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Zhao Y, Zhu M, Zhou L, Gao M, Xu Z, Zhong S, Pan K, Chen L. Evaluating high-resolution aviation emissions using real-time flight data. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 951:175429. [PMID: 39128519 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.175429] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2024] [Revised: 08/05/2024] [Accepted: 08/08/2024] [Indexed: 08/13/2024]
Abstract
Amidst robust global economic growth and advancing globalization, the aviation market is poised for significant expansion. Consequently, the environmental impact of aviation emissions is growing in significance. However, due to limitations in real flight data and aviation emissions index models, further clarification of the emission characteristics throughout entire flights is necessary. To better assess the emission characteristics of entire flights, this study employs real Quick Access Recorder (QAR) data and a high-precision aviation emissions index model, yielding four-dimensional emission data (time, longitude, latitude, altitude) from flights. The analysis compares QAR data with emissions from scheduled flight data (SFD) and Broadcast Automatic Correlation Monitoring (ADS-B) projections, explores seasonal variations in aviation emissions, and assesses the impact of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) on emissions reductions. For both number and mass of nvPM emissions, as well as nitrogen oxide emissions, the rankings are: ADS-B-E > SFD-E > QAR-E; for CO, SFD-E > ADS-B-E > QAR-E, particularly during the climb-cruise-descent (CCD) cycle. There are significant differences in the emission of aviation pollutants in airport area and high-altitude area in different seasons. Employing four types of Sustainable Aviation Fuels (SAFs) significantly reduces both the mass and the number of nvPM emissions. Therefore, it is recommended to utilize more QAR data to refine the assessment of the environmental impact of aviation emissions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yiwei Zhao
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Meiyin Zhu
- International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China.
| | - Limin Zhou
- Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengyun Gao
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Zheng Xu
- International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Shenghui Zhong
- International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Kang Pan
- International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China
| | - Longfei Chen
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; International Innovation Institute, Beihang University, Hangzhou 311115, China.
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2
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Heeb NV, Muñoz M, Haag R, Wyss S, Schönenberger D, Durdina L, Elser M, Siegerist F, Mohn J, Brem BT. Corelease of Genotoxic Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons and Nanoparticles from a Commercial Aircraft Jet Engine - Dependence on Fuel and Thrust. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2024; 58:1615-1624. [PMID: 38206005 PMCID: PMC10809754 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c08152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/21/2023] [Indexed: 01/12/2024]
Abstract
Jet engines are important contributors to global CO2 emissions and release enormous numbers of ultrafine particles into different layers of the atmosphere. As a result, aviation emissions are affecting atmospheric chemistry and promote contrail and cloud formation with impacts on earth's radiative balance and climate. Furthermore, the corelease of nanoparticles together with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) affects air quality at airports. We studied exhausts of a widely used turbofan engine (CFM56-7B26) operated at five static thrust levels (idle, 7, 30, 65, and 85%) with conventional Jet A-1 fuel and a biofuel blend composed of hydro-processed esters and fatty acids (HEFA). The particles released, the chemical composition of condensable material, and the genotoxic potential of these exhausts were studied. At ground operation, particle number emissions of 3.5 and 0.5 × 1014 particles/kg fuel were observed with highest genotoxic potentials of 41300 and 8800 ng toxicity equivalents (TEQ)/kg fuel at idle and 7% thrust, respectively. Blending jet fuel with HEFA lowered PAH and particle emissions by 7-34% and 65-67% at idle and 7% thrust, respectively, indicating that the use of paraffin-rich biofuels is an effective measure to reduce the exposure of airport personnel to nanoparticles coated with genotoxic PAHs (Trojan horse effect).
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Affiliation(s)
- Norbert V. Heeb
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Maria Muñoz
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Regula Haag
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Simon Wyss
- Empa, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Air Pollution/Environmental Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - David Schönenberger
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Empa, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Air Pollution/Environmental Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Durdina
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Miriam Elser
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Empa, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Automotive Powertrain Technologies Laboratory, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | | | - Joachim Mohn
- Empa, Swiss Federal
Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Air Pollution/Environmental Technology, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T. Brem
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Überlandstrasse 129, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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3
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Liu Z, Wang Z, Yang X. Emission characteristics of cellulosic jet biofuel blend under laminar and turbulent combustion. BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR BIOFUELS AND BIOPRODUCTS 2023; 16:196. [PMID: 38115048 PMCID: PMC10731788 DOI: 10.1186/s13068-023-02439-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
Alternative biofuels have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and particulate matter due to free of aromatics compared to traditional petroleum-based aviation fuel. The potential mitigating emission of hydrothermal-condensation-hydrotreating jet biofuel (HCHJ) derived from agriculture residue was investigated. The effects of aviation biofuel components, blend ratio and equivalent ratio on emission characteristics were conducted by Premixed Pre-evaporated Bunsen burner (PPBB) for laminar combustion and ZF850 jet engine for turbulent combustion. In compositions, HCHJ had a higher concentration of cycloparaffins (mostly in C8-C10) while petroleum-based aviation fuel (RP-3) had a higher concentration of alkylbenzenes (mostly in C8-C11). In laminar combustion, HCHJ and both 50% blend HCHJ appear no unburned hydrocarbon (UHC) due to low aromatics content and no sulfur in the biofuel. Moreover, there were no significant differences in NO and NO2 concentration for HCHJ and HCHJ blends. In turbulent combustion, HCHJ blends and RP-3 were compared engine emissions at various state points. Considering all complex effects of fuel and combustion environment, HCHJ blend had a noticeable reduction in PM2.5 emissions in comparison with RP-3 due to their lower aromatics and sulfur content. As HCHJ is similar to RP-3 in C/H ratio, density and heat value and the different aromatics contents have different tendencies to generate PM2.5 at different condition, PM2.5 emission is not only related with the total aromatic content and individual aromatic structure but also the combustion environment at thrust setting and coexisting pollutants including NOx and UHC emissions. CO and NOx emission indicated that both of turbulent state and fuel type influence emissions. HCHJ blend can be benefit for PM2.5 reduction and combustion efficiency growth. PM2.5 reduction can be obtained 77.5% at 10% HCHJ blend and 9.5% at 5% HCHJ blend while combustion efficiency can be obtained 0.05% at 5% HCHJ blend and 0.36% at 10% HCHJ blend through all thrust output.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyu Liu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Rd, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
- School of Aeronautic Science and Engineering, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Rd, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhichao Wang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Rd, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiaoyi Yang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, 37 Xueyuan Rd, Beijing, 100191, People's Republic of China.
