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Guo X, Ji X, Liu Z, Feng Z, Zhang Z, Du S, Li X, Ma J, Sun Z. Complex impact of metals on the fate of disinfection by-products in drinking water pipelines: A systematic review. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 261:121991. [PMID: 38941679 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121991] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 06/14/2024] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/30/2024]
Abstract
Metals in the drinking water distribution system (DWDS) play an important role on the fate of disinfection by-products (DBPs). They can increase the formation of DBPs through several mechanisms, such as enhancing the proportion of reactive halogen species (RHS), catalysing the reaction between natural organic matter (NOM) and RHS through complexation, or by increasing the conversion of NOM into DBP precursors. This review comprehensively summarizes these complex processes, focusing on the most important metals (copper, iron, manganese) in DWDS and their impact on various DBPs. It organizes the dispersed 'metals-DBPs' experimental results into an easily accessible content structure and presents their underlying common or unique mechanisms. Furthermore, the practically valuable application directions of these research findings were analysed, including the toxicity changes of DBPs in DWDS under the influence of metals and the potential enhancement of generalization in DBP model research by the introduction of metals. Overall, this review revealed that the metal environment within DWDS is a crucial factor influencing DBP levels in tap water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinming Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150096, China
| | - Xiaoyue Ji
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150096, China
| | - Zihan Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150096, China
| | - Zhuoran Feng
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150096, China
| | - ZiFeng Zhang
- International Joint Research Center for Persistent Toxic Substances (IJRC-PTS), State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150090, China
| | - Shuang Du
- Institute of NBC Defense. PLA Army, P.O.Box1048, Beijing 102205 China
| | - Xueyan Li
- Suzhou University Science & Technology, School of Environmental Science & Engineering, Suzhou 215009, China
| | - Jun Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150096, China
| | - Zhiqiang Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin 150096, China.
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2
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Justen PT, Beavers CA, Forster ALB, Richardson SD. Better Together: Tandem Mass Spectrometry Achieves up to 50 Times Lower Quantification of 62 Disinfection Byproducts in Drinking Water. Anal Chem 2024; 96:11226-11231. [PMID: 38943047 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c00723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/30/2024]
Abstract
Disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are ubiquitous contaminants present in nearly all drinking water and are associated with adverse health effects in human epidemiologic studies. The most toxic DBPs are unregulated and often occur at concentrations well below regulated DBPs; thus, quantification at low parts-per-trillion (ng/L) levels is critical in assessing exposure. We developed a new liquid-liquid extraction-gas chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LLE-GC-MS/MS) method with the first analysis by tandem gas chromatography-mass spectrometry of 23 priority unregulated DBPs including 13 haloacetamides, 3 haloacetic acids, 2 haloacetonitriles, 1 haloacetaldehyde, 2 haloketones, and 2 halonitromethanes. When combined with our previous GC-MS/MS method for haloacetic acids and previously reported MS/MS transitions that we optimized for this method, the analysis of 62 regulated and priority unregulated DBPs at lower quantification limits is achieved. Limits of quantification for most DBPs were between 5 and 30 ng/L with r2 > 0.99 and an average of 9 times lower limits of quantification (LOQs) compared to LLE-GC-MS using selected ion monitoring (SIM). Relative standard deviations ranged from 0.7 to 30% for 61 DBPs in spiked samples. This new method was validated using tap waters from four US cities, where individual DBP concentrations ranged from 5 to 126,882 ng/L. This project provides the most comprehensive GC-MS/MS method for DBP analysis to date and is capable of analyzing volatile and semivolatile DBPs across nine different compound classes, including a class not previously analyzed by GC-MS/MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick T Justen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Coley A Beavers
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Alexandria L B Forster
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
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3
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Yu Y, Li J, Zhou J, Cao Y, Guo Q, Liu Y, Yang Y, Jiang J. Nucleophilic hydrolysis of dichloroacetonitrile and trichloroacetonitrile disinfection byproducts by peroxymonosulfate: Kinetics and mechanisms. CHEMOSPHERE 2024; 363:142875. [PMID: 39019182 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2024.142875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2024] [Revised: 07/14/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/19/2024]
Abstract
In this work, it was found that peroxymonosulfate (PMS) could appreciably accelerate the transformation rates of dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) and trichloracetonitrile (TCAN) in aqueous solutions, especially under alkaline pHs. The impact of reactive oxygen species scavengers (methyl alcohol for sulfate radical, tert-butyl alcohol for hydroxyl radical, and azide for singlet oxygen) and water matrices (chloride (Cl-), bicarbonate (HCO3-), and natural organic matter (NOM)) on DCAN and TCAN transformation by PMS is evaluated, revealing negligible effects. A nucleophilic hydrolysis pathway, as opposed to an oxidation process, was proposed for the transformation of DCAN and TCAN by PMS, supported by the hydrolyzable characteristics of these compounds and validated through density functional theory calculations. Kinetic analysis indicated that the transformation of DCAN and TCAN by PMS adhered to a second-order kinetic law, with higher reaction rates observed at elevated pH levels within the range of 7.0-10.0. Kinetic modeling incorporating the hydrolytic contributions of water, hydroxyl ion, and protonated and deprotonated PMS (i.e., HSO5- and SO52-) effectively fitted the experimental data. Species-specific second-order rate constants reveal that SO52- exhibited significantly higher reactivity towards DCAN ((1.69 ± 0.22) × 104 M-1h-1) and TCAN ((6.06 ± 0.18) × 104 M-1h-1) compared to HSO5- ((2.14 ± 0.12) × 102 M-1h-1) for DCAN; and (1.378 ± 0.11) × 103 M-1h-1 for TCAN). Comparative analysis of DCAN and TCAN transformation efficiencies by four different oxidants indicated that PMS rivaled chlorine but falls short of hydrogen peroxide, with peroxydisulfate displaying negligible reactivity. Overall, this study uncovers the nucleophilic hydrolysis characteristics of PMS, supplementing its recognized role as an oxidant precursor or mild oxidant, and underscores its significant implications for environmental remediation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangyi Yu
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment, and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Juan Li
- Advanced Interdisciplinary Institute of Environment and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Wastewater Information Analysis and Early Warning, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai 519087, China.
| | - Junhui Zhou
- Advanced Interdisciplinary Institute of Environment and Ecology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Wastewater Information Analysis and Early Warning, Beijing Normal University, Zhuhai 519087, China
| | - Ying Cao
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment, and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Qin Guo
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment, and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yongze Liu
- Beijing Key Lab for Sources Control Technology of Water Pollution, Engineering Research Center for Water Pollution Source Control & Eco-remediation, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Beijing Forestry University, Beijing 100083, China
| | - Yi Yang
- University of Science and Technology of China, Anhui 230026, China
| | - Jin Jiang
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, School of Ecology, Environment, and Resources, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China.
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Han J, Zhai H, Zhang X, Liu J, Sharma VK. Effects of ozone dose on brominated DBPs in subsequent chlor(am)ination: A comprehensive study of aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic DBPs. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 250:121039. [PMID: 38142503 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.121039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/18/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
Ozone‒chlor(am)ine is a commonly used combination of disinfectants in drinking water treatment. Although there are quite a few studies on the formation of some individual DBPs in the ozone‒chlor(am)ine disinfection, an overall picture of the DBP formation in the combined disinfection is largely unavailable. In this study, the effects of ozone dose on the formation and speciation of organic brominated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in subsequent chlorination, chloramination, or chlorination‒chloramination of simulated drinking water were investigated. High-molecular-weight, aliphatic, alicyclic and aromatic brominated DBPs were selectively detected and studied using a powerful precursor ion scan method with ultra performance liquid chromatography/electrospray ionization triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UPLC/ESI-tqMS). Two groups of unregulated yet relatively toxic DBPs, dihalonitromethanes and dihaloacetaldehydes, were detected by the UPLC/ESI-tqMS for the first time. With increasing ozone dose, the levels of high-molecular-weight (m/z 300-500) and alicyclic and aromatic brominated DBPs generally decreased, the levels of brominated aliphatic acids were slightly affected, and the levels of dihalonitromethanes and dihaloacetaldehydes generally increased in the subsequent disinfection processes. Despite different molecular compositions of the detected DBPs, increasing ozone dose generally shifted the formation of DBPs from chlorinated ones to brominated analogues in the subsequent disinfection processes. This study provided a comprehensive analysis of the impact of ozone dose on the DBP formation and speciation in subsequent chlor(am)ine disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarui Han
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Hongyan Zhai
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China.
| | - Xiangru Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China.
