSD-like phenotypes. It highlights studies employing each stress model and evaluates their translational efficacies against DSM-5, validity criteria, and criteria proposed by Yehuda and Antelman's commentary in 1993. This is intended to aid in paradigm selection by informing readers about rodent models, their benefits to the clinical community, challenges associated with the translational models, and opportunities for future work. To inform PTSD model validity and relevance to human psychopathology, we propose that models incorporate behavioral test batteries, individual differences, sex differences, strain and stock differences, early life stress effects, biomarkers, stringent success criteria for drug development, Research Domain Criteria, technological advances, and cross-species comparisons. We conclude that, despite the challenges, animal studies will be pivotal to advances in understanding PTSD and the neurobiology of stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Verbitsky
- Department of Engineering Science and Mechanics, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - David Dopfel
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA
| | - Nanyin Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
- The Huck Institutes of Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, 16802, USA.
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27
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Carnevali L, Montano N, Tobaldini E, Thayer JF, Sgoifo A. The contagion of social defeat stress: Insights from rodent studies. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2020; 111:12-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2020.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 12/03/2019] [Accepted: 01/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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28
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Atrooz F, Liu H, Salim S. Stress, psychiatric disorders, molecular targets, and more. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2019; 167:77-105. [PMID: 31601407 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2019.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Mental health is central to normal health outcomes. A widely accepted theory is that chronic persistent stress during adulthood as well as during early life triggers onset of neuropsychiatric ailments. However, questions related to how that occurs, and why are some individuals resistant to stress while others are not, remain unanswered. An integrated, multisystemic stress response involving neuroinflammatory, neuroendocrine, epigenetic and metabolic cascades have been suggested to have causative links. Several theories have been proposed over the years to conceptualize this link including the cytokine hypothesis, the endocrine hypothesis, the oxidative stress hypothesis and the oxido-neuroinflammation hypothesis. The data discussed in this review describes potential biochemical basis of the link between stress, and stress-induced neuronal, behavioral and emotional deficits, providing insights into potentially novel drug targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatin Atrooz
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Hesong Liu
- Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, United States
| | - Samina Salim
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX, United States.
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29
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Alzoubi KH, Al-Ibbini AM, Nuseir KQ. Prevention of memory impairment induced by post-traumatic stress disorder by cerebrolysin. Psychiatry Res 2018; 270:430-437. [PMID: 30316170 DOI: 10.1016/j.psychres.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 09/21/2018] [Accepted: 10/01/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) may occur after exposure to stressful, fearful or troubling events. Until now, there is no curable medication for this disorder. Cerebrolysin is a neuropeptide, which has an important role in the treatment of vascular dementia. In this study, the probable protective effect of cerebrolysin on PTSD-induced memory impairment was investigated. To induce PTSD, the single prolonged stress (SPS) model was used. Rats were allocated into four groups: control (vehicle-treated), CBL (administrated cerebrolysin 2.5 ml/kg by intraperitoneal route for 4 weeks), SPS (as a model of PTSD and administered vehicle), and CBL-SPS (exposed to SPS and administered cerebrolysin for 4 weeks). Learning and memory were assessed using the radial arm water maze (RAWM). Results showed that SPS impaired both short- and long- term memories; and chronic cerebrolysin administration prevented such effect. Cerebrolysin also prevented decreases in hippocampal GSH levels and GSH/GSSG ratios, and increased GSSG and TBARs, levels induced by PTSD. In conclusion, a protective effect of cerebrolysin administration against SPS model of PTSD induced short- and long- term memory impairment was characterized. This protection could be accomplished, at least partly, by prevention of PTSD induced increase in oxidative stress in the hippocampus via the use of cerebrolysin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karem H Alzoubi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan.