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4
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Teoh R, Schumann U, Voigt C, Schripp T, Shapiro M, Engberg Z, Molloy J, Koudis G, Stettler MEJ. Targeted Use of Sustainable Aviation Fuel to Maximize Climate Benefits. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:17246-17255. [PMID: 36394538 PMCID: PMC9730838 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c05781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) can reduce aviation's CO2 and non-CO2 impacts. We quantify the change in contrail properties and climate forcing in the North Atlantic resulting from different blending ratios of SAF and demonstrate that intelligently allocating the limited SAF supply could multiply its overall climate benefit by factors of 9-15. A fleetwide adoption of 100% SAF increases contrail occurrence (+5%), but lower nonvolatile particle emissions (-52%) reduce the annual mean contrail net radiative forcing (-44%), adding to climate gains from reduced life cycle CO2 emissions. However, in the short term, SAF supply will be constrained. SAF blended at a 1% ratio and uniformly distributed to all transatlantic flights would reduce both the annual contrail energy forcing (EFcontrail) and the total energy forcing (EFtotal, contrails + change in CO2 life cycle emissions) by ∼0.6%. Instead, targeting the same quantity of SAF at a 50% blend ratio to ∼2% of flights responsible for the most highly warming contrails reduces EFcontrail and EFtotal by ∼10 and ∼6%, respectively. Acknowledging forecasting uncertainties, SAF blended at lower ratios (10%) and distributed to more flights (∼9%) still reduces EFcontrail (∼5%) and EFtotal (∼3%). Both strategies deploy SAF on flights with engine particle emissions exceeding 1012 m-1, at night-time, and in winter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger Teoh
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, LondonSW7 2AZ, U.K.
| | - Ulrich Schumann
- Institute
of Atmospheric Physics, Deutsches Zentrum
für Luft- und Raumfahrt, 82234Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
| | - Christiane Voigt
- Institute
of Atmospheric Physics, Deutsches Zentrum
für Luft- und Raumfahrt, 82234Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany
- Institute
of Atmospheric Physics, University Mainz, 55099Mainz, Germany
| | - Tobias Schripp
- Institute
of Combustion Technology, Deutsches Zentrum
für Luft- und Raumfahrt, 70569Stuttgart, Germany
| | - Marc Shapiro
- Orca
Sciences, 4110 Carillon
Point, Kirkland, Washington98033, United States
| | - Zebediah Engberg
- Orca
Sciences, 4110 Carillon
Point, Kirkland, Washington98033, United States
| | - Jarlath Molloy
- NATS, 4000 Parkway, Whiteley Fareham, HampshirePO15 7FL, U.K.
| | - George Koudis
- NATS, 4000 Parkway, Whiteley Fareham, HampshirePO15 7FL, U.K.
| | - Marc E. J. Stettler
- Department
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, LondonSW7 2AZ, U.K.
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5
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Ge F, Yu Z, Li Y, Zhu M, Zhang B, Zhang Q, Harrison RM, Chen L. Predicting aviation non-volatile particulate matter emissions at cruise via convolutional neural network. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 850:158089. [PMID: 35985597 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.158089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 07/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/13/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Aviation emissions are the only direct source of anthropogenic particulate pollution at high altitudes, which can form contrails and contrail-induced clouds, with consequent effects upon global radiative forcing. In this study, we develop a predictive model, called APMEP-CNN, for aviation non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) emissions using a convolutional neural network (CNN) technique. The model is established with data sets from the newly published aviation emission databank and measurement results from several field studies on the ground and during cruise operation. The model also takes the influence of sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs) on nvPM emissions into account by considering fuel properties. This study demonstrates that the APMEP-CNN can predict nvPM emission index in mass (EIm) and number (EIn) for a number of high-bypass turbofan engines. The accuracy of predicting EIm and EIn at ground level is significantly improved (R2 = 0.96 and 0.96) compared to the published models. We verify the suitability and the applicability of the APMEP-CNN model for estimating nvPM emissions at cruise and burning SAFs and blend fuels, and find that our predictions for EIm are within ±36.4 % of the measurements at cruise and within ±33.0 % of the measurements burning SAFs in average. In the worst case, the APMEP-CNN prediction is different by -69.2 % from the measurements at cruise for the JT3D-3B engine. Thus, the APMEP-CNN model can provide new data for establishing accurate emission inventories of global aviation and help assess the impact of aviation emissions on human health, environment and climate. SYNOPSIS: The results of this paper provide accurate predictions of nvPM emissions from in-use aircraft engines, which impact airport local air quality and global radiative forcing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fudong Ge
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Zhenhong Yu
- Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Yan Li
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Meiyin Zhu
- Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Bin Zhang
- Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China
| | - Qian Zhang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China
| | - Roy M Harrison
- School of Geography, Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Longfei Chen
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; Beihang Hangzhou Innovation Institute Yuhang, Xixi Octagon City, Yuhang District, Hangzhou 310023, China.
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6
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Gualtieri M, Berico M, Grollino MG, Cremona G, La Torretta T, Malaguti A, Petralia E, Stracquadanio M, Santoro M, Benassi B, Piersanti A, Chiappa A, Bernabei M, Zanini G. Emission Factors of CO 2 and Airborne Pollutants and Toxicological Potency of Biofuels for Airplane Transport: A Preliminary Assessment. TOXICS 2022; 10:617. [PMID: 36287897 PMCID: PMC9611748 DOI: 10.3390/toxics10100617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2022] [Revised: 10/12/2022] [Accepted: 10/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Aviation is one of the sectors affecting climate change, and concerns have been raised over the increase in the number of flights all over the world. To reduce the climate impact, efforts have been dedicated to introducing biofuel blends as alternatives to fossil fuels. Here, we report environmentally relevant data on the emission factors of biofuel/fossil fuel blends (from 13 to 17% v/v). Moreover, in vitro direct exposure of human bronchial epithelial cells to the emissions was studied to determine their potential intrinsic hazard and to outline relevant lung doses. The results show that the tested biofuel blends do not reduce the emissions of particles and other chemical species compared to the fossil fuel. The blends do reduce the elemental carbon (less than 40%) and total volatile organic compounds (less than 30%) compared to fossil fuel emissions. The toxicological outcomes show an increase in oxidative cellular response after only 40 min of exposure, with biofuels causing a lower response compared to fossil fuels, and lung-deposited doses show differences among the fuels tested. The data reported provide evidence of the possibility to reduce the climate impact of the aviation sector and contribute to the risk assessment of biofuels for aviation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maurizio Gualtieri
- ENEA, Division of Models and Technologies for Risk Reduction, Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40146 Bologna, Italy
| | - Massimo Berico
- ENEA, Division of Models and Technologies for Risk Reduction, Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40146 Bologna, Italy
| | | | - Giuseppe Cremona
- ENEA, Division of Models and Technologies for Risk Reduction, Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40146 Bologna, Italy
| | - Teresa La Torretta
- ENEA, Division of Models and Technologies for Risk Reduction, Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40146 Bologna, Italy
| | - Antonella Malaguti
- ENEA, Division of Models and Technologies for Risk Reduction, Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40146 Bologna, Italy
| | - Ettore Petralia