| | - Jiaqi Liu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong SAR, China; Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Texas A&M University, TX, USA
| | - Virender K Sharma
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Texas A&M University, TX, USA
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Li S, Hong D, Sun K. Lignin precursors enhance exolaccase-started humification of bisphenol A to form functional polymers. ECO-ENVIRONMENT & HEALTH (ONLINE) 2023; 2:219-226. [PMID: 38435360 PMCID: PMC10902508 DOI: 10.1016/j.eehl.2023.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2023] [Revised: 08/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 03/05/2024]
Abstract
Humification plays a significant role in converting phenolic pollutants and forming heterogeneous polymers, but few studies have been performed to investigate exolaccase-started humification (ESH). Herein, the influences of lignin precursors (LPs) on exolaccase-induced bisphenol A (BPA) removal and humification were explored. In particular, the architectural features and botanical effects of the formed humification products were also tested. ESH was extremely beneficial in boosting BPA removal in the presence of LPs. Compared with LP-free (58.49%), 100% of BPA was eliminated after the reaction with ESH for 72 h. Such a process was controlled by an exolaccase-caused random assembly of radicals, which generated a large number of hydrophobic polymers through nonspecific covalent binding of C-C and/or C-O. These humified polymers were extremely stable at pH 2.0-10.0 and -20 °C to 80 °C and displayed unique functions, i.e., scavenged 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl/2,2'-azino-bis3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid radicals and exerted antioxidant capacities. More importantly, the functional polymers could act as auxin analogs to increase the germination index (>100%), plant biomass, and salt tolerance of radish seedlings. Our findings disclosed that ESH could not only be optimized to mitigate the ecological risks of phenolic pollutants and sequester organic carbon in environmental bioremediation, but the resulting abundant auxin analogs also contributed to agricultural productivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunyao Li
- Laboratory of Wetland Protection and Ecological Restoration, Anhui University, Hefei 230601, China
| | - Dan Hong
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Farmland Ecological Conservation and Pollution Prevention, College of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
| | - Kai Sun
- Anhui Province Key Laboratory of Farmland Ecological Conservation and Pollution Prevention, College of Resources and Environment, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei 230036, China
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, China
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Liu Y, Liu H, Croue JP, Liu C. CuO Promotes the Formation of Halogenated Disinfection Byproducts during Chlorination via an Enhanced Oxidation Pathway. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:19043-19053. [PMID: 37710978 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.3c05975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/16/2023]
Abstract
Previous studies showed that cupric oxide (CuO) can enhance the formation of trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids, and bromate during chlorination of bromide-containing waters. In this study, the impact of CuO on the formation kinetics and mechanisms of halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) during chlorination was investigated. CuO does not enhance the formation of DBPs (i.e., 1,1,1-trichloropropanone, chloroform, and trichloroacetaldehyde (TCAL) /dichloroacetonitrile) during chlorination of acetone, 3-oxopentanedioic acid (3-OPA), and aspartic acid, respectively. This indicates that the halogen substitution pathway cannot be enhanced by CuO. Instead, CuO (0.1 g L-1) accelerates the second-order rate constants for reactions of chlorine (HOCl) with TCAL, citric acid, and oxalic acid at pH 8.0 and 21 °C from <0.1 to 29.4, 7.2, and 15.8 M-1 s-1, respectively. Oxidation pathway predominates based on the quantification of oxidation products (e.g., a trichloroacetic acid yield of ∼100% from TCAL) and kinetic modeling. CuO can enhance the formation of DBPs (e.g., THMs, haloacetaldehydes, and haloacetonitriles) during chlorination of model compounds and dissolved organic matter, of which both halogen substitution and oxidation pathways are required. Reaction rate constants of rate-limiting steps (e.g., citric acid to 3-OPA, aromatic ring cleavage) could be enhanced by CuO via an oxidation pathway since CuO-HOCl complex is more oxidative toward a range of substrates than HOCl in water. These findings provide novel insights into the DBP formation pathway in copper-containing distribution systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunsi Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
| | - Hang Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, P. R. China
| | - Jean-Philippe Croue
- Institut de Chimie des Milieux et des Matériaux IC2MP UMR 7285 CNRS, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers 86073, France
| | - Chao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, P. R. China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, P. R. China
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7
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Shi JL, Kim E, Cardosa GB, McCurry DL. Chloramination of Nitromethane: Incomplete Chlorination and Unexpected Substitution Reaction. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2023; 57:18856-18866. [PMID: 37191694 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c09821] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Ozone is commonly used as a predisinfectant in potable water reuse treatment trains. Nitromethane was recently found as a ubiquitous ozone byproduct in wastewater, and the key intermediate toward chloropicrin during subsequent secondary disinfection of ozonated wastewater effluent with chlorine. However, many utilities have switched from free chlorine to chloramines as a secondary disinfectant. The reaction mechanism and kinetics of nitromethane transformation by chloramines, unlike those for free chlorine, are unknown. In this work, the kinetics, mechanism, and products of nitromethane chloramination were studied. The expected principal product was chloropicrin, because chloramines are commonly assumed to react similarly to, although more slowly than, free chlorine. Different molar yields of chloropicrin were observed under acidic, neutral, and basic conditions, and surprisingly, transformation products other than chloropicrin were found. Monochloronitromethane and dichloronitromethane were detected at basic pH, and the mass balance was initially poor at neutral pH. Much of the missing mass was later attributed to nitrate formation, from a newly identified pathway involving monochloramine reacting as a nucleophile rather than a halogenating agent, through a presumed SN2 mechanism. The study indicates that nitromethane chloramination, unlike chlorination, is likely to produce a range of products, whose speciation is a function of pH and reaction time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiaming Lily Shi
- Astani Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Euna Kim
- Astani Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Georgia B Cardosa
- Astani Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - Daniel L McCurry
- Astani Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
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Yang K, Abu-Reesh IM, He Z. Formation of oxidation byproducts during electrochemical treatment of simulated produced water. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 460:132469. [PMID: 37690199 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.132469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/01/2023] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Electrochemical oxidation (EO) can effectively remove recalcitrant organic contaminants from produced water (PW) but the formation of toxic oxidation byproducts (OBPs) is an unintended consequence. This study has rigorously investigated the OBPs formation during the EO treatment of a simulated PW containing phenol - a common organic contaminant existing in PW, as a model contaminant. In the absence of ammonia, free chlorine was generated from Cl- oxidation to serve as the main oxidant for phenol oxidation. During the EO process, 2,4,6-trichlorophenol and 2,6-dichlorobenzoquinone were identified as the critical intermediates that led to the formation of carbonaceous OBPs (C-OBPs). Some C-OBPs like chloroform (TCM), chloral hydrate (CH), and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) reached their peak concentrations of 15 - 180 μM that were then reduced to 1 - 115 μM via volatilization and/or electrochemical reduction. When ammonia was present, nitrogenous OBPs (N-OBPs) were formed with the peak levels of 1 - 10 μM at the chlorination breakpoint (when ammonia was completely removed) that were subsequently reduced below 1 uM via volatilization and/or hydrolysis. It was observed that ammonia significantly decreased the formation of both C-OBPs and chlorate due to the consumption of free chlorine. A higher current density accelerated OBPs formation rates with different effects on volatile and non-volatile OBPs. The results of this study will enhance our understanding of OBPs formation precursors and mechanisms during electrochemical process and help develop strategies for proper control of OBPs to achieve safer electrochemical wastewater treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaichao Yang
- Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA
| | | | - Zhen He
- Department of Energy, Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
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Wang W, Zhou Z, Ding S, Yang W, Jin W, Chu W, Xu Z. Degradation kinetics and formation of regulated and emerging disinfection by-products during chlorination of two expectorants ambroxol and bromhexine. WATER RESEARCH 2023; 235:119927. [PMID: 37023645 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2023.119927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Revised: 03/21/2023] [Accepted: 03/25/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Ambroxol hydrochloride (AMB) and bromhexine hydrochloride (BRO) are classic expectorants and bronchosecretolytic pharmaceuticals. In 2022, both AMB and BRO were recommended by medical emergency department of China to alleviate cough and expectoration for symptoms caused by COVID-19. The reaction characteristics and mechanism of AMB/BRO with chlorine disinfectant in the disinfection process were investigated in this study. The reaction of chlorine with AMB/BRO were well described by a second-order kinetics model, first-order in both AMB/BRO and chlorine. The second order rate reaction constant of AMB and BRO with chlorine at pH 7.0 were 1.15 × 102 M-1s-1 and 2.03 × 102 M-1s-1, respectively. During chlorination, a new class of aromatic nitrogenous disinfection by-products (DBPs) including 2-chloro-4, 6-dibromoaniline and 2, 4, 6-tribromoaniline were identified as the intermediate aromatic DBPs by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The effect of chlorine dosage, pH, and contact time on the formation of 2-chloro-4, 6-dibromoaniline and 2, 4, 6-tribromoaniline were evaluated. In addition, it was found that bromine in AMB/BRO were vital bromine source to greatly promote the formation of classic brominated DBPs, with the highest Br-THMs yields of 23.8% and 37.8%, respectively. This study inspired that bromine in brominated organic compounds may be an important bromine source of brominated DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wuming Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Zichong Zhou
- Changjiang Survey, Planning, Design and Research Co., Ltd., Wuhan 430010, China
| | - Shunke Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Wenyuan Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wei Jin
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Zuxin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
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10
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Dong F, Zhu J, Li J, Fu C, He G, Lin Q, Li C, Song S. The occurrence, formation and transformation of disinfection byproducts in the water distribution system: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 867:161497. [PMID: 36634528 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Revised: 01/02/2023] [Accepted: 01/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection is an effective process to inactivate pathogens in drinking water treatment. However, disinfection byproducts (DBPs) will inevitably form and may cause severe health concerns. Previous research has mainly focused on DBPs formation during the disinfection in water treatment plants. But few studies paid attention to the formation and transformation of DBPs in the water distribution system (WDS). The complex environment in WDS will affect the reaction between residual chlorine and organic matter to form new DBPs. This paper provides an overall review of DBPs formation and transformation in the WDS. Firstly, the occurrence of DBPs in the WDS around the world was cataloged. Secondly, the primary factors affecting the formation of DBPs in WDS have also been summarized, including secondary chlorination, pipe materials, biofilm, deposits and coexisting anions. Secondary chlorination and biofilm increased the concentration of regular DBPs (e.g., trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs)) in the WDS, while Br- and I- increased the formation of brominated DBPs (Br-DBPs) and iodinated DBPs (I-DBPs), respectively. The mechanism of DBPs formation and transformation in the WDS was systematically described. Aromatic DBPs could be directly or indirectly converted to aliphatic DBPs, including ring opening, side chain breaking, chlorination, etc. Finally, the toxicity of drinking water in the WDS caused by DBPs transformation was examined. This review is conducive to improving the knowledge gap about DBPs formation and transformation in WDS to better solve water supply security problems in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feilong Dong
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Jiani Zhu
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Jinzhe Li
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Chuyun Fu
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China
| | - Guilin He
- School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Shandong Jianzhu University, Jinan 250101, China
| | - Qiufeng Lin
- Department of Earth and Environmental Studies, Montclair State University, Montclair, NJ 07043, United States
| | - Cong Li
- School of Environment and Architecture, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Shuang Song
- College of Environment, Zhejiang University of Technology, Hangzhou 310014, China.