| | - Alaa M Al-Ibbini
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan
| | - Khawla Q Nuseir
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid 22110, Jordan
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30
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Finnell JE, Muniz BL, Padi AR, Lombard CM, Moffitt CM, Wood CS, Wilson LB, Reagan LP, Wilson MA, Wood SK. Essential Role of Ovarian Hormones in Susceptibility to the Consequences of Witnessing Social Defeat in Female Rats. Biol Psychiatry 2018; 84:372-382. [PMID: 29544773 PMCID: PMC6067999 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2017] [Revised: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Women are at greater risk than men of developing depression and comorbid disorders such as cardiovascular disease. This enhanced risk begins at puberty and ends following menopause, suggesting a role for ovarian hormones in this sensitivity. Here we used a model of psychosocial witness stress in female rats to determine the stress-induced neurobiological adaptations that underlie stress susceptibility in an ovarian hormone-dependent manner. METHODS Intact or ovariectomized (OVX) female rats were exposed to five daily 15-minute witness-stress exposures. Witness-stress-evoked burying, behavioral despair, and anhedonia were measured. Cardiovascular telemetry was combined with plasma measurements of inflammation, epinephrine, and corticosterone as indices of cardiovascular dysfunction. Finally, levels of interleukin-1β and corticotropin-releasing factor were assessed in the central amygdala. RESULTS Witness stress produced anxiety-like burying, depressive-like anhedonia, and behavioral despair selectively in intact female rats, which was associated with enhanced sympathetic responses during stress, including increased blood pressure, heart rate, and arrhythmias. Moreover, intact female rats exhibited increases in 12-hour resting systolic pressure and heart rate and reductions in heart rate variability. Notably, OVX female rats remained resilient. Moreover, intact, but not OVX, female rats exposed to witness stress exhibited a sensitized cytokine and epinephrine response to stress and distinct increases in levels of corticotropin-releasing factor and interleukin-1β in the central amygdala. CONCLUSIONS Together these data suggest that ovarian hormones play a critical role in the behavioral, inflammatory, and cardiovascular susceptibility to social stress in female rats and reveal putative systems that are sensitized to stress in an ovarian hormone-dependent manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie E. Finnell
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Brandon L. Muniz
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Akhila R. Padi
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Calliandra M. Lombard
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Casey M. Moffitt
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Christopher S. Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - L. Britt Wilson
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Lawrence P. Reagan
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209,WJB Dorn Veterans Administration Medical Center, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Marlene A. Wilson
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209,WJB Dorn Veterans Administration Medical Center, Columbia, SC 29209
| | - Susan K. Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience; University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, SC 29209,WJB Dorn Veterans Administration Medical Center, Columbia, SC 29209
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31
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Malingered Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) and the Effect of Direct Versus Indirect Trauma Exposure on Symptom Profiles and Detectability. PSYCHOLOGICAL INJURY & LAW 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s12207-018-9315-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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32
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Behavioral effects of early life maternal trauma witness in rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2018; 81:80-87. [PMID: 29074097 PMCID: PMC6453663 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2017] [Revised: 10/15/2017] [Accepted: 10/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Earlier, we have reported that post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)-like behaviors developed in rats that witnessed their cage mates undergo repeated traumatic stress. More recently, we published that early life physical traumatic stress leads to later life depression-like behaviors in rats. Whether early life trauma witness causes later life PTSD-like behaviors is not known. Also unclear are sex-specific stress-induced behavioral variations in later life. The early life witness component of stress is an important aspect of stress-induced psychopathologies and must be investigated. OBJECTIVE Here, we have examined the impact of early life repeated witnessing of traumatic events by pups from post-natal day (PND) 21-PND27, on later life behaviors at PND60, and the behavioral impact of postpartum traumatic stress in female rats. METHODS We used a modified version of rodent social defeat model to induce postpartum stress in female rats and trauma witness stress in pups. One female Sprague-Dawley rat (intruder) was introduced into the cage of an aggressive Long-Evans male rat (resident). The encounter between the two resulted in attacks between the female rat and the Long-Evans male rat. Three exposures of social defeat (attacks) were given for 7 consecutive days. The social defeat traumatic events were witnessed by 6 pups (offspring of the intruder female rat, PND21-27), placed in six separate enclosures surrounding the cage. The objective of this experiment was three-fold: 1) to test later life behavioral effects in pups from witnessing maternal defeat, 2) to examine gender susceptibility of pups in maternal defeat witness-induced behaviors, 3) to test behavioral effect in female rats 24h after receiving the last social defeat exposure. RESULTS We observed that while anxiety-like behavior assessed in open-field and elevated plus-maze tests, was not affected in male or female rats upon witnessing repeated maternal traumatic stress, depression-like behavior in forced-swim test was observed at PND60 in both male and female rats, with greater effect in male rats. No change was observed in learning and memory functions using radial arm water maze test in both male and female rats. Interestingly, socially defeated female rats (dams: mother of the pups) developed both anxiety and depression-like behavior with no change in learning-memory function when compared to control female rats. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that early life maternal stress witness history leads to depression-like behavior in both male and female adult rats, and dams developed both anxiety and depression-like behaviors.