- ENEA, Division of Models and Technologies for Risk Reduction, Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40146 Bologna, Italy
| | - Milena Stracquadanio
- ENEA, Division of Models and Technologies for Risk Reduction, Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40146 Bologna, Italy
| | - Massimo Santoro
- ENEA, Division of Health Protection Technologies, Via Anguillarese, 301, 00123 Rome, Italy
| | - Barbara Benassi
- ENEA, Division of Health Protection Technologies, Via Anguillarese, 301, 00123 Rome, Italy
| | - Antonio Piersanti
- ENEA, Division of Models and Technologies for Risk Reduction, Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40146 Bologna, Italy
| | - Andrea Chiappa
- Italian Air Force, Aerospatial Testing Division, Aerospace Materials and Technology Department, Aeroporto Militare de Bernardi 00071 Pratica di Mare, Pomezia, 00040 Rome, Italy
| | - Manuele Bernabei
- Italian Air Force, Aerospatial Testing Division, Aerospace Materials and Technology Department, Aeroporto Militare de Bernardi 00071 Pratica di Mare, Pomezia, 00040 Rome, Italy
| | - Gabriele Zanini
- ENEA, Division of Models and Technologies for Risk Reduction, Via Martiri di Monte Sole 4, 40146 Bologna, Italy
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7
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Delaval MN, Jonsdottir HR, Leni Z, Keller A, Brem BT, Siegerist F, Schönenberger D, Durdina L, Elser M, Salathe M, Baumlin N, Lobo P, Burtscher H, Liati A, Geiser M. Responses of reconstituted human bronchial epithelia from normal and health-compromised donors to non-volatile particulate matter emissions from an aircraft turbofan engine. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2022; 307:119521. [PMID: 35623573 PMCID: PMC10024864 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2022.119521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Health effects of particulate matter (PM) from aircraft engines have not been adequately studied since controlled laboratory studies reflecting realistic conditions regarding aerosols, target tissue, particle exposure and deposited particle dose are logistically challenging. Due to the important contributions of aircraft engine emissions to air pollution, we employed a unique experimental setup to deposit exhaust particles directly from an aircraft engine onto reconstituted human bronchial epithelia (HBE) at air-liquid interface under conditions similar to in vivo airways to mimic realistic human exposure. The toxicity of non-volatile PM (nvPM) from a CFM56-7B26 aircraft engine was evaluated under realistic engine conditions by sampling and exposing HBE derived from donors of normal and compromised health status to exhaust for 1 h followed by biomarker analysis 24 h post exposure. Particle deposition varied depending on the engine thrust levels with 85% thrust producing the highest nvPM mass and number emissions with estimated surface deposition of 3.17 × 109 particles cm-2 or 337.1 ng cm-2. Transient increase in cytotoxicity was observed after exposure to nvPM in epithelia derived from a normal donor as well as a decrease in the secretion of interleukin 6 and monocyte chemotactic protein 1. Non-replicated multiple exposures of epithelia derived from a normal donor to nvPM primarily led to a pro-inflammatory response, while both cytotoxicity and oxidative stress induction remained unaffected. This raises concerns for the long-term implications of aircraft nvPM for human pulmonary health, especially in occupational settings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Zaira Leni
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alejandro Keller
- Institute for Sensors and Electronics, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | | | - David Schönenberger
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Durdina
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Miriam Elser
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland; Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Automotive Powertrain Technologies Laboratory, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Salathe
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Nathalie Baumlin
- Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Prem Lobo
- Metrology Research Centre, National Research Council Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Heinz Burtscher
- Institute for Sensors and Electronics, University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, 5210 Windisch, Switzerland
| | - Anthi Liati
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Automotive Powertrain Technologies Laboratory, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Marianne Geiser
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland.
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8
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Review: Particulate Matter Emissions from Aircraft. ATMOSPHERE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/atmos13081230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The contribution of aircraft operations to ambient ultrafine particle (UFP) concentration at and around airports can be significant. This review article considers the volatile and non-volatile elements of particulate matter emissions from aircraft engines, their characteristics and quantification and identifies gaps in knowledge. The current state of the art emission inventory methods and dispersion modelling approaches are reviewed and areas for improvement and research needs are identified. Quantification of engine non-volatile particulate matter (nvPM) is improving as measured certification data for the landing and take-off cycle are becoming available. Further work is needed: to better estimate nvPM emissions during the full-flight; to estimate non-regulated (smaller) engines; and to better estimate the emissions and evolution of volatile particles (vPM) in the aircraft exhaust plume. Dispersion modelling improvements are also needed to better address vPM. As the emissions inventory data for both vPM and nvPM from aircraft sources improve, better estimates of the contribution of aircraft engine emissions to ambient particulate concentrations will be possible.
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9
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Zhang C, Chen L, Ding S, Zhou X, Chen R, Zhang X, Yu Z, Wang J. Mitigation effects of alternative aviation fuels on non-volatile particulate matter emissions from aircraft gas turbine engines: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 820:153233. [PMID: 35066040 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.153233] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Revised: 09/26/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Global air transportation has grown rapidly in the past decade until the recent coronavirus pandemic. Previous research has demonstrated that particulate matter (PM) emissions from aircraft gas turbine engines can impair human health and environment, and may play a significant role in global climate change via direct absorption of solar radiation and indirect effect by their interaction with clouds. Using alternative aviation fuels (AAFs) from different sources have become a promising means to reduce aviation PM emissions and ensure energy sustainability. This work presents a review of non-volatile PM (nvPM) emission characteristics of aircraft gas turbine engines burning conventional aviation fuel (CAF) and CAF/AAF blends from recent ground and cruise tests. Current engine emission regulations, as well as available aviation PM emission prediction models and inventories are also discussed. Available nvPM emission characteristics, including particle number, particle mass, and particle size distribution (PSD), are analyzed and compared among different studies. The synthesized results indicate that burning AAFs tends to generate smaller size nvPM and reduce up to 90% nvPM number as well as 60-85% nvPM mass. The reduction is the most significant at low engine power settings, but becomes marginal at high engine power settings. The utilization of AAF blends reduces nvPM emission yet increases water vapor emission, which may promote contrail and even widespread cirrus cloud formation. Therefore, more investigation is required to quantify the potential impact of burning AAF at cruise altitudes on cloud formation and climate change. An appropriate estimation method for the particle number emissions from aircraft gas turbine engines fueled by both CAF and CAF/AAF blends is also in need aiming to establish a global aviation nvPM emission inventory and improve relevant global climate models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cuiqi Zhang
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China; Shenyuan Honors College of Beihang University, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Longfei Chen
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China.