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11
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Li Y, Niu Z, Wang Y, Zhang L, Zhang Y. The convergence of 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone in the whole process of lignin phenol precursor chlorination. CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 312:137290. [PMID: 36403808 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2022.137290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 10/25/2022] [Accepted: 11/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The formation and decomposition of 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone, an emerging disinfection byproduct (DBP), was studied in the chlorination of lignin phenol precursors. The results show that DCBQ and the related hydroxyl DCBQ (DCBQ-OH) acts as the intermediate products of the chlorination process of the three typical lignin phenol precursors (p-hydroxybenzoic acid, protocatechuic acid, and gallic acid). The contributions of lignin phenol precursors to the overall formation of the targeted DBPs were determined based on the observed abundances of individual lignin phenols and their DBP yields. DCBQ and DCBQ-OH were generated within 2-6 h, the relative abundance of the yields of mol carbon atoms in DCBQ corresponding to the mol carbon atoms in the three model precursors (DCBQ-C) was about 0.01%-14.37% under different pH conditions. With the chlorination reaction time increased (after two or four h), the concentrations of DCBQ and DCBQ-OH entirely decreased, and the decomposition of DCBQ do not follow a pseudo-first-order kinetics during chlorination. Conversely, the decomposition of DCBQ generated from p-hydroxybenzoic acid followed a pseudo-second-order kinetics. Moreover, the formation of trichloromethane (TCM), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA), and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) was also detected during the chlorination. The contribution of the decomposed DCBQ was mainly to TCAA and the unknown DBPs within 2-12 h, and DCBQ decomposition pathway was affected by pH. Moreover, except for DCBQ/DCBQ-OH and TCM/HAAs, there were still 73.6%-92.41% unknown products (including non-halogenated aromatic DBPs and chlorine-substituted DBPs) needing to identify during the chlorination process for lignin phenols. Overall, revealing the formation and decomposition of DCBQ during the chlorination of lignin phenol precursors would contribute to the effective development of drinking water treatment processes for the removal of highly toxic intermediates generated during disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuna Li
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Zhiguang Niu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China; The International Joint Institute of Tianjin University, Fuzhou, 350207, China
| | - Yuqi Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China
| | - Lifen Zhang
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300350, China
| | - Ying Zhang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, China.
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12
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Dong ZY, Lin YL, Zhang TY, Hu CY, Pan Y, Pan R, Tang YL, Xu B, Gao NY. Enhanced coagulation and oxidation by the Mn(VII)-Fe(III)/peroxymonosulfate process: Performance and mechanisms. WATER RESEARCH 2022; 226:119200. [PMID: 36257154 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2022.119200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 09/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/01/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
To improve the performance of the conventional coagulation process, a permanganate (Mn(VII)) pre-oxidation combined with Fe(III)/peroxymonosulfate (PMS) coagulation process (Mn(VII)-Fe(III)/PMS) that can significantly improve the removal of dissolved organic carbon (DOC), turbidity, and micropollutants is proposed in this study. Compared with conventional Fe(III) coagulation, the Mn(VII)-Fe(III)/PMS process can also significantly enhance the removal of iohexol and sulfamethoxazole in raw water. During this process, the primary reduction product, Mn(IV), after Mn(VII) pre-oxidation was adsorbed on the floc surfaces and involved in the Fe(III)/PMS process. The natural organic matter (NOM) in raw water mediated the redox cycle of iron. The synergistic effect of NOM, Fe, and Mn facilitated the redox cycle of Mn(III)/Mn(IV) and Fe(III)/Fe(II) to promote the activation of PMS. The sulfate radical (SO4•-) played an important role in the degradation of micropollutants. The formation potential of the detected volatile disinfection by-product (DBP) during the subsequent chlorination was reduced by 21.9% after the Mn(VII)-Fe(III)/PMS process. This study demonstrated the promising application of the Mn(VII)-Fe(III)/PMS process for coagulation and micropollutant control and illustrated the reaction mechanism. This study provides guidance for improving conventional drinking water treatment processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zheng-Yu Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yi-Li Lin
- Department of Safety, Health and Environmental Engineering, National Kaohsiung University of Science and Technology, Kaohsiung 824, Taiwan, ROC
| | - Tian-Yang Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Chen-Yan Hu
- College of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University of Electric Power, Shanghai 200090, PR China
| | - Yang Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, PR China
| | - Renjie Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Yu-Lin Tang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China
| | - Bin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, PR China.
| | - Nai-Yun Gao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze Water Environment, Ministry of Education, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, PR China
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13
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Wang J, Kim J, Ashley DC, Sharma VK, Huang CH. Peracetic Acid Enhances Micropollutant Degradation by Ferrate(VI) through Promotion of Electron Transfer Efficiency. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:11683-11693. [PMID: 35880779 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.2c02381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Ferrate(VI) and peracetic acid (PAA) are two oxidants of growing importance in water treatment. Recently, our group found that simultaneous application of ferrate(VI) and PAA led to much faster degradation of micropollutants compared to that by a single oxidant, and this paper systematically evaluated the underlying mechanisms. First, we used benzoic acid and methyl phenyl sulfoxide as probe compounds and concluded that Fe(IV)/Fe(V) was the main reactive species, while organic radicals [CH3C(O)O•/CH3C(O)OO•] had negligible contribution. Second, we removed the coexistent hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in PAA stock solution with free chlorine and, to our surprise, found the second-order reaction rate constant between ferrate(VI) and PAA to be only about 1.44 ± 0.12 M-1s-1 while that of H2O2 was as high as (2.01 ± 0.12) × 101 M-1s-1 at pH 9.0. Finally, further experiments on ferrate(VI)-bisulfite and ferrate(VI)-2,2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic)acid systems confirmed that PAA was not an activator for ferrate(VI). Rather, PAA could enhance the oxidation capacity of Fe(IV)/Fe(V), making their oxidation outcompete self-decay. This study, for the first time, reveals the ability of PAA to promote electron transfer efficiency between high-valent metals and organic contaminants and confirms the benefits of co-application of ferrate(VI) and PAA for alkaline wastewater treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junyue Wang
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Juhee Kim
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
| | - Daniel C Ashley
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Spelman College, Atlanta, Georgia 30314, United States
| | - Virender K Sharma
- Department of Environment and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843, United States
| | - Ching-Hua Huang
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, United States
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14
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Hu Q, Wang R, Gan Y, Zhang Y, Bao H, Zhang L, Qu G, Wang T. Chlorinated disinfection by-product formation during DOM removal by discharge plasma: Insights into DOC structure alterations. Sep Purif Technol 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2022.121183] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
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15
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Liu Y, Liu K, Plewa MJ, Karanfil T, Liu C. Formation of regulated and unregulated disinfection byproducts during chlorination and chloramination: Roles of dissolved organic matter type, bromide, and iodide. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:151-160. [PMID: 35725067 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.04.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2022] [Revised: 04/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/09/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Algal blooms and wastewater effluents can introduce algal organic matter (AOM) and effluent organic matter (EfOM) into surface waters, respectively. In this study, the impact of bromide and iodide on the formation of halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) during chlorination and chloramination from various types of dissolved organic matter (DOM, e.g., natural organic matter (NOM), AOM, and EfOM) were investigated based on the data collected from literature. In general, higher formation of trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) was observed in NOM than AOM and EfOM, indicating high reactivities of phenolic moieties with both chlorine and monochloramine. The formation of haloacetaldehydes (HALs), haloacetonitriles (HANs) and haloacetamides (HAMs) was much lower than THMs and HAAs. Increasing initial bromide concentrations increased the formation of THMs, HAAs, HANs, and HAMs, but not HALs. Bromine substitution factor (BSF) values of DBPs formed in chlorination decreased as specific ultraviolet absorbance (SUVA) increased. AOM favored the formation of iodinated THMs (I-THMs) during chloramination using preformed chloramines and chlorination-chloramination processes. Increasing prechlorination time can reduce the I-THM concentrations because of the conversion of iodide to iodate, but this increased the formation of chlorinated and brominated DBPs. In an analogous way, iodine substitution factor (ISF) values of I-THMs formed in chloramination decreased as SUVA values of DOM increased. Compared to chlorination, the formation of noniodinated DBPs is low in chloramination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunsi Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Keqiang Liu
- Water Conservancy Development Research Center, Taihu Basin Authority, Ministry of Water Resources, Shanghai 200433, China
| | - Michael J Plewa
- Department of Crop Sciences, and the Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Tanju Karanfil
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, SC 29625, USA
| | - Chao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China.