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Li M, Xu H, Wang W. An Improved Model of Physical and Emotional Social Defeat: Different Effects on Social Behavior and Body Weight of Adolescent Mice by Interaction With Social Support. Front Psychiatry 2018; 9:688. [PMID: 30618868 PMCID: PMC6297843 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2018.00688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2018] [Accepted: 11/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Social stress is a prevalent etiological environmental factor that can affect health, especially during adolescence. Either experiencing or witnessing a traumatic event during adolescence can increase the risk of psychiatric disorders, such as PTSD. The present study attempted to establish an improved social stress model to better distinguish the effects of physical and emotional social stress on the behavior and physiology of adolescent mice. In addition, we investigated how social support affected these stress-induced changes in social behavior. On PND 28, male littermates were exposed to either physical stress (PS) or emotional stress (ES), afterwards, half of them were paired-housed and the others were singly housed. The PS exposed mice were directly confronted with a violent aggressor using the social defeat stress (SDS) paradigm for 15 min/trial (with the total of 10 trials randomly administered over a week), while the ES exposed mice were placed in a neighboring compartment to witness the PS procedure. Our results indicate that both stressors induced an effective stress response in adolescent mice, but PS and ES had differential influence in the context of relevant social anxiety/fear and social interaction with peers. Additionally, social support following stress exposure exerted beneficial effects on the social anxiety/fear in ES exposed mice, but not on PS exposed mice, suggesting that the type of stressor may affect the intervention efficacy of social support. These findings provide extensive evidence that physical and emotional stressors induce different effects. Moreover, ES exposed mice, rather than PS exposed mice, seemed to benefit from social support. In summary, the study suggests that this paradigm will be helpful in investigating the effects of psychological intervention for the treatment of stress-related psychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Li
- Department of Psychology, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.,Academy of Psychology and Behavior, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin, China.,Center of Collaborative Innovation for Assessment and Promotion of Mental Health, Tianjin, China.,CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China
| | - Hang Xu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Weiwen Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China.,Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
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34
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Laman-Maharg A, Trainor BC. Stress, sex, and motivated behaviors. J Neurosci Res 2017; 95:83-92. [PMID: 27870436 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2016] [Revised: 06/01/2016] [Accepted: 06/13/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Stress is a major risk factor for development of psychiatric disorders such as depression and development of substance use disorder. Although there are important sex differences in the prevalence of these disorders, most preclinical models used to study stress-induced disorders have used males only. Social defeat stress is a commonly used method to induce stress in an ethologically relevant way but has only recently begun to be used in female rodents. Using these new female models, recent studies have examined how social defeat stress affects males and females differently at the behavioral, circuit, and molecular levels. This Mini-Review discusses sex differences in the effects of social defeat stress on social behavior and drug-seeking behavior as well as its impact on the mesolimbic dopamine system and the highly connected region of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Laman-Maharg
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
| | - Brian C Trainor
- Neuroscience Graduate Group, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Department of Psychology, University of California, Davis, Davis, California.,Center for Neuroscience, University of California, Davis, Davis, California
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35
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Salvi A, Patki G, Liu H, Salim S. Psychological Impact of Vehicle Exhaust Exposure: Insights from an Animal Model. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8306. [PMID: 28814807 PMCID: PMC5559575 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-08859-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Accepted: 07/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Air pollution resulting from exhaust emissions of vehicles has risen in the recent years, reportedly causing major adverse effects on the heart, lungs and the brain. Though respiratory and cardiovascular effects of these emissions are well identified, psychological and neurobiological complications of prolonged exposure to vehicle emissions remain unknown. Pro-oxidants are considered as major constituents of vehicle emissions. This is important considering causal link between oxidative stress and behavioral and cognitive impairments. We hypothesized that prolonged exposure to pro-oxidants in vehicle emissions result in behavioral and cognitive deficits. We developed a simulated vehicle exhaust exposure model in rats. The model used a simulated mixture of vehicle exhaust that comprised of pro-oxidant constituents of exhaust, namely, carbon dioxide (13%), carbon monoxide (0.68%) and nitrogen dioxide (1000 ppm) in air. Rats were exposed either to a high (1:10 dilution) or low (~1:1000 dilution) physiologically relevant dose of simulated mixture in air for two weeks in separate experiments followed by a comprehensive behavioral and cognitive analysis. We observed that prolonged exposure to pro-oxidants in vehicle exhaust increased anxiety-and depression-like behavior as well as led to impaired memory in rats. This is important preclinical evidence, particularly relevant to human population exposed to high vehicular traffic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ankita Salvi
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX-77204, USA
| | - Gaurav Patki
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX-77204, USA
| | - Hesong Liu
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX-77204, USA
| | - Samina Salim
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston, TX-77204, USA.