| | - Shuiting Ding
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, China
| | - Xingfan Zhou
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Occupational Safety and Health, Institute of Urban Safety and Environmental Science, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100054, China
| | - Rui Chen
- Beijing Key Laboratory of Occupational Safety and Health, Institute of Urban Safety and Environmental Science, Beijing Academy of Science and Technology, Beijing 100054, China
| | - Xiaole Zhang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Stefano-Franscini-Platz 3, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland; Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Ueberlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Zhenhong Yu
- Hudson River Research, LLC, 123 Town Square Place, Jersey City, NJ 07310, United States
| | - Jing Wang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Stefano-Franscini-Platz 3, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland; Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Ueberlandstrasse 129, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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10
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Impact of Plasma Combustion Technology on Micro Gas Turbines Using Biodiesel Fuels. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/app12094321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The adoption of biorenewable alternative fuel resources from biofuels (ethanol or biodiesel) has produced promising solutions to reduce some toxic greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from gas turbine engines (GTEs). Despite the reduced hydrocarbon associated with adopting alternative bio-renewable fuel resources, GTE operations still emit toxic gases due to inefficient engine performance. In this study, we assess the impact of the integration of plasma combustion technology on a micro-GTE using biodiesel fuel from animal fat with the aim of addressing performance, fuel consumption, and GHG emission reduction limitations. Laboratory design, fabrication, assembly, testing, and results evaluation were conducted at Kuwait’s Public Authority for Applied Education and Training. The result indicates the lowest toxic emissions of sulfur, nitrogen oxide (NO), NO2, and CO were from the biodiesel blended fuels. The improved thermal efficiency of GTE biodiesel due to the volume of hydrogen plasma injected improves the engine’s overall combustion efficiency. Hence, this increases the compressor inlet and outlet firing temperature by 13.3 °C and 6.1 °C, respectively. The Plasma technology produced a thrust increment of 0.2 kgf for the highest loading condition, which significantly impacted horsepower and GTE engine efficiency and reduced the cost of fuel consumption.
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11
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Li Y, Guo X, Zhang RM, Zhang H, Zhang X, Xu X. Pressure-Dependent Kinetics of o-Xylene Reaction with OH Radical. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:8672-8682. [DOI: 10.1039/d2cp00396a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
OH-initiated oxidation reactions of o-xylene are widely concerned both in combustion and atmospheric chemistry. In this work, the kinetics of o-xylene reaction with OH radical has been studied systematically in...
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12
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Kittelson DB, Swanson J, Aldridge M, Giannelli RA, Kinsey JS, Stevens JA, Liscinsky DS, Hagen D, Leggett C, Stephens K, Hoffman B, Howard R, Frazee RW, Silvis W, McArthur T, Lobo P, Achterberg S, Trueblood M, Thomson K, Wolff L, Cerully K, Onasch T, Miake-Lye R, Freedman A, Bachalo W, Payne G. Experimental verification of principal losses in a regulatory particulate matter emissions sampling system for aircraft turbine engines. AEROSOL SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION FOR AEROSOL RESEARCH 2021; 56:63-74. [PMID: 35602286 PMCID: PMC9118390 DOI: 10.1080/02786826.2021.1971152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2021] [Revised: 07/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
A sampling system for measuring emissions of nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) from aircraft gas turbine engines has been developed to replace the use of smoke number and is used for international regulatory purposes. This sampling system can be up to 35 m in length. The sampling system length in addition to the volatile particle remover (VPR) and other sampling system components lead to substantial particle losses, which are a function of the particle size distribution, ranging from 50 to 90% for particle number concentrations and 10-50% for particle mass concentrations. The particle size distribution is dependent on engine technology, operating point, and fuel composition. Any nvPM emissions measurement bias caused by the sampling system will lead to unrepresentative emissions measurements which limit the method as a universal metric. Hence, a method to estimate size dependent sampling system losses using the system parameters and the measured mass and number concentrations was also developed (SAE 2017; SAE 2019). An assessment of the particle losses in two principal components used in ARP6481 (SAE 2019) was conducted during the VAriable Response In Aircraft nvPM Testing (VARIAnT) 2 campaign. Measurements were made on the 25-meter sample line portion of the system using multiple, well characterized particle sizing instruments to obtain the penetration efficiencies. An agreement of ± 15% was obtained between the measured and the ARP6481 method penetrations for the 25-meter sample line portion of the system. Measurements of VPR penetration efficiency were also made to verify its performance for aviation nvPM number. The research also demonstrated the difficulty of making system loss measurements and substantiates the E-31 decision to predict rather than measure system losses.
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Affiliation(s)
- D. B. Kittelson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - J. Swanson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
| | - M. Aldridge
- National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - R. A. Giannelli
- National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - J. S. Kinsey
- Office of Research and Development, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, USA
| | - J. A. Stevens
- National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - D. S. Liscinsky
- Formerly United Technologies Research Center, East Hartford, Connecticut, USA (retired)
| | - D. Hagen
- Center for Excellence for Aerospace Particulate Emissions Reduction Research, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
| | - C. Leggett
- National Vehicle and Fuels Emissions Laboratory, Office of Transportation and Air Quality, U. S. Environmental Protection Agency, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
| | - K. Stephens
- Aerospace Testing Alliance, Arnold Engineering Development Complex, Arnold Air Force Base, Tennessee, USA
| | - B. Hoffman
- Aerospace Testing Alliance, Arnold Engineering Development Complex, Arnold Air Force Base, Tennessee, USA
| | - R. Howard
- Aerospace Testing Alliance, Arnold Engineering Development Complex, Arnold Air Force Base, Tennessee, USA
| | | | - W. Silvis
- AVL-North America, Plymouth, Michigan, USA
| | | | - P. Lobo
- Center for Excellence for Aerospace Particulate Emissions Reduction Research, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
| | - S. Achterberg
- Center for Excellence for Aerospace Particulate Emissions Reduction Research, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
| | - M. Trueblood
- Center for Excellence for Aerospace Particulate Emissions Reduction Research, Missouri University of Science and Technology, Rolla, Missouri, USA
| | - K. Thomson
- National Research Council-Canada, Ottawa, Canada
| | - L. Wolff
- Boston College, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, USA
| | | | - T. Onasch
- Aerodyne Research, Inc, Billerica, Massachusetts, USA
| | - R. Miake-Lye
- Aerodyne Research, Inc, Billerica, Massachusetts, USA
| | - A. Freedman
- Aerodyne Research, Inc, Billerica, Massachusetts, USA
| | - W. Bachalo
- Artium Technologies, Sunnyvale, California, USA
| | - G. Payne
- Artium Technologies, Sunnyvale, California, USA
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13