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16
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Li Y, Li W, Zhang X, Jiang J. Effects of ultrasonication on the DBP formation and toxicity during chlorination of saline wastewater effluents. J Environ Sci (China) 2022; 117:326-335. [PMID: 35725086 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2022.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine disinfection of saline wastewater effluents rich in bromide and iodide forms relatively toxic brominated and iodinated disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Ultrasonication is a relatively new water treatment technology, and it is less sensitive to suspended solids in wastewaters. In this study, we examined the effects of ultrasonication (in terms of reactor type and combination mode with chlorination) on the DBP formation and toxicity in chlorinated primary and secondary saline wastewater effluents. Compared with the chlorinated wastewater effluent samples without ultrasonication, ultrasonic horn pretreatment of the wastewater effluent samples reduced the total organic halogen (TOX) levels in chlorination by ∼30%, but ultrasonic bath pretreatment of the wastewater samples did not significantly change the TOX levels in chlorination, which might be attributed to the higher energy utilization and decomposition extent of organic DBP precursors in the ultrasonic horn reactor. Moreover, the TOX levels in the chlorinated samples with ultrasonic horn pretreatment (USH-chlorination), simultaneous treatment (chlorination+USH) and subsequent treatment (chlorination-USH) were also significantly reduced, with the maximum TOX reductions occurring in the samples with ultrasonic horn pretreatment. A toxicity index was calculated by weighting and summing the levels of total organic chlorine, total organic bromine and total organic iodine in each treated sample. The calculated toxicity index values of the chlorinated wastewater effluent samples followed a descending rank order of "chlorination" > "chlorination+USH" > "chlorination-USH" > "USH-chlorination", with the lowest toxicity occurring in the samples with ultrasonic horn pretreatment. Then, a developmental toxicity bioassay was conducted for each treated sample. The measured toxicity index values of the chlorinated wastewater samples followed the same descending rank order.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Li
- School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510006, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wanxin Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xiangru Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Jingyi Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
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17
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Leonard LT, Vanzin GF, Garayburu-Caruso VA, Lau SS, Beutler CA, Newman AW, Mitch WA, Stegen JC, Williams KH, Sharp JO. Disinfection byproducts formed during drinking water treatment reveal an export control point for dissolved organic matter in a subalpine headwater stream. WATER RESEARCH X 2022; 15:100144. [PMID: 35542761 PMCID: PMC9079345 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2022.100144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Revised: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Changes in climate, season, and vegetation can alter organic export from watersheds. While an accepted tradeoff to protect public health, disinfection processes during drinking water treatment can adversely react with organic compounds to form disinfection byproducts (DBPs). By extension, DBP monitoring can yield insights into hydrobiogeochemical dynamics within watersheds and their implications for water resource management. In this study, we analyzed temporal trends from a water treatment facility that sources water from Coal Creek in Crested Butte, Colorado. These trends revealed a long-term increase in haloacetic acid and trihalomethane formation over the period of 2005-2020. Disproportionate export of dissolved organic carbon and formation of DBPs that exceeded maximum contaminant levels were consistently recorded in association with late spring freshet. Synoptic sampling of the creek in 2020 and 2021 identified a biogeochemical hotspot for organic carbon export in the upper domain of the watershed that contained a prominent fulvic acid-like fluorescent signature. DBP formation potential analyses from this domain yielded similar ratios of regulated DBP classes to those formed at the drinking water facility. Spectrometric qualitative analyses of pre and post-reacted waters with hypochlorite indicated lignin-like and condensed hydrocarbon-like molecules were the major reactive chemical classes during chlorine-based disinfection. This study demonstrates how drinking water quality archives combined with synoptic sampling and targeted analyses can be used to identify and understand export control points for dissolved organic matter. This approach could be applied to identify and characterize analogous watersheds where seasonal or climate-associated organic matter export challenge water treatment disinfection and by extension inform watershed management and drinking water treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura T. Leonard
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, United States
| | - Gary F. Vanzin
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, United States
| | | | | | - Curtis A. Beutler
- Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, Gothic, CO 81224, United States
| | | | | | - James C. Stegen
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99354, United States
| | - Kenneth H. Williams
- Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, Gothic, CO 81224, United States
- Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720, United States
| | - Jonathan O. Sharp
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, United States
- Hydrologic Science and Engineering Program, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, CO 80401, United States
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18
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Craven CB, Tang Y, Carroll K, An L, Chen B, Li XF. Closing the Gap of Known and Unknown Halogenated Nitrogenous Disinfection Byproducts in Water: Advanced Mass Spectrometry Techniques. Trends Analyt Chem 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.trac.2022.116624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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19
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Liu C, Shin YH, Wei X, Ersan MS, Wagner E, Plewa MJ, Amy G, Karanfil T. Preferential Halogenation of Algal Organic Matter by Iodine over Chlorine and Bromine: Formation of Disinfection Byproducts and Correlation with Toxicity of Disinfected Waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2022; 56:1244-1256. [PMID: 34962797 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c04823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The increasing occurrence of harmful algal blooms (HABs) in surface waters may increase the input of algal organic matter (AOM) in drinking water. The formation of halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) during combined chlorination and chloramination of AOM and natural organic matter (NOM) in the presence of bromide and iodide and haloform formation during halogenation of model compounds were studied. Results indicated that haloform/halogen consumption ratios of halogens reacting with amino acids (representing proteins present in AOM) follow the order iodine > bromine > chlorine, with ratios for iodine generally 1-2 orders of magnitude greater than those for chlorine (0.19-2.83 vs 0.01-0.16%). This indicates that iodine is a better halogenating agent than chlorine and bromine. In contrast, chlorine or bromine shows higher ratios for phenols (representing the phenolic structure of humic substances present in NOM). Consistent with these observations, chloramination of AOM extracted from Microcystis aeruginosa in the presence of iodide produced 3 times greater iodinated trihalomethanes than those from Suwannee River NOM isolate. Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of disinfected algal-impacted waters evaluated by Chinese hamster ovary cell bioassays both follow the order chloramination > prechlorination-chloramination > chlorination. This trend is in contrast to additive toxicity calculations based on the concentrations of measured DBPs since some toxic iodinated DBPs were not identified and quantified, suggesting the necessity of experimentally analyzing the toxicity of disinfected waters. During seasonal HAB events, disinfection practices warrant optimization for iodide-enriched waters to reduce the toxicity of finished waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, South Carolina 29625, United States
| | - Young-Hwan Shin
- Department of Crop Sciences, and the Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Bioenvironmental Engineering, Daewoo Institute of Construction Technology, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 16297, South Korea
| | - Xiao Wei
- Department of Crop Sciences, and the Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
- Department of Occupational and Environmental Health, School of Public Health, Guangxi Medical University, Nanning, Guangxi 530021, China
| | - Mahmut S Ersan
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, South Carolina 29625, United States
- School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University, Tempe, Arizona 85287, United States
| | - Elizabeth Wagner
- Department of Crop Sciences, and the Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Michael J Plewa
- Department of Crop Sciences, and the Safe Global Water Institute, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Illinois 61801, United States
| | - Gary Amy
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, South Carolina 29625, United States
| | - Tanju Karanfil
- Department of Environmental Engineering and Earth Sciences, Clemson University, Anderson, South Carolina 29625, United States
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20
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Mao Y, Zhang W, Qi S, Yang H, Xie YF. Kinetics and mechanism of haloacetaldehyde formation from the reaction of acetaldehyde and chlorine. CHEMOSPHERE 2021; 283:131253. [PMID: 34157622 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2021.131253] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Haloacetaldehydes (HALs) are the third prevalent group of disinfection by-products (DBPs) by weight in drinking water, and their cytotoxicity and genotoxicity are higher than regulated DBPs. In order to understand their formation mechanism during chlorination and ozonation-chlorination, this study examined the reaction kinetics of chloral hydrate (CH), dichloroacetaldehyde (DCA), chloroacetaldehyde (CA) and acetaldehyde by chlorine at different pH values and chlorine doses. The results showed that the reaction rate constants increased with pH and chlorine dose, except that the degradation of CH would not be affected by the presence of free chlorine. At the same pH and chlorine dose, the half-lives of CH, DCA, CA and acetaldehyde were in the order of CH > acetaldehyde ≫ DCA > CA. A kinetic model used to predict the formation of HALs and chloroform during chlorination of acetaldehyde was developed, and the predicted data fitted well with the measured data. As pre-ozonation could oxidize natural organic matter to acetaldehydes, the concentration of acetaldehyde formed after pre-ozonation was used to calculate the HAL yields during ozonation-chlorination by the kinetic model, which fitted the experimental results well. The kinetic model elucidated that the formation mechanism of HALs was a stepwise substitution process on the α-hydrogen of acetaldehyde during chlorination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqin Mao
- College of Biology and Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, 310015, China
| | - Wen Zhang
- College of Biology and Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, 310015, China
| | - Shengqi Qi
- Zhejiang Provincial Key Laboratory of Solid Waste Treatment and Recycling, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou, 310012, China.