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Liu H, Atrooz F, Salvi A, Salim S. Behavioral and cognitive impact of early life stress: Insights from an animal model. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2017; 78:88-95. [PMID: 28527907 PMCID: PMC5613976 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.05.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Revised: 05/16/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Children subjected to traumatic events during childhood are reported to exhibit behavioral and cognitive deficits later in life, often leading to post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depression. Interestingly, some children continue to remain normal despite being exposed to the same risk factors. These trauma-related behavioral and cognitive profiles across different stages of life are not well understood. Animal studies can offer useful insights. OBJECTIVE The goal of this study was to determine the impact of early life exposure to traumatic events on behavioral and cognitive profile in rats by tracking the behavior of each rat at different ages. METHODS We utilized the single prolonged stress (SPS), a rodent model of PTSD, to study the effects of early life stress. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to SPS on post-natal day (PND) 25. Tests to assess anxiety- and depression-like behavior, as well as learning and memory function were performed at PND32, 60 and 90. RESULTS Rats exposed to SPS exhibited both anxiety- and depression-like behavior at PND32. And, short-term (STM) but not long-term memory (LTM) was impaired. Rats exposed to SPS at PND60 exhibited anxiety- but not depression-like behavior. STM but not LTM was impaired. Rats exposed to SPS at PND90 exhibited fearful (as indicated by elevated plus maze test) but not an overall anxiety-like behavior (in light and dark test). These rats also displayed significant depression-like behavior with no changes in STM or LTM. Interestingly, when data was further analyzed, two subsets of PND90 rats exposed to SPS were identified, "susceptible": with depression-like behavior and "resilient": without depression-like behavior. Importantly, while resilient group expressed early signs of anxiety- (at PND32 and PND60) and depression-like behavior (at PND32), these behavioral deficits were absent at PND90. On the other hand, susceptible PND90 rats exposed to SPS expressed later onset of anxiety-like behavior (at PND60), while depression-like phenotype was evident only later on at PND90. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that early life stress caused co-occurrence of anxiety and depression-like behavior at PND32 (mimics human early-adolescent period). This co-occurrence was lost at PND60 with demonstration of anxiety- but not depression-like behavior. Later, depression but not anxiety-like behavior was observed at PND90. It seems that behavioral adaptations occur at the critical PND60 stage (mimics human late-adolescent period), where behavioral and cognitive switching occurs, thereby, expressing susceptible and resilient phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hesong Liu
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, TX 77204, USA.
| | - Fatin Atrooz
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, TX 77204, USA.
| | - Ankita Salvi
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, TX 77204, USA.
| | - Samina Salim
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, TX 77204, USA.