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Durdina L, Brem BT, Elser M, Schönenberger D, Siegerist F, Anet JG. Reduction of Nonvolatile Particulate Matter Emissions of a Commercial Turbofan Engine at the Ground Level from the Use of a Sustainable Aviation Fuel Blend. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:14576-14585. [PMID: 34662519 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) emissions from aircraft turbine engines deteriorate air quality and contribute to climate change. These emissions can be reduced using sustainable aviation fuels (SAFs). Here, we investigate the effects of a 32% SAF blend with fossil fuel on particle size distributions and nvPM emission indices of a widely used turbofan engine. The experiments were conducted in a test cell using a standardized sampling and measurement system. The geometric mean diameter (GMD) increased with thrust from ∼8 nm at idle to ∼40 nm at take-off, and the geometric standard deviation (GSD) was in the range of 1.74-2.01. The SAF blend reduced the GMD and GSD at each test point. The nvPM emission indices were reduced most markedly at idle by 70% in terms of nvPM mass and 60% in terms of nvPM number. The relative reduction of nvPM emissions decreased with the increasing thrust. The SAF blend reduced the nvPM emissions from the standardized landing and take-off cycle by 20% in terms of nvPM mass and 25% in terms of nvPM number. This work will help develop standardized models of fuel composition effects on nvPM emissions and evaluate the impacts of SAF on air quality and climate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Durdina
- Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Miriam Elser
- Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Julien G Anet
- Centre for Aviation, School of Engineering, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, Winterthur CH-8401, Switzerland
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14
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Li P, Wang L, Zhang X, Li G. Deep Hydrogenation Saturation of Naphthalene Facilitated by Enhanced Adsorption of the Reactants on Micro‐Mesoporous Pd/HY. ChemistrySelect 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/slct.202101002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pengfei Li
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education School of Chemical Engineering and Technology Tianjin University Tianjin 300072 China
| | - Li Wang
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education School of Chemical Engineering and Technology Tianjin University Tianjin 300072 China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) Tianjin 300072 China
| | - Xiangwen Zhang
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education School of Chemical Engineering and Technology Tianjin University Tianjin 300072 China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) Tianjin 300072 China
| | - Guozhu Li
- Key Laboratory for Green Chemical Technology of Ministry of Education School of Chemical Engineering and Technology Tianjin University Tianjin 300072 China
- Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin) Tianjin 300072 China
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15
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Zhang X, Karl M, Zhang L, Wang J. Influence of Aviation Emission on the Particle Number Concentration near Zurich Airport. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:14161-14171. [PMID: 33115230 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c02249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In addition to the much-publicized environmental impact of CO2 emission by air traffic, aviation particulate emission also deserves attention. The abundant ultrafine particles in the aviation exhaust with diameters less than 100 nm may penetrate deep into the human respiratory system and cause adverse health effects. Here, we quantified the detailed aviation particle number emission from Zurich Airport and evaluated its influences on the annual mean particle number concentrations in the surrounding communities. The actual flight trajectory data were utilized for the first time to develop an emission inventory with high spatial resolution. The estimated total particle number emission was in the magnitude of 1024 particles per year. The annual mean particle mass concentrations in the nearby communities were increased by about 0.1 μg m-3 due to the aviation emission, equivalent to about 1% of the background concentration. However, the particle number concentration could be increased by a factor of 2-10 of the background level (104 cm-3) for nearby communities. Further studies are required to investigate the health effects of the increased particle number concentration and to evaluate whether the regulation based on the mass concentration is still sufficient for the air quality near airports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaole Zhang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Zürich CH-8093, Switzerland
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
| | - Matthias Karl
- Institute of Coastal Research, Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, 21502 Geesthacht, Germany
| | - Luchi Zhang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Zürich CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Jing Wang
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich, Zürich CH-8093, Switzerland
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa, Dübendorf CH-8600, Switzerland
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16
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Durdina L, Brem BT, Schönenberger D, Siegerist F, Anet JG, Rindlisbacher T. Nonvolatile Particulate Matter Emissions of a Business Jet Measured at Ground Level and Estimated for Cruising Altitudes. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:12865-12872. [PMID: 31578862 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b02513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Business aviation is a relatively small but steadily growing and little investigated emission source. Regarding emissions, aircraft turbine engines rated at and below 26.7 kN thrust are certified only for visible smoke and are excluded from the nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) standard. Here, we report nvPM emission characteristics of a widely used small turbofan engine determined in a ground test of a Dassault Falcon 900EX business jet. These are the first reported nvPM emissions of a small in-production turbofan engine determined with a standardized measurement system used for emissions certification of large turbofan engines. The ground-level measurements together with a detailed engine performance model were used to predict emissions at cruising altitudes. The measured nvPM emission characteristics strongly depended on engine thrust. The geometric mean diameter increased from 17 nm at idle to 45 nm at take-off. The nvPM emission indices peaked at low thrust levels (7 and 40% take-off thrust in terms of nvPM number and mass, respectively). A comparison with a commercial airliner shows that a business jet may produce higher nvPM emissions from flight missions as well as from landing and take-off operations. This study will aid the development of emission inventories for small aircraft turbine engines and future emission standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Durdina
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf 8600 , Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf 8600 , Switzerland
| | - David Schönenberger
- Laboratory for Air Pollution and Environmental Technology, Empa , Dübendorf 8600 , Switzerland
| | | | - Julien G Anet
- Centre for Aviation, School of Engineering , Zurich University of Applied Sciences , Winterthur 8401 , Switzerland
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17
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Rosenkoetter KE, Kennedy CR, Chirik PJ, Harvey BG. [4+4]-Cycloaddition of Isoprene for the Production of High-Performance Bio-Based Jet Fuel. GREEN CHEMISTRY : AN INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL AND GREEN CHEMISTRY RESOURCE : GC 2019; 21:5616-5623. [PMID: 33790688 PMCID: PMC8009188 DOI: 10.1039/c9gc02404b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Isoprene was efficiently converted to 1,6-dimethyl-1,5-cyclooctadiene (DMCOD) by selective [4+4]-cycloaddition with a catalyst formed by in situ reduction of [(MePI)FeCl(μ-Cl)]2 (MePI = [2-(2,6-(CH3)2-C6H3-N=C(CH3))-C4H5N]). DMCOD was isolated in 92% yield, at the preparative scale, with a catalyst loading of 0.025 mol%, and a TON of 3680. Catalytic hydrogenation of DMCOD yielded 1,4-dimethylcyclooctane (DMCO). The cyclic structure and ring strain of DMCO afforded gravimetric and volumetric net heats of combustion 2.4 and 9.2% higher, respectively, than conventional jet fuel. In addition, the presence of methyl branches at two sites resulted in a -20 °C kinematic viscosity of 4.17 mm2 s-1, 48 % lower than the maximum allowed value for conventional jet fuel. The ability to derive isoprene and related alcohols readily from abundant biomass sources, coupled with the highly efficient [Fe]-catalyzed [4+4]-cycloaddition described herein, suggests that this process holds great promise for the economical production of high-performance, bio-based jet fuel blendstocks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyle E Rosenkoetter