| | - Hongwei Yang
- Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Yuefeng F Xie
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; Environmental Engineering Programs, The Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA17057, USA
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21
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Fang C, Yang X, Ding S, Luan X, Xiao R, Du Z, Wang P, An W, Chu W. Characterization of Dissolved Organic Matter and Its Derived Disinfection Byproduct Formation along the Yangtze River. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:12326-12336. [PMID: 34297564 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c02378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
The Yangtze River basin covers one-fifth of China's land area and serves as a water source for one-third of China's population. During long-distance water transport from upstream to downstream, various sources of dissolved organic matter (DOM) lead to considerable variation in DOM properties, significantly impacting water treatability and disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation after chlorination. Using size-exclusion chromatography and fluorescence spectroscopy, the spatial variation in DOM characteristics was comprehensively investigated on a basin scale. The formation of 36 DBPs and speciated total organic halogen in chlorinated samples was determined. Overall, the Yangtze River waters featured a high proportion of terrestrially derived humic substances that served as important precursors for trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids, which was responsible for the increase in total DBP formation along the Yangtze River. The downstream waters were characterized by high levels of microbially derived protein-like biopolymers, which significantly contributed to the formation of haloacetaldehydes and haloacetonitriles that dominated DBP-associated mammalian cell cytotoxicity. Moreover, the precursors of haloacetaldehydes and haloacetonitriles in downstream waters were highly hydrophilic, posing a challenge for water treatment. This study presents an extensive basin-scale study, providing insights into DOM variations along the Yangtze River, illustrating the impact of DOM properties on drinking water from a DBP perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xu Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Shunke Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Xinmiao Luan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Rong Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Zhenqi Du
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Pin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Wei An
- Key Laboratory of Drinking Water Science and Technology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100085, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Yangpu District, Shanghai 200092, China
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22
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Duan SY, Chen X, Huang H, Yang X, Lu X. Enhanced formation of dichloroacetamide and dichloroacetonitrile during chloramination of drinking water and model organic matters in the presence of copper corrosion products. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 785:147242. [PMID: 33932657 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Revised: 03/29/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The formation of nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (N-DBPs) occurs in chloraminated water in drinking water distribution systems and may be affected by metal pipe materials and their corrosion products. The effect of copper corrosion products, including Cu2+, CuO, and Cu2O, on the formation of dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) and dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm) was investigated during chloramination of natural organic matter (NOM), model precursors (carboxylic acids and amino acids), and real water samples. Copper corrosion products enhanced DCAN and DCAcAm formation during chloramination of NOM by 33%-72% and 11%-80%, respectively. Addition of 15N-labeled monochloramine showed that the copper corrosion products primarily enhanced the formation of DCAN using organic nitrogen and monochloramine as nitrogen sources, and the formation of DCAcAm using monochloramine as the nitrogen source, but had a limited impact on the formation of DCAcAm using organic nitrogen as the nitrogen source. A distinct N-DBP formation pathway in the presence of Cu2+ and CuO was observed using tyrosine as a model compound, which included the formation of 1,4-benzoquinone as a dominant intermediate. On reaction with monochloramine, the 1,4-benzoquinone greatly contributed to enhancement of DCAN and DCAcAm formation using monochloramine as the nitrogen source. During chloramination of real water samples, Cu2+ and CuO enhanced DCAN formation by 9-40% and DCAcAm formation by 16-33%. This study increases our knowledge of copper catalyzed DCAN and DCAcAm formation in copper pipes, which will be meaningful for water safety in distribution systems using chloramine disinfection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Si-Yu Duan
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Xue Chen
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Huang Huang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, PR China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, PR China.
| | - Xin Yang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, PR China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, PR China
| | - Xin Lu
- Petrochina North China Gas Marketing Company, Beijing 100029, PR China
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Liu X, Ding S, Wang P, Hong Y, Zhao H, Chu W. Simultaneous mitigation of disinfection by-product formation and odor compounds by peroxide/Fe(II)-based process: Combination of oxidation and coagulation. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 201:117327. [PMID: 34144483 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 05/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
To remove disinfection by-product (DBP) precursors and mitigate odor compounds, peroxide (peroxymonosulfate and persulfate)/Fe(II)-based process was applied as a combination of coagulation and oxidation. Compared with traditional Fe-based salt coagulation (FeSO4 and FeCl3), peroxide/Fe(II)-based process was more efficient in dissolved organic carbon, UV254 and turbidity removal, and peroxymonosulfate showed better performance than persulfate. The better coagulation performance arose from a combination of enhanced neutralization and different characteristics of flocs. Even though the combined process would increase the bromine substitution factor of DBPs, DBP formation and DBP-associated toxicity after peroxide/Fe(II)-based process were 9.2-38.8% and 5.2-27.2% lower than that after conventional Fe(III) coagulation. Both enhanced dissolved organic matter removal and oxidation of DBP precursors played vital roles in DBP control. Conventional Fe-based salt coagulation could hardly remove odor compounds (less than 10%, generally), whereas 28.2-84.9% of odor compounds were degraded during peroxide/Fe(II)-based process, due to free radical formation. This study demonstrated that PMS/Fe(II)-based process might be a promising treatment process for simultaneous DBP control and odor removal in source water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Shunke Ding
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Pin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Yuntao Hong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Hongying Zhao
- School of Chemical Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China.
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Mohan A, Reckhow DA. Hydrolysis and Chlorination of 2,6-Dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone under conditions typical of drinking water distribution systems. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 200:117219. [PMID: 34038823 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117219] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2021] [Revised: 04/24/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Halobenzoquinones (HBQs) are emerging disinfection by-products (DBPs) that are postulated drivers of bladder carcinogenicity. Prior assessments of 2,6-dichloro-1,4-benzoquinone (DCBQ) occurrence in drinking water distribution systems have revealed a gradual decline with increasing distance from points of entry. While this signals a degradation pathway, there is limited quantitative data on rate of that degradation. A systematic evaluation of DCBQ hydrolysis was performed, resulting in a rate law that is first order in both hydroxide [OH-] and [DCBQ]. The impact of temperature on that rate was characterized according to the Arrhenius relationship. Under the conditions tested (pH~7.2, T = 20°C) chloramine did not significantly impact DCBQ concentrations. However, DCBQ was rapidly degraded in solutions containing free available chlorine (FAC). Kinetic analysis showed non-integer order with respect to FAC. Further investigation led to a model that invoked reaction with dichlorine monoxide (Cl2O) as well as FAC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aarthi Mohan
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst 01003, United States.
| | - David A Reckhow
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst 01003, United States
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25
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Peng L, Wang F, Zhang D, Fang C, van der Hoek JP, Chu W. Effect of oxidation ditch and anaerobic-anoxic-oxic processes on CX 3R-type disinfection by-product formation during wastewater treatment. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 770:145344. [PMID: 33515881 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2020] [Revised: 12/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The high chlorine dosages in wastewater treatment plants during the COVID-19 pandemic may result in increased formation of disinfection by-products (DBPs), posing great threat to the aquatic ecosystem of the receiving water body and the public health in the downstream area. However, limited information is available on the effect of biological wastewater treatment processes on the formation of CX3R-type DBPs. This study investigated the effect of oxidation ditch (OD) and anaerobic-anoxic-oxic (AAO), two widely used biological wastewater treatment processes, on the formation of five classes of CX3R-type DBPs, including trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), haloacetaldehydes (HALs), haloacetonitriles (HANs) and halonitromethanes (HNMs), during chlorination. Experimental results showed that biological treatment effectively reduced the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) and UV254, while it increased the dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), and therefore the ratio of DON/DOC. In addition, increases in the contents of soluble microbial product- and humic acid-like matters, and the transformation of high molecular weight (MW) fractions in the dissolved organic matter into low MW fractions were observed after OD and AAO processes. Although biological treatment effectively decreased the formation of Cl-THMs, Cl-HAAs, Cl-HANs and Cl-HNMs, the formation of DBCM, DBAA, BDCAA, DBCAA, DCAL, TCAL and DBAN (where C = chloro, B = bromo, D = di, T = tri) all increased significantly, due to the increased formation reactivity. Moreover, biological treatment increased the ratio of bromide/DOC and bromine incorporation into THMs, HAAs and DHANs except for HALs and THANs. Different from previous studies, this study revealed that biological treatment increased the formation of some DBPs, especially brominated DBPs, despite the efficient removal of organic matters. It provides insights into the DBP risk control in wastewater treatment, particularly during the COVID-19 pandemic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liqi Peng
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Feifei Wang
- School of Environmental and Chemical Engineering, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Di Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Chao Fang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Jan Peter van der Hoek
- Department of Water Management, Delft University of Technology, P.O. Box 5048, 2600 GA Delft, the Netherlands; Research & Innovation, Waternet, Korte Ouderkerkerdijk 7, 1096 AC Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China.
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26
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Liu X, Park M, Beitel SC, Lopez-Prieto IJ, Zhu NZ, Meng XZ, Snyder SA. Exploring the genotoxicity triggers in the MP UV/H 2O 2-chloramination treatment of bisphenol A through bioassay coupled with non-targeted analysis. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 769:145218. [PMID: 33736268 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.145218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 01/07/2021] [Accepted: 01/12/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) is a well-known xenoestrogen, and UV/H2O2 advanced oxidation process (AOP) is one of the most effective technologies to remove BPA from water. Using BPA spiked tap water, a batch-scale photochemical experiment was conducted to investigate whether BPA can pose a genotoxicity concern during the medium pressure (MP) UV/H2O2 treatment and the post-chloramination. Samples at different UV exposure and post-chloramination durations were collected and analyzed by CALUX® gene reporter assays regarding estrogen receptor α (ERα) and p53 transcriptional activity. MP UV/H2O2 process did not cause extra estrogenic effects from the degradation of BPA, whereas genotoxicity occurred when the treated water was exposed with monochloramine. Seven frequently reported nitrogenous disinfection byproducts (N-DBPs) were detected, but none of them were responsible for the observed genotoxicity. Employed with gas chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-QTOF-MS), four compounds possibly contributed to the genotoxicity were tentatively identified and two of them with aminooxy- or cyano- group were considered as "new" N-DBPs. This study demonstrated that by-products differ from their parent compounds in toxicity can be formed in the UV oxidation with post-disinfection process, which should become a cause for concern.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao Liu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China; Bio5 Institute, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, 1657 E Helen St, Tucson, AZ 85719, United States; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Minkyu Park
- Bio5 Institute, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, 1657 E Helen St, Tucson, AZ 85719, United States
| | - Shawn C Beitel
- Bio5 Institute, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, 1657 E Helen St, Tucson, AZ 85719, United States
| | - Israel J Lopez-Prieto
- Bio5 Institute, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, 1657 E Helen St, Tucson, AZ 85719, United States
| | - Ning-Zheng Zhu
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China; Jiaxing-Tongji Environmental Research Institute, 1994 Linggongtang Road, Jiaxing 314051, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Xiang-Zhou Meng
- College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China; Jiaxing-Tongji Environmental Research Institute, 1994 Linggongtang Road, Jiaxing 314051, Zhejiang Province, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai 200092, China.
| | - Shane A Snyder
- Bio5 Institute, Department of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, University of Arizona, 1657 E Helen St, Tucson, AZ 85719, United States.