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Kochi C, Liu H, Zaidi S, Atrooz F, Dantoin P, Salim S. Prior treadmill exercise promotes resilience to vicarious trauma in rats. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2017; 77:216-221. [PMID: 28428145 PMCID: PMC5613975 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2017.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a serious psychological condition, which can develop both from physically experiencing and also from witnessing traumatic events. There is evidence that physical exercise can have a positive impact on the symptoms of PTSD. Relevant to this, in our previous pre-clinical work, beneficial effects of treadmill exercise were reported on PTSD-like behaviors in a social defeat paradigm, a rat model of direct physical trauma. However, the role of exercise on vicariously acquired PTSD-like phenotype was not examined. OBJECTIVE In this study, we utilized a rodent PTSD model, which mimics both the physical as well as the witness experience of trauma, and examined the impact of moderate treadmill exercise in mitigating vicariously acquired PTSD-like behaviors in rats. METHODS Our PTSD model is a modified social defeat paradigm, which involves aggressive encounters between a large Long-Evans male rat (resident) and a smaller Sprague-Dawley male rat (intruder), resulting in intruder social defeat. The cage mate of the intruder is positioned to witness intruder defeat. Rats were grouped as control (CON), social defeat (SD), exercise (EX), trauma witness (TW), and exercise prior to trauma witness (EX-TW). After acclimatization for 7days, the exercised groups were subjected to a daily 30-min treadmill exercise regimen for 14days. On day 21, the SD group was exposed for 7days of social defeat, while the TW groups witnessed social defeat. On days 28-34, behavioral and cognitive tests including short-term (STM) and long-term (LTM) memory function, anxiety- and depression-like behaviors were conducted. RESULTS TW and SD rats demonstrated the highest levels of anxiety- and depression-like behaviors, while EX-TW rats did not exhibit anxiety- and depression-like behaviors. TW and SD rats showed no impairments in STM. However, TW and SD rats showed impairments in LTM, and exercise rescued LTM impairments in EX-TW rats. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrates that rats subjected to direct experience or witness of social defeat exhibited PTSD-like behaviors, while moderate treadmill exercise prevented trauma witness-induced behavioral impairments. These studies have important translational value suggesting that prior treadmill exercise might provide resilience to stressful stimuli and perhaps mitigate the witnessing effects of traumatic events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Kochi
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Hesong Liu
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Safiyya Zaidi
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Fatin Atrooz
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Phoebe Dantoin
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Samina Salim
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Houston, Houston, TX, USA.
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Early life stress and later peer distress on depressive behavior in adolescent female rats: Effects of a novel intervention on GABA and D2 receptors. Behav Brain Res 2017; 330:37-45. [PMID: 28499915 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2017.04.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Early life adversity (ELA) increases the risk of depression during adolescence that may result from a decline in parvalbumin (PVB) secondary to increased neuroinflammation. In this study, we investigated depressive-like behavior following exposure to two different types of stressors that are relevant for their developmental period: 1) chronic ELA (maternal separation; MS) and 2) an acute emotional stressor during adolescence (witnessing their peers receive multiple shocks; WIT), and their interaction. We also determined whether reducing inflammation by cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibition would prevent the onset of depressive-like behavior. Female Sprague-Dawley rat pups underwent MS for four-hours/day or received typical care (CON) between postnatal days (P) 2 and P20. A COX-2 inhibitor (COX-2I) or vehicle was administered every other day between P30 and P38. Subjects were tested for learned helplessness to assess depressive-like behavior at P40 (adolescence). MS females demonstrated increased escape latency and decreased PVB in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) and dorsal raphe that were attenuated by COX-2I intervention. Helplessness was also associated with an increase in D2 receptors in the accumbens. In contrast, WIT elevated escape latency in CON, but reduced latency in MS females. Furthermore, COX-2I intervention decreased escape latency in both CON and MS after WIT. WIT reduced PVB levels in the basolateral amygdala and increased PFC levels to CON levels. Our data suggest that decreased PVB in the PFC is important for the expression of depressive-like behavior and suggest that COX-2I intervention may provide a novel prevention for depression.