- US NAVY, NAWCWD, Research Department, Chemistry Division, China Lake, California 93555
| | - C Rose Kennedy
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Paul J Chirik
- Department of Chemistry, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey 08544, United States
| | - Benjamin G Harvey
- US NAVY, NAWCWD, Research Department, Chemistry Division, China Lake, California 93555
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18
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Lehtoranta K, Aakko-Saksa P, Murtonen T, Vesala H, Ntziachristos L, Rönkkö T, Karjalainen P, Kuittinen N, Timonen H. Particulate Mass and Nonvolatile Particle Number Emissions from Marine Engines Using Low-Sulfur Fuels, Natural Gas, or Scrubbers. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:3315-3322. [PMID: 30776893 PMCID: PMC6727210 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b05555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2018] [Revised: 02/12/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
In order to meet stringent fuel sulfur limits, ships are increasingly utilizing new fuels or, alternatively, scrubbers to reduce sulfur emissions from the combustion of sulfur-rich heavy fuel oil. The effects of these methods on particle emissions are important, because particle emissions from shipping traffic are known to have both climatic and health effects. In this study, the effects of lower sulfur level liquid fuels, natural gas (NG), and exhaust scrubbers on particulate mass (PM) and nonvolatile particle number (PN greater than 23 nm) emissions were studied by measurements in laboratory tests and in use. The fuel change to lower sulfur level fuels or to NG and the use of scrubbers significantly decreased the PM emissions. However, this was not directly linked with nonvolatile PN emission reduction, which should be taken into consideration when discussing the health effects of emitted particles. The lowest PM and PN emissions were measured when utilizing NG as fuel, indicating that the use of NG could be one way to comply with up-coming regulations for inland waterway vessels. Low PN levels were associated with low elemental carbon. However, a simultaneously observed methane slip should be taken into consideration when evaluating the climatic impacts of NG-fueled engines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kati Lehtoranta
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland
| | - Päivi Aakko-Saksa
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland
| | - Timo Murtonen
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland
| | - Hannu Vesala
- VTT
Technical Research Centre of Finland, P.O. Box 1000, FI-02044 VTT, Finland
| | | | - Topi Rönkkö
- Tampere
University of Technology, P.O. Box 692, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland
| | - Panu Karjalainen
- Tampere
University of Technology, P.O. Box 692, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland
| | - Niina Kuittinen
- Tampere
University of Technology, P.O. Box 692, FI-33101 Tampere, Finland
| | - Hilkka Timonen
- Finnish
Meteorological Institute, P.O. Box 503, FI-00101 Helsinki, Finland
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Jonsdottir HR, Delaval M, Leni Z, Keller A, Brem BT, Siegerist F, Schönenberger D, Durdina L, Elser M, Burtscher H, Liati A, Geiser M. Non-volatile particle emissions from aircraft turbine engines at ground-idle induce oxidative stress in bronchial cells. Commun Biol 2019; 2:90. [PMID: 30854482 PMCID: PMC6401161 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-019-0332-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 01/28/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Aircraft emissions contribute to local and global air pollution. Health effects of particulate matter (PM) from aircraft engines are largely unknown, since controlled cell exposures at relevant conditions are challenging. We examined the toxicity of non-volatile PM (nvPM) emissions from a CFM56-7B26 turbofan, the world's most used aircraft turbine using an unprecedented exposure setup. We combined direct turbine-exhaust sampling under realistic engine operating conditions and the Nano-Aerosol Chamber for In vitro Toxicity to deposit particles onto air-liquid-interface cultures of human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B) at physiological conditions. We evaluated acute cellular responses after 1-h exposures to diluted exhaust from conventional or alternative fuel combustion. We show that single, short-term exposures to nvPM impair bronchial epithelial cells, and PM from conventional fuel at ground-idle conditions is the most hazardous. Electron microscopy of soot reveals varying reactivity matching the observed cellular responses. Stronger responses at lower mass concentrations suggest that additional metrics are necessary to evaluate health risks of this increasingly important emission source.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mathilde Delaval
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Zaira Leni
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Alejandro Keller
- Institute of Aerosol and Sensor Technology, Swiss University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, 5210, Windisch, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland.
- Laboratory of Atmospheric Chemistry, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232, Villigen, Switzerland.
| | | | - David Schönenberger
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Lukas Durdina
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Centre for Aviation, School of Engineering, Zurich University of Applied Sciences, 8401, Winterthur, Switzerland
| | - Miriam Elser
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Automotive Powertrain Technologies Laboratory, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Heinz Burtscher
- Institute of Aerosol and Sensor Technology, Swiss University of Applied Sciences and Arts Northwestern Switzerland, 5210, Windisch, Switzerland
| | - Anthi Liati
- Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, Automotive Powertrain Technologies Laboratory, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland.
| | - Marianne Geiser
- Institute of Anatomy, University of Bern, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
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Liu H, Tian H, Hao Y, Liu S, Liu X, Zhu C, Wu Y, Liu W, Bai X, Wu B. Atmospheric emission inventory of multiple pollutants from civil aviation in China: Temporal trend, spatial distribution characteristics and emission features analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 648:871-879. [PMID: 30144755 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.07.407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A detailed comprehensive emission inventory of multiple air pollutants from civil aviation in China for the historical period of 1980-2015 is developed by using an approach of combining bottom-up with top-down for the first time. Annual emissions of various pollutants present a rapidly ascending trend along with the increase of economic volume and population, which are estimated at approximately 4.77 kt HC, 59.63 kt CO, 304.77 kt NOx, 59,961 kt CO2, 19.04 kt SO2, 3.32 kt PM2.5, 1.59 kt BC, 1.06 kt OC and 5.44 t heavy metals (HMs), respectively, by the year 2015. We estimate the local emissions in 208 domestic civil airports and allocate the total cruise emissions onto 299 main domestic flight segments with surrogate indexes, such as route distance, cargo and passenger turnover. The results demonstrate that emission intensities in central and eastern China are much higher than those in northeastern and western China, and these regions are characterized with high population density, huge economy volume, as well as transit convenience. Furthermore, we have explored emission characteristics of multiple pollutants under different operation modes in 2015. For PM2.5, SO2/CO2/HMs and NOx, the emissions from cruise process constitute the dominant contributor with a share of 89%, 92% and 81%, of the associated total emissions, respectively, comparing with 76% and 71% of the total CO and HC emissions release from Landing and Take-off (LTO) process. Consequently, there are notably different emission characteristics from different flight processes due to various combustion status of aviation fuel. In addition, we predict the future trends of multi-pollutants emissions from China's civil aviation industry through 2050 under three scenarios, and the results indicate that the reduction from the improvement of new technology or new national standards would be largely offset by the rise in multi-pollutants emissions from rapidly aviation fuel growth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huanjia Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Hezhong Tian
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China.