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Han J, Zhang X, Jiang J, Li W. How Much of the Total Organic Halogen and Developmental Toxicity of Chlorinated Drinking Water Might Be Attributed to Aromatic Halogenated DBPs? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:5906-5916. [PMID: 33830743 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c08565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 123] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Although >700 disinfection byproducts (DBPs) have been identified, >50% of the total organic halogen (TOX) in drinking water chlorination is unknown, and the DBPs responsible for the chlorination-associated health risks remain largely unclear. Recent studies have revealed numerous aromatic halo-DBPs, which generally present substantially higher developmental toxicity than aliphatic halo-DBPs. This raises a fascinating and important question: how much of the TOX and developmental toxicity of chlorinated drinking water can be attributed to aromatic halo-DBPs? In this study, an effective approach with ultraperformance liquid chromatography was developed to separate the DBP mixture (from chlorination of bromide-rich raw water) into aliphatic and aromatic fractions, which were then characterized for their TOX and developmental toxicity. For chlorine contact times of 0.25-72 h, aromatic fractions accounted for 49-67% of the TOX in the obtained aliphatic and aromatic fractions, which were equivalent to 26-36% of the TOX in the original chlorinated water samples. Aromatic halo-DBP fractions were more developmentally toxic than the corresponding aliphatic fractions, and the overall developmental toxicity of chlorinated water samples was dominated by aromatic halo-DBP fractions. This might be explained by the considerably higher potentials of aromatic halo-DBPs to bioconcentrate and then generate reactive oxygen species in the organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiarui Han
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Xiangru Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Jingyi Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
| | - Wanxin Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Kowloon 999077, Hong Kong SAR, China
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28
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Furst KE, Bolorinos J, Mitch WA. Use of trihalomethanes as a surrogate for haloacetonitrile exposure introduces misclassification bias. WATER RESEARCH X 2021; 11:100089. [PMID: 33554102 PMCID: PMC7851183 DOI: 10.1016/j.wroa.2021.100089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2020] [Revised: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Epidemiologists have used trihalomethanes (THMs) as a surrogate for overall disinfection byproduct (DBP) exposure based on the assumption that THM concentrations are proportional to concentrations of other DBP classes. Toxicological evidence indicates THMs are less potent toxins than unregulated classes like haloacetonitriles (HANs). If THMs are not proportional to the DBPs driving toxicity, the use of THMs to measure exposure may introduce non-trivial exposure misclassification bias in epidemiologic studies. This study developed statistical models to evaluate the covariance and proportionality of HAN and THM concentrations in a dataset featuring over 9500 measurements from 248 public water systems. THMs only explain ∼30% of the variance in HANs, whether the data is pooled in a classic linear regression or hierarchically grouped by water system in a multilevel linear regression. The 95% prediction interval on HANs for the median THM concentration exceeds the interquartile range of HANs. Mean HAN:THM ratios range from ∼2.4% to ∼80% across water systems, and varied with source water category, season, disinfectant sequence and distribution system location. The HAN:THM ratio was 265% higher in groundwater systems than in surface water systems and declined by ∼40% between finished effluent and maximum residence times in surface water systems with chlorine-chlorine disinfection. A maximum likelihood approach was used to estimate the misclassification bias that may result from using THMs to construct risk-ratios, assuming that HANs represent the "true" DBP exposure risk. The results indicate an odds ratio of ∼2 estimated with THM concentrations could correspond to a true odds ratio of 4-5. These findings demonstrate the need for epidemiologic studies to evaluate exposure by measuring DBPs that are likely to drive toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirin E. Furst
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Infrastructure Engineering, George Mason University, 4400 University Dr, Fairfax, VA, 22030, United States
| | - Jose Bolorinos
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
| | - William A. Mitch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, 473 Via Ortega, Stanford, CA, 94305, United States
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29
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Prasse C. Reactivity-directed analysis - a novel approach for the identification of toxic organic electrophiles in drinking water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2021; 23:48-65. [PMID: 33432313 DOI: 10.1039/d0em00471e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Drinking water consumption results in exposure to complex mixtures of organic chemicals, including natural and anthropogenic chemicals and compounds formed during drinking water treatment such as disinfection by-products. The complexity of drinking water contaminant mixtures has hindered efforts to assess associated health impacts. Existing approaches focus primarily on individual chemicals and/or the evaluation of mixtures, without providing information about the chemicals causing the toxic effect. Thus, there is a need for the development of novel strategies to evaluate chemical mixtures and provide insights into the species responsible for the observed toxic effects. This critical review introduces the application of a novel approach called Reactivity-Directed Analysis (RDA) to assess and identify organic electrophiles, the largest group of known environmental toxicants. In contrast to existing in vivo and in vitro approaches, RDA utilizes in chemico methodologies that investigate the reaction of organic electrophiles with nucleophilic biomolecules, including proteins and DNA. This review summarizes the existing knowledge about the presence of electrophiles in drinking water, with a particular focus on their formation in oxidative treatment systems with ozone, advanced oxidation processes, and UV light, as well as disinfectants such as chlorine, chloramines and chlorine dioxide. This summary is followed by an overview of existing RDA approaches and their application for the assessment of aqueous environmental matrices, with an emphasis on drinking water. RDA can be applied beyond drinking water, however, to evaluate source waters and wastewater for human and environmental health risks. Finally, future research demands for the detection and identification of electrophiles in drinking water via RDA are outlined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Prasse
- Department of Environmental Health and Engineering, Whiting School of Engineering and Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, 3400 N Charles St, Baltimore, MD-21318, USA.
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30
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Choe JK, Hua LC, Komaki Y, Simpson AMA, McCurry DL, Mitch WA. Evaluation of Histidine Reactivity and Byproduct Formation during Peptide Chlorination. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2021; 55:1790-1799. [PMID: 33492937 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.0c07408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The covalent modifications resulting from chlorine reactions with peptide-bound amino acids contribute to pathogen inactivation and disinfection byproduct (DBP) formation. Previous research suggested that histidine is the third most reactive of the seven chlorine-reactive amino acids, leading to the formation of 2-chlorohistidine, 2-oxohistidine, or low-molecular-weight byproducts such as trihalomethanes. This study demonstrates that histidine is less reactive toward formation of chlorine transformation products (transformation time scale of hours to days) than five of the seven chlorine-reactive amino acids, including tyrosine (transformation time scale of minutes). Chlorine targeted tyrosine in preference to histidine within peptides, indicating that chlorine reactions with tyrosine and other more reactive amino acids could contribute more to the structural modifications to proteins over the short time scales relevant to pathogen inactivation. Over the longer time scales relevant to disinfection byproduct formation in treatment plants or distribution systems, this study identified β-cyanoalanine as the dominant transformation product of chlorine reactions with peptide-bound histidine, with molar yields of ∼50% after 1 day. While a chlorinated histidine intermediate was observed at lower yields (maximum ∼5%), the cumulative concentration of the conventional low-molecular-weight DBPs (e.g., trihalomethanes) was ≤7%. These findings support the need to identify the high-yield initial transformation products of chlorine reactions with important precursor structures to facilitate the identification of unknown DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jong Kwon Choe
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering and Institute of Construction and Environmental Engineering, Seoul National University, Seoul 08826, Republic of Korea
| | - Lap-Cuong Hua
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu 30010, Taiwan
| | - Yukako Komaki
- Graduate Division of Nutritional and Environmental Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka 422-8529, Japan
| | - Adam M-A Simpson
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Daniel L McCurry
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089, United States
| | - William A Mitch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
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31
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Shao KL, Ye ZX, Huang H, Yang X. ClO 2 pre-oxidation impacts the formation and nitrogen origins of dichloroacetonitrile and dichloroacetamide during subsequent chloramination. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 186:116313. [PMID: 32841932 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 07/11/2020] [Accepted: 08/17/2020] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) can be used as a pre-oxidant when chloramination is performed in water treatment plants. However, the effects of ClO2 pre-oxidation on the formation of nitrogenous disinfection by-products, such as dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN) and dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm), during chloramination are not well understood. In this study, the effects of ClO2 pre-oxidation on the formation of DCAN and DCAcAm during chloramination of 28 model compounds and seven real water samples were investigated. The sources of nitrogen for DCAN and DCAcAm formation were investigated using 15N-labeled monochloramine. ClO2 pre-oxidation affected DCAN and DCAcAm formation during chloramination of model compounds in different ways. ClO2 pre-oxidation increased unlabeled and 15N-labeled DCAN and DCAcAm formation during chloramination of six amino acids and peptides and five indoles and tertiary amines. ClO2 pre-oxidation decreased DCAN formation but increased DCAcAm formation during chloramination of three hydroxybenzamide compounds, but had the opposite effects for four tetracyclines. ClO2 pre-oxidation generally decreased DCAN and DCAcAm formation during chloramination of the phenolic compounds that are precursors not containing nitrogen. 2-Aminoacetophenone, formamid-trans-muconic acid, and unsaturated ketones were found to be transformation products of ClO2 oxidation of 3-methylindole, salicylamide, and resorcinol, respectively. Possible DCAN and DCAcAm formation pathways during chloramination after ClO2 oxidation were identified. For most of the water samples, ClO2 pre-oxidation decreased the amounts of DCAN and DCAcAm formed during chloramination by 36%-70% and 11%-59%, respectively. This may have been caused by ClO2 oxidation destroying phenolic precursors and macromolecular proteins rather than amino acids in the water samples.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kai-Li Shao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, P.R. China
| | - Zhao-Xi Ye
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, P.R. China
| | - Huang Huang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, P.R. China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, P.R. China.