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Gvozdanovic GA, Stämpfli P, Seifritz E, Rasch B. Neural correlates of experimental trauma memory retrieval. Hum Brain Mapp 2017; 38:3592-3602. [PMID: 28419641 DOI: 10.1002/hbm.23613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Revised: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Traumatic memories such as intrusions and flashbacks play a major role in the development and maintenance of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). A thorough understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying traumatic memories is indispensable for precise diagnosis, for personalized treatment and prevention. In particular, the identification of early neural predictor variables for intrusion development shortly after trauma exposure requires detailed investigation. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN Here, we examined the neural correlates of early experimental trauma memory retrieval in a traumatic film paradigm in 42 young healthy females, using both implicit and explicit retrieval tasks. PRINCIPAL OBSERVATIONS We show that implicit experimental trauma retrieval specifically involved the retrosplenial cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), while both retrieval tasks resulted in trauma-related activity in the posterior cingulate cortex (PCC) and the precuneus. Importantly, neural activity early after experimental trauma exposure predicted later intrusion development, with independent contributions from activity in the retrosplenial cortex (implicit retrieval) and the PCC (explicit retrieval). Additional analyses revealed a stronger connectivity between the bilateral amygdala and the supplementary motor area, precentral and paracentral lobule for the control group compared to the experimental trauma group. CONCLUSIONS Our study gives new insights in the neural correlates of experimental trauma memory retrieval and their predictive value for subsequent symptom development. Our results could provide the basis for personalized early treatment and prevention of PTSD. Hum Brain Mapp, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Hum Brain Mapp 38:3592-3602, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geraldine A Gvozdanovic
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Division of Biopsychology, Institute of Psychology, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Philipp Stämpfli
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Erich Seifritz
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric Hospital, University of Zürich, Zürich, Switzerland.,Division of Biopsychology, Zurich Center for Interdisciplinary Sleep Research (ZiS), University of Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Björn Rasch
- Division of Biopsychology, Zurich Center for Interdisciplinary Sleep Research (ZiS), University of Zürich, Switzerland.,Division of Cognitive Biopsychology and Methods, Department of Psychology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
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Finnell JE, Lombard CM, Padi AR, Moffitt CM, Wilson LB, Wood CS, Wood SK. Physical versus psychological social stress in male rats reveals distinct cardiovascular, inflammatory and behavioral consequences. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0172868. [PMID: 28241050 PMCID: PMC5328366 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0172868] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2016] [Accepted: 02/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Repeated exposure to social stress can precipitate the development of psychosocial disorders including depression and comorbid cardiovascular disease. While a major component of social stress often encompasses physical interactions, purely psychological stressors (i.e. witnessing a traumatic event) also fall under the scope of social stress. The current study determined whether the acute stress response and susceptibility to stress-related consequences differed based on whether the stressor consisted of physical versus purely psychological social stress. Using a modified resident-intruder paradigm, male rats were either directly exposed to repeated social defeat stress (intruder) or witnessed a male rat being defeated. Cardiovascular parameters, behavioral anhedonia, and inflammatory cytokines in plasma and the stress-sensitive locus coeruleus were compared between intruder, witness, and control rats. Surprisingly intruders and witnesses exhibited nearly identical increases in mean arterial pressure and heart rate during acute and repeated stress exposures, yet only intruders exhibited stress-induced arrhythmias. Furthermore, re-exposure to the stress environment in the absence of the resident produced robust pressor and tachycardic responses in both stress conditions indicating the robust and enduring nature of social stress. In contrast, the long-term consequences of these stressors were distinct. Intruders were characterized by enhanced inflammatory sensitivity in plasma, while witnesses were characterized by the emergence of depressive-like anhedonia, transient increases in systolic blood pressure and plasma levels of tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinase. The current study highlights that while the acute cardiovascular responses to stress were identical between intruders and witnesses, these stressors produced distinct differences in the enduring consequences to stress, suggesting that witness stress may be more likely to produce long-term cardiovascular dysfunction and comorbid behavioral anhedonia while exposure to physical stressors may bias the system towards sensitivity to inflammatory disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie E Finnell