| | - Yan Hao
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Shuhan Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Xiangyang Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Chuanyong Zhu
- Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Qilu University of Technology, Jinan 250353, China
| | - Yiming Wu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Wei Liu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Xiaoxuan Bai
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
| | - Bobo Wu
- State Key Joint Laboratory of Environmental Simulation & Pollution Control, School of Environment, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China; Center for Atmospheric Environmental Studies, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China
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Zhang RM, Truhlar DG, Xu X. Kinetics of the Toluene Reaction with OH Radical. RESEARCH (WASHINGTON, D.C.) 2019; 2019:5373785. [PMID: 31549067 PMCID: PMC6750082 DOI: 10.34133/2019/5373785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2018] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We calculated the kinetics of chemical activation reactions of toluene with hydroxyl radical in the temperature range from 213 K to 2500 K and the pressure range from 10 Torr to the high-pressure limit by using multistructural variational transition state theory with the small-curvature tunneling approximation (MS-CVT/SCT) and using the system-specific quantum Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel method. The reactions of OH with toluene are important elementary steps in both combustion and atmospheric chemistry, and thus it is valuable to understand the rate constants both in the high-pressure, high-temperature regime and in the low-pressure, low-temperature regime. Under the experimental pressure conditions, the theoretically calculated total reaction rate constants agree well with the limited experimental data, including the negative temperature dependence at low temperature. We find that the effect of multistructural anharmonicity on the partition functions usually increases with temperature, and it can change the calculated reaction rates by factors as small as 0.2 and as large as 4.2. We also find a large effect of anharmonicity on the zero-point energies of the transition states for the abstraction reactions. We report that abstraction of H from methyl should not be neglected in atmospheric chemistry, even though the low-temperature results are dominated by addition. We calculated the product distribution, which is usually not accessible to experiments, as a function of temperature and pressure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rui Ming Zhang
- Center for Combustion Energy, Department of Energy and Power Engineering, and Key Laboratory for Thermal Science and Power Engineering of Ministry of Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Donald G. Truhlar
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical Theory Center, and Minnesota Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455-0431, USA
| | - Xuefei Xu
- Center for Combustion Energy, Department of Energy and Power Engineering, and Key Laboratory for Thermal Science and Power Engineering of Ministry of Education, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084, China
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22
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Schripp T, Anderson B, Crosbie EC, Moore RH, Herrmann F, Oßwald P, Wahl C, Kapernaum M, Köhler M, Le Clercq P, Rauch B, Eichler P, Mikoviny T, Wisthaler A. Impact of Alternative Jet Fuels on Engine Exhaust Composition During the 2015 ECLIF Ground-Based Measurements Campaign. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:4969-4978. [PMID: 29601722 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.7b06244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The application of fuels from renewable sources ("alternative fuels") in aviation is important for the reduction of anthropogenic carbon dioxide emissions, but may also attribute to reduced release of particles from jet engines. The present experiment describes ground-based measurements in the framework of the ECLIF (Emission and Climate Impact of Alternative Fuels) campaign using an Airbus A320 (V2527-A5 engines) burning six fuels of chemically different composition. Two reference Jet A-1 with slightly different chemical parameters were applied and further used in combination with a Fischer-Tropsch synthetic paraffinic kerosene (FT-SPK) to prepare three semi synthetic jet fuels (SSJF) of different aromatic content. In addition, one commercially available fully synthetic jet fuel (FSJF) featured the lowest aromatic content of the fuel selection. Neither the release of nitrogen oxide or carbon monoxide was significantly affected by the different fuel composition. The measured particle emission indices showed a reduction up to 50% (number) and 70% (mass) for two alternative jet fuels (FSJF, SSJF2) at low power settings in comparison to the reference fuels. The reduction is less pronounced at higher operating conditions but the release of particle number and particle mass is still significantly lower for the alternative fuels than for both reference fuels. The observed correlation between emitted particle mass and fuel aromatics is not strict. Here, the H/C ratio is a better indicator for soot emission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tobias Schripp
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Combustion Technology , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Bruce Anderson
- NASA Langley Research Center , Hampton , Virginia 23666 , United States
| | - Ewan C Crosbie
- NASA Langley Research Center , Hampton , Virginia 23666 , United States
| | - Richard H Moore
- NASA Langley Research Center , Hampton , Virginia 23666 , United States
| | - Friederike Herrmann
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Combustion Technology , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Patrick Oßwald
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Combustion Technology , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Claus Wahl
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Combustion Technology , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Manfred Kapernaum
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Combustion Technology , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Markus Köhler
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Combustion Technology , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Patrick Le Clercq
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Combustion Technology , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Bastian Rauch
- German Aerospace Center (DLR), Institute of Combustion Technology , 70569 Stuttgart , Germany
| | - Philipp Eichler
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik , Universität Innsbruck , 6020 Innsbruck , Austria
| | - Tomas Mikoviny
- Department of Chemistry , University of Oslo , Blindern , 0371 Oslo , Norway
| | - Armin Wisthaler
- Institut für Ionenphysik und Angewandte Physik , Universität Innsbruck , 6020 Innsbruck , Austria
- Department of Chemistry , University of Oslo , Blindern , 0371 Oslo , Norway
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23
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Osman KS, Taylor SE. Insight into Liquid Interactions with Fibrous Absorbent Filter Media Using Low-Field NMR Relaxometry. Prospective Application to Water/Jet Fuel Filter–Coalescence. Ind Eng Chem Res 2017. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.7b03837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Korhan S. Osman
- Department
of Chemistry and ‡Centre for Petroleum and Surface Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey,GU2
7XH, U.K
| | - Spencer E. Taylor
- Department
of Chemistry and ‡Centre for Petroleum and Surface Chemistry, University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey,GU2
7XH, U.K
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24