| | - Xin Yang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, P.R. China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Environmental Pollution Control and Remediation Technology, Guangzhou 510275, Guangdong, P.R. China
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32
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Liu X, Chen L, Yang M, Tan C, Chu W. The occurrence, characteristics, transformation and control of aromatic disinfection by-products: A review. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 184:116076. [PMID: 32698088 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2020] [Revised: 06/13/2020] [Accepted: 06/15/2020] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
With the development of analytical technology, more emerging disinfection by-products (DBPs) have been identified and detected. Among them, aromatic DBPs, especially heterocyclic DBPs, possess relatively high toxicity compared with regulated DBPs, which has been proved by bioassays. Thus, the occurrence of aromatic DBPs is of great concern. This article provides a comprehensive review and summary of the characteristics, occurrence, transformation pathways and control of aromatic DBPs. Aromatic DBPs are frequently detected in drinking water, wastewater and swimming pool water, among which swimming pool water illustrates highest concentration. Considering the relatively high concentration and toxicity, halophenylacetonitriles (HPANs) and halonitrophenols (HNPs) are more likely to be toxicity driver among frequently detected phenyl DBPs. Aromatic DBPs can be viewed as important intermediate products of dissolved organic matter (DOM) during chlor(am)ination. High molecular weight DOM could convert to aromatic DBPs via direct or indirect pathways, and they can further decompose into regulated aliphatic DBPs such as trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) by ring opening and side chain cleavage. Even though no single DBPs control strategy is efficient to all aromatic DBPs, the decrease of overall toxicity may be achieved by several methods including absorption, solar radiation and boiling. By systematically considering aromatic DBPs and aliphatic DBPs, a better trade-off can be made to reduce health risk induced by DBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoyu Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Li Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Mengting Yang
- College of Chemistry and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China
| | - Chaoqun Tan
- School of Civil Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, China
| | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Ministry of Education Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China.
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Li Y, Jiang J, Li W, Zhu X, Zhang X, Jiang F. Volatile DBPs contributed marginally to the developmental toxicity of drinking water DBP mixtures against Platynereis dumerilii. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 252:126611. [PMID: 32443275 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.126611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2020] [Revised: 03/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are formed during chlorine disinfection of drinking water. The complicated natural organic matter in source water causes the formation of an even more complicated mixture of DBPs. To evaluate the toxicity of a DBP mixture in a disinfected water sample, the sample needs to be pretreated in order to attain an observable acute adverse effect in the toxicity test. During sample pretreatment, volatile DBPs including trihalomethanes, haloacetonitriles and haloketones may be lost, which could affect the toxicity evaluation of the DBP mixture. In this study, we intentionally prepared "concentrated" simulated drinking water samples, which contained sufficiently high levels of volatile and nonvolatile DBPs and thus enabled directly evaluating the toxicity of the DBP mixtures without sample pretreatment. Specifically, the natural organic matter and bromide concentrations and the chlorine dose in the concentrated water samples were 250 times higher than those in a typical drinking water sample. Each concentrated water sample was divided into two aliquots, and one of them was nitrogen sparged to eliminate volatile DBPs; then, both aliquots were used directly in a well-established developmental toxicity test. No significant difference (p > 0.10) was found between the developmental toxicity indexes of each concentrated water sample without and with nitrogen sparging, indicating that the contribution of volatile DBPs to the developmental toxicity of the DBP mixture might be marginal. A reasonable interpretation is that nonvolatile halogenated DBPs (especially the aromatic ones) in the DBP mixture could be the major developmental toxicity contributor that warrants more attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China; School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
| | - Jingyi Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wanxin Li
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xiaohu Zhu
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xiangru Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Feng Jiang
- School of Environment, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Chemical Pollution and Environmental Safety & MOE Key Laboratory of Theoretical Chemistry of Environment, South China Normal University, Guangzhou, 510006, China
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Sfynia C, Bond T, Kanda R, Templeton MR. The formation of disinfection by-products from the chlorination and chloramination of amides. CHEMOSPHERE 2020; 248:125940. [PMID: 32006828 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2020.125940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2019] [Revised: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 01/16/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the potential of six aliphatic and aromatic amides, commonly found in natural waters or used as chemical aids in water treatment, to act as organic precursors for nine haloacetamides (HAcAms), five haloacetonitriles (HANs), regulated trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs) upon chlorination and chloramination. The impact of key experimental conditions, representative of drinking water, including pH (7 & 8), retention time (4 & 24 h) and bromide levels (0 & 100 μg/L), on the generation of the target DBPs was investigated. The highest aggregate DBP yields upon chlor(am)ination were reported for the aromatic and hydrophobic hydroxybenzamide; 2.7% ± 0.1% M/M (chlorination) and 1.7% M/M (chloramination). Increased reactivity was observed in aliphatic and hydrophilic compounds, acrylamide (2.5 ± 0.2% M/M) and acetamide (1.3 ± 0.2% M/M), in chlorination and chloramination, respectively. The addition of bromide increased average DBP yields by 50-70%. Relative to chlorination, the application of chloramines reduced DBP formation by 66.5% (without Br-) and by 46.4% (with Br-). However, bromine incorporation in HAAs and HAcAms was enhanced following chloramination, of concern due to the higher toxicological potency of brominated compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysoula Sfynia
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK; Water Science Institute, Cranfield University, Bedfordshire, MK43 0AL, UK.
| | - Tom Bond
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Rakesh Kanda
- Institute of Environment, Health and Societies, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, UB8 3PH, UK
| | - Michael R Templeton
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London, SW7 2AZ, UK
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Sanchís J, Jaén-Gil A, Gago-Ferrero P, Munthali E, Farré MJ. Characterization of organic matter by HRMS in surface waters: Effects of chlorination on molecular fingerprints and correlation with DBP formation potential. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 176:115743. [PMID: 32272321 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In order to understand and minimize the formation of halogenated disinfection by-products (DBPs), it is important to investigate how dissolved organic matter (DOM) contributes to their generation. In the present study, we analysed the DOM profile of water samples from the Barcelona catchment area by high resolution mass spectrometry (HRMS) and we studied the changes after chlorination. Chlorination produced significant changes in the DOM, decreased the average m/z and Kendrick mass defect (KMD) of their spectra and decreased the number and abundance of lignin-like features. The Van Krevelen (VK) fingerprint exhibited several noticeable changes, including the appearance of highly oxidized peaks in the tannin-like region (average O/C, 0.78 ± 0.08), the appearance of features with low H/C and the disappearance of more than half of the lipids-like features. Up to 657 halogenated peaks were generated during sample chlorination, most of which in the condensed hydrocarbons-like and the lignin-like region of the VK diagram. Around 200 features were found to be strongly correlated (ρ ≥ 0.795) to the formation potential of trihalomethanes (THMs) and 5 were correlated with the formation potential of haloacetonitrile (HANs). They all were plotted in the lignin fraction of the VK diagram, but both groups of features exhibited different nitrogen content: those features related to HANs FP had at least one nitrogen atoms in their structures, whilst those related to THMs did not.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josep Sanchís
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Girona, H2O Building, C/Emili Grahit, 101, E17003, Girona, Spain; University of Girona, 17071, Girona, Spain.
| | - Adrián Jaén-Gil
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Girona, H2O Building, C/Emili Grahit, 101, E17003, Girona, Spain; University of Girona, 17071, Girona, Spain
| | - Pablo Gago-Ferrero
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Girona, H2O Building, C/Emili Grahit, 101, E17003, Girona, Spain; University of Girona, 17071, Girona, Spain
| | - Elias Munthali
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Girona, H2O Building, C/Emili Grahit, 101, E17003, Girona, Spain; University of Girona, 17071, Girona, Spain
| | - Maria José Farré
- Catalan Institute for Water Research (ICRA), Scientific and Technological Park of the University of Girona, H2O Building, C/Emili Grahit, 101, E17003, Girona, Spain; University of Girona, 17071, Girona, Spain.