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Calliandra M Lombard
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Akhila R Padi
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Casey M Moffitt
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - L Britt Wilson
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Christopher S Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
| | - Susan K Wood
- Department of Pharmacology, Physiology, and Neuroscience, University of South Carolina School of Medicine, Columbia, South Carolina, United States of America
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Anxiety-Related Behaviours Associated with microRNA-206-3p and BDNF Expression in Pregnant Female Mice Following Psychological Social Stress. Mol Neurobiol 2017; 55:1097-1111. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0378-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2016] [Accepted: 12/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Ji LL, Peng JB, Fu CH, Cao D, Li D, Tong L, Wang ZY. Activation of Sigma-1 receptor ameliorates anxiety-like behavior and cognitive impairments in a rat model of post-traumatic stress disorder. Behav Brain Res 2016; 311:408-415. [PMID: 27275520 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.05.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Revised: 05/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Among learning and memory processes, fear memories are crucial in some psychiatric disorders like post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Accumulating evidence shows that the sigma-1 receptor (Sig-1R) has comprehensive involvement in cognitive impairment and neuroprotective effects. It has also been reported that BDNF appears to enhance extinction of fear in anxiety disorders via the MAPK signaling cascade. However, it remains unclear whether BDNF-TrkB-MAPK pathway may be mechanistically involved in the therapeutic effect of sigma-1 receptor in the development of PTSD. To address this question, rats were subjected to a classical single-prolonged stress procedure (SPS) and kept undisturbed for 7 days. After that, rats were re-stressed by re-exposure to the forced swim component of SPS (RSPS). Behavior tests were subsequently performed to assess anxiety and cognitive impairments. Furthermore, we analyzed the expression of BDNF and the phosphorylation of TrkB and three MAPK pathways, namely, the ERK, JNK and p38. We found that the levels of BDNF and p-TrkB were increased following the RSPS procedure, which were reversed by the administration of PRE-084. Meanwhile, among the three MAPK signaling pathways, only the p-ERK expression was increased following the RSPS procedure. Collectively, our results indicate that BDNF-TrkB-ERK signaling pathway may be involved in the activation of sigma-1 receptor to yield therapeutic benefits for PTSD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-Li Ji
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Jun-Bo Peng
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Chang-Hai Fu
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Dong Cao
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Dan Li
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China
| | - Lei Tong
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zhen-Yu Wang
- Department of Anatomy, College of Basic Medical Sciences, China Medical University, Shenyang, People's Republic of China.
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Lee H, Noh J. Pair exposure with conspecific during fear conditioning induces the link between freezing and passive avoidance behaviors in rats. Neurosci Res 2016; 108:40-5. [PMID: 26827818 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2016.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Social factor plays an important role in dealing with posttraumatic stress disorder related to excessive physiological fear response and insufficient fear memory extinction of the brain. However, although social circumstances occurred not only during contextual retrieval but also during fear conditioning, most previous studies focused on the advantageous aspects of social buffering in fear retrieval period. To demonstrate the association between fear responses and fear memory from social stimuli during fear conditioning, pair exposed rats with conspecific as social buffering were subjected to a fear conditioning of passive avoidance test to evaluate memory function and freezing behavior. Whereas single exposed rats showed the significant increase of freezing behaviors and passive avoidance behaviors compared to control rats, pair exposed rats showed significant alleviation of the freezing behaviors and passive avoidance behaviors compared to single exposed rats. Furthermore, we determined a significant correlation between freezing and passive avoidance behavioral alteration in pair exposed rats. Taken together, we suggest that pair exposure with conspecific during fear conditioning helps to cope with both freezing response and fear memory systems and their reciprocal interaction has a crucial potential as a resource for the relief of unreasonable stress responses in posttraumatic stress disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunchan Lee
- Department of Science Education, College of Education, Dankook University, 152 Jukjeon-ro, Suji-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 16890, Republic of Korea
| | - Jihyun Noh
- Department of Science Education, College of Education, Dankook University, 152 Jukjeon-ro, Suji-gu, Yongin-si, Gyeonggi-do 16890, Republic of Korea.