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Zhang H, Zhang X, Truhlar DG, Xu X. Nonmonotonic Temperature Dependence of the Pressure-Dependent Reaction Rate Constant and Kinetic Isotope Effect of Hydrogen Radical Reaction with Benzene Calculated by Variational Transition-State Theory. J Phys Chem A 2017; 121:9033-9044. [PMID: 29095614 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpca.7b09374] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The reaction between H and benzene is a prototype for reactions of radicals with aromatic hydrocarbons. Here we report calculations of the reaction rate constants and the branching ratios of the two channels of the reaction (H addition and H abstraction) over a wide temperature and pressure range. Our calculations, obtained with an accurate potential energy surface, are based on variational transition-state theory for the high-pressure limit of the addition reaction and for the abstraction reaction and on system-specific quantum Rice-Ramsperger-Kassel theory calibrated by variational transition-state theory for pressure effects on the addition reaction. The latter is a very convenient way to include variational effects, corner-cutting tunneling, and anharmonicity in falloff calculations. Our results are in very good agreement with the limited experimental data and show the importance of including pressure effects in the temperature interval where the mechanism changes from addition to abstraction. We found a negative temperature effect of the total reaction rate constants at 1 atm pressure in the temperature region where experimental data are missing and accurate theoretical data were previously missing as well. We also calculated the H + C6H6/C6D6 and D + C6H6/C6D6 kinetic isotope effects, and we compared our H + C6H6 results to previous theoretical data for H + toluene. We report a very novel nonmonotonic dependence of the kinetic isotope effect on temperature. A particularly striking effect is the prediction of a negative temperature dependence of the total rate constant over 300-500 K wide temperature ranges, depending on the pressure but generally in the range from 600 to 1700 K, which includes the temperature range of ignition in gasoline engines, which is important because aromatics are important components of common fuels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Institute of Materia Medica, College of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology , Beijing 100029, P. R. China.,Center for Combustion Energy and Department of Thermal Engineering, Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084, P. R. China
| | - Xin Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Resource Engineering, Institute of Materia Medica, College of Science, Beijing University of Chemical Technology , Beijing 100029, P. R. China
| | - Donald G Truhlar
- Department of Chemistry, Chemical Theory Center, and Minnesota Supercomputing Institute, University of Minnesota , Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455-0431, United States
| | - Xuefei Xu
- Center for Combustion Energy and Department of Thermal Engineering, Tsinghua University , Beijing 100084, P. R. China
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25
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Durdina L, Brem BT, Setyan A, Siegerist F, Rindlisbacher T, Wang J. Assessment of Particle Pollution from Jetliners: from Smoke Visibility to Nanoparticle Counting. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:3534-3541. [PMID: 28230356 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b05801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Aviation is a substantial and a fast growing emissions source. Besides greenhouse gases, aircraft engines emit black carbon (BC), a climate forcer and air pollutant. Aviation BC emissions have been regulated and estimated through exhaust smoke visibility (smoke number). Their impacts are poorly understood because emission inventories lack representative data. Here, we measured BC mass and number-based emissions of the most popular airliner's engines according to a new emission standard. We used a calibrated engine performance model to determine the emissions on the ground, at cruise altitude, and over entire flight missions. Compared to previous estimates, we found up to a factor of 4 less BC mass emitted from the standardized landing and takeoff cycle and up to a factor of 40 less during taxiing. However, the taxi phase accounted for up to 30% of the total BC number emissions. Depending on the fuel composition and flight distance, the mass and number-based emission indices (/kg fuel burned) were 6.2-14.7 mg and 2.8 × 1014 - 8.7 × 1014, respectively. The BC mass emissions per passenger-km were similar to gasoline vehicles, but the number-based emissions were relatively higher, comparable to old diesel vehicles. This study provides representative data for models and will lead to more accurate assessments of environmental impacts of aviation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lukas Durdina
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich , Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Benjamin T Brem
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich , Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
| | - Ari Setyan
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich , Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
| | | | | | - Jing Wang
- Laboratory for Advanced Analytical Technologies, Empa , Dübendorf, CH-8600, Switzerland
- Institute of Environmental Engineering (IfU), ETH Zürich , Zürich, CH-8093, Switzerland
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26
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Christie S, Lobo P, Lee D, Raper D. Gas Turbine Engine Nonvolatile Particulate Matter Mass Emissions: Correlation with Smoke Number for Conventional and Alternative Fuel Blends. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2017; 51:988-996. [PMID: 28055198 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b03766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluates the relationship between the emissions parameters of smoke number (SN) and mass concentration of nonvolatile particulate matter (nvPM) in the exhaust of a gas turbine engine for a conventional Jet A-1 and a number of alternative fuel blends. The data demonstrate the significant impact of fuel composition on the emissions and highlight the magnitude of the fuel-induced uncertainty for both SN within the Emissions Data Bank as well as nvPM mass within the new regulatory standard under development. Notwithstanding these substantial differences, the data show that correlation between SN and nvPM mass concentration still adheres to the first order approximation (FOA3), and this agreement is maintained over a wide range of fuel compositions. Hence, the data support the supposition that the FOA3 is applicable to engines burning both conventional and alternative fuel blends without adaptation or modification. The chemical composition of the fuel is shown to impact mass and number concentration as well as geometric mean diameter of the emitted nvPM; however, the data do not support assertions that the emissions of black carbon with small mean diameter will result in significant deviations from FOA3.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Christie
- Centre for Aviation Transport and the Environment, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester M1 5GD, U.K
| | - Prem Lobo
- Centre for Aviation Transport and the Environment, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester M1 5GD, U.K
- Center of Excellence for Aerospace Particulate Emissions Reduction Research, Missouri University of Science and Technology , Rolla, Missouri 65409, United States
| | - David Lee
- Centre for Aviation Transport and the Environment, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester M1 5GD, U.K
| | - David Raper
- Centre for Aviation Transport and the Environment, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester M1 5GD, U.K
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27
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Abrahamson JP, Zelina J, Andac MG, Vander Wal RL. Predictive Model Development for Aviation Black Carbon Mass Emissions from Alternative and Conventional Fuels at Ground and Cruise. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:12048-12055. [PMID: 27684524 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.6b03749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The first order approximation (FOA3) currently employed to estimate BC mass emissions underpredicts BC emissions due to inaccuracies in measuring low smoke numbers (SNs) produced by modern high bypass ratio engines. The recently developed Formation and Oxidation (FOX) method removes the need for and hence uncertainty associated with (SNs), instead relying upon engine conditions in order to predict BC mass. Using the true engine operating conditions from proprietary engine cycle data an improved FOX (ImFOX) predictive relation is developed. Still, the current methods are not optimized to estimate cruise emissions nor account for the use of alternative jet fuels with reduced aromatic content. Here improved correlations are developed to predict engine conditions and BC mass emissions at ground and cruise altitude. This new ImFOX is paired with a newly developed hydrogen relation to predict emissions from alternative fuels and fuel blends. The ImFOX is designed for rich-quench-lean style combustor technologies employed predominately in the current aviation fleet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph P Abrahamson
- John and Willie Leone Family Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering, Penn State University , University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Joseph Zelina
- General Electric Aviation, Cincinnati, Ohio 45215, United States
| | - M Gurhan Andac
- General Electric Aviation, Cincinnati, Ohio 45215, United States
| | - Randy L Vander Wal
- John and Willie Leone Family Department of Energy and Mineral Engineering, Penn State University , University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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