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36
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Hu S, Gong T, Zhu H, Wang J, Li Z, Chen H, Huang Z, Zhang M, Xian Q. Formation and Decomposition of New Iodinated Halobenzoquinones during Chloramination in Drinking Water. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:5237-5248. [PMID: 32212715 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b07564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Previously four chlorinated and brominated halo-benzoquinones were reported as new disinfection byproducts (DBPs) in drinking water, which have drawn great concern due to their high toxicity. In this study, three new iodinated halobenzoquinones, including 2-chloro-6-iodo-1,4-benzoquinone (2,6-CIBQ), 2-bromo-6-iodo-1,4-benzoquinone (2,6-BIBQ), and 2,6-diiodo-1,4-benzoquinone (2,6-DIBQ), were detected and identified in drinking water for the first time. Their cytotoxicity was evaluated, and their formation under various conditions was examined. Since they were not stable during chloramination, their further decomposition during chloramination was also explored. The results indicated that the concentrations of 2,6-CIBQ, 2,6-BIBQ, and 2,6-DIBQ in drinking water were in the ranges of 0.7-1.3, 1.8-8.0, and 0.4-15.9 ng/L, respectively. Compared with 2,6-dibromo-1,4-benzoquinone, the iodinated halobenzoquinones were generally more cytotoxic. The formation of 2,6-DIBQ during chloramination was significantly affected by the iodide concentration, pH, and natural organic matter. The five tested iodinated halobenzoquinones decomposed during chloramination following pseudo-first-order decay, with the decomposition rate constants in the rank order of 2,6-CIBQ > 2,6-BIBQ > 2,6-DIBQ > 2,3-diiodo-1,4-benzoquinone >2-iodo-1,4-benzoquinone. Nine polar halogenated intermediates as well as ten aliphatic halogenated DBPs were detected as the decomposition products of 2,6-DIBQ during chloramination, based on which the decomposition pathways of 2,6-DIBQ during chloramination were proposed and verified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoyang Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Tingting Gong
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Hete Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Junjie Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Zhigang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Haoran Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Zhijun Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Meiqi Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
| | - Qiming Xian
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210023, China
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Cuthbertson AA, Kimura SY, Liberatore HK, Knappe DRU, Stanford B, Summers RS, Dickenson ER, Maness JC, Glover C, Selbes M, Richardson SD. GAC to BAC: Does it make chloraminated drinking water safer? WATER RESEARCH 2020; 172:115432. [PMID: 32004911 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.115432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Revised: 12/18/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Biological activated carbon (BAC) is widely used as a polishing step at full-scale drinking water plants to remove taste and odor compounds and assimilable organic carbon. BAC, especially with pre-ozonation, has been previously studied to control regulated disinfection by-products (DBPs) and DBP precursors. However, most previous studies only include regulated or a limited number of unregulated DBPs. This study explored two full-scale drinking water plants that use pre-chloramination followed by BAC and chloramine as the final disinfectant. While chloramine generally produces lower concentrations of regulated DBPs, it may form increased levels of unregulated nitrogenous and iodinated DBPs. We evaluated 71 DBPs from ten DBP classes including haloacetonitriles, haloacetamides, halonitromethanes, haloacetaldehydes, haloketones, iodinated acetic acids, iodinated trihalomethanes, nitrosamines, trihalomethanes, and haloacetic acids, along with speciated total organic halogen (total organic chlorine, bromine and iodine) across six different BAC filters of increasing age. Most preformed DBPs were well removed by BAC with different ages (i.e., operation times). However, some preformed DBPs were poorly removed or increased following treatment with BAC, including chloroacetaldehyde, dichloronitromethane, bromodichloronitromethane, N-nitrosodimethylamine, dibromochloromethane, tribromomethane, dibromochloroacetic acid, and tribromoacetic acid. Some compounds, including dibromoacetaldehyde, bromochloroacetamide, and dibromoacetamide, were formed only after treatment with BAC. Total organic halogen removal was variable in both plants and increases in TOCl or TOI were observable on one occasion at each plant. While calculated genotoxicity decreased in all filters, decreases in overall DBP formation did not correlate with decreases in calculated cytotoxicity. In three of the six filters, calculated toxicity increased by 4-27%. These results highlight that DBP concentration alone may not always provide an adequate basis for risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy A Cuthbertson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Susana Y Kimura
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA; Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Dr. NW Calgary, Alberta, T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Hannah K Liberatore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA
| | - Detlef R U Knappe
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | | | - R Scott Summers
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO, 80309, USA
| | - Eric R Dickenson
- Water Quality Research and Development Division, Southern Nevada Water Authority, Henderson, NV, 89015, USA
| | - J Clark Maness
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 27695, USA
| | - Caitlin Glover
- Water Quality Research and Development Division, Southern Nevada Water Authority, Henderson, NV, 89015, USA
| | | | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, 29208, USA.
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Linge KL, Kristiana I, Liew D, Holman A, Joll CA. Halogenated semivolatile acetonitriles as chloramination disinfection by-products in water treatment: a new formation pathway from activated aromatic compounds. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2020; 22:653-662. [PMID: 32150177 DOI: 10.1039/c9em00603f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The use of monochloramine as an alternative disinfectant to chlorine in drinking water treatment can lead to increased formation of emerging nitrogenous halogenated disinfection by-products (DBPs), even when the formation of regulated halogenated DBPs has decreased. In this study, we investigated formation of the semivolatile haloacetonitriles (HANs) from model nitrogen-containing compounds (6 amines, 1 amide, 6 amino acids, and 2 nitrogen-containing aromatic chemicals) and natural organic matter (NOM) reference materials after chloramination. In agreement with previous studies, most amino acids formed dichloroacetonitrile (DCAN). Additionally, DCAN formed from two amines containing aromatic rings (N,N-dimethylaniline and 3-(dimethylamino-methyl)indole) and the two nitrogen-containing aromatic chemicals (cotinine and phenytoin). This is the first report of DCAN formation from these precursors. DCAN also formed after chloramination of NOM reference materials, with the highest formation from the NOM material with the highest aromaticity. The results provide new evidence of a DCAN formation pathway from cleavage of activated aromatic structures after electrophilic substitution of chlorine and addition of monochloramine to the ring system. In particular, the results suggest that the previously proposed aldehyde pathway from the amino acid group is not responsible for the majority of DCAN formation from amino acids with an activated aromatic ring system. This newly proposed formation pathway for DCAN from activated aromatic organic matter has significant implications for NOM removal during water treatment to minimise DBP formation. Studies using 15N-labelled monochloramine showed that there was significant incorporation of nitrogen from monochloramine into DCAN, demonstrating that monochloramine disinfection promotes the formation of HANs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn L Linge
- Curtin Water Quality Research Centre, Chemistry, School of Molecular and Life Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, 6845, Australia.
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39
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Jiang J, Han J, Zhang X. Nonhalogenated Aromatic DBPs in Drinking Water Chlorination: A Gap between NOM and Halogenated Aromatic DBPs. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2020; 54:1646-1656. [PMID: 31909989 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b06403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 147] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are generated via reactions with natural organic matter (NOM) in chlorine disinfection of drinking water. How large NOM molecules are converted to halogenated aliphatic DBPs during chlorination remains a fascinating yet largely unresolved issue. Recently, many relatively toxic halogenated aromatic DBPs have been identified in chlorinated drinking waters, and they behave as intermediate DBPs to decompose to halogenated aliphatic DBPs. There is still one gap between NOM and halogenated aromatic DBPs. In this study, nine nonhalogenated aromatic compounds were identified as new intermediate DBPs in chlorination, including 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, 3-formyl-4-hydroxybenzoic acid, salicylic acid, 5-formyl-2-hydroxybenzoic acid, 4-hydroxyphthalic acid, 4'-hydroxyacetophenone, 4-methylbenzoic acid, and 4-hydroxy-3-methylbenzaldehyde. These nonhalogenated aromatic DBPs formed quickly and reached the maximum levels at relatively low chlorine doses within a short contact time, and their formation pathways were proposed. The formation kinetics of three nonhalogenated aromatic DBPs and their corresponding monochloro-/dichloro-substitutes during chlorination were then modeled. The nonhalogenated aromatic DBPs contributed up to 84% of the formed monochloro-substitutes and 22% of the formed dichloro-substitutes, demonstrating that they somewhat acted as intermediates between NOM and halogenated aromatic DBPs. Furthermore, the formed nonhalogenated aromatic DBPs were found to be removed by >50% by granular activated carbon adsorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingyi Jiang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology , Hong Kong 999077 , China
| | - Jiarui Han
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology , Hong Kong 999077 , China
| | - Xiangru Zhang
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Hong Kong University of Science and Technology , Hong Kong 999077 , China
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Cuthbertson AA, Liberatore HK, Kimura SY, Allen JM, Bensussan AV, Richardson SD. Trace Analysis of 61 Emerging Br-, Cl-, and I-DBPs: New Methods to Achieve Part-Per-Trillion Quantification in Drinking Water. Anal Chem 2020; 92:3058-3068. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b04377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Amy A. Cuthbertson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Hannah K. Liberatore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Susana Y. Kimura
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
- Department of Chemistry, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta T2N 1N4, Canada
| | - Joshua M. Allen
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Alena V. Bensussan
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Susan D. Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
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Iskander SM, Zeng T, Smiley E, Bolyard SC, Novak JT, He Z. Formation of disinfection byproducts during Fenton's oxidation of chloride-rich landfill leachate. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2020; 382:121213. [PMID: 31557577 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.121213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 09/01/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Because of the production of chlorine species in leachate during Fenton's oxidation, harmful disinfection byproducts (DBP) can be formed but this has not been well studied before. Herein, we have investigated five classes of DBP: trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, haloacetonitriles, haloketones, and halonitromethanes during Fenton's oxidation of landfill leachates. The results