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Patki G, Salvi A, Liu H, Salim S. Witnessing traumatic events and post-traumatic stress disorder: Insights from an animal model. Neurosci Lett 2015; 600:28-32. [PMID: 26044989 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2015.05.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2015] [Revised: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 05/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
It is becoming increasingly recognized that post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) can be acquired vicariously from witnessing traumatic events. Recently, we published an animal model called the "Trauma witness model" (TWM) which mimics PTSD-like symptoms in rats from witnessing daily traumatic events (social defeat of cage mate) [14]. Our TWM does not result in any physical injury. This is a major procedural advantage over the typical intruder paradigm in which it is difficult to delineate the inflammatory response of tissue injury and the response elicited from emotional distress. Using TWM paradigm, we examined behavioral and cognitive effects in rats [14] however, the long-term persistence of PTSD-like symptoms or a time-course of these events (anxiety and depression-like behaviors and cognitive deficits) and the contribution of olfactory and auditory stress vs visual reinforcement were not examined. This study demonstrates that some of the features of PTSD-like symptoms in rats are reversible after a significant time lapse of the witnessing of traumatic events. We also have established that witnessing is critical to the PTSD-like phenotype and cannot be acquired solely due to auditory or olfactory stresses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Patki
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston TX-77204, USA
| | - Ankita Salvi
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston TX-77204, USA
| | - Hesong Liu
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston TX-77204, USA
| | - Samina Salim
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, Houston TX-77204, USA.
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Ménard C, Hodes GE, Russo SJ. Pathogenesis of depression: Insights from human and rodent studies. Neuroscience 2015; 321:138-162. [PMID: 26037806 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.05.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 337] [Impact Index Per Article: 37.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2015] [Revised: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) will affect one out of every five people in their lifetime and is the leading cause of disability worldwide. Nevertheless, mechanisms associated with the pathogenesis of MDD have yet to be completely understood and current treatments remain ineffective in a large subset of patients. In this review, we summarize the most recent discoveries and insights for which parallel findings have been obtained in human depressed subjects and rodent models of mood disorders in order to examine the potential etiology of depression. These mechanisms range from synaptic plasticity mechanisms to epigenetics and the immune system where there is strong evidence to support a functional role in the development of specific depression symptomology. Ultimately we conclude by discussing how novel therapeutic strategies targeting central and peripheral processes might ultimately aid in the development of effective new treatments for MDD and related stress disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Ménard
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and the Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - G E Hodes
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and the Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA
| | - S J Russo
- Fishberg Department of Neuroscience and the Friedman Brain Institute, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA.
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Patki G, Atrooz F, Alkadhi I, Solanki N, Salim S. High aggression in rats is associated with elevated stress, anxiety-like behavior, and altered catecholamine content in the brain. Neurosci Lett 2014; 584:308-13. [PMID: 25450144 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.10.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2014] [Revised: 10/27/2014] [Accepted: 10/30/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The social defeat paradigm involves aggressive encounters between Long-Evans (L-E) (resident) and Sprague-Dawley (S-D) (intruder) rats. Successful application of chronic social defeat stress in S-D rats is dependent upon selection of highly aggressive L-E rats. Half of the L-E rats screened for aggression did not meet the criterion for aggression (L-E rats performing a defeat, characterized by the intruder surrendering or acquiring a supine position for at least 3s). The observation of the differences in the level of aggression between age and weight matched L-E rats was quite compelling which led us to the present study. Herein, we measured behavioral differences between aggressor and non-aggressor L-E rats. We analyzed their anxiety-like behavior using open-field and elevated plus maze tests. We also measured aggression/violence-like behavior using two tests. In one, time taken to defeat the intruder S-D rat was recorded. In the second test, time taken to attack a novel object was compared between the two groups. We observed a significant increase in anxiety-like behavior in aggressor rats when compared to the non-aggressive group. Furthermore, time taken to defeat the intruder rat and to attack a novel object was significantly lower in aggressive L-E rats. Biochemical data suggests that heightened anxiety-like behavior and aggression is associated with increased plasma levels of corticosterones and elevated oxidative stress. Significant alterations in dopamine (DA), norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine (EPI) were observed within the hippocampus, amygdala, and the prefrontal cortex, suggesting potential involvement of dopaminergic and noradrenergic systems in regulation of aggressive behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gaurav Patki
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Fatin Atrooz
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Isam Alkadhi
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Naimesh Solanki
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Samina Salim
- Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of Houston, TX 77204, USA.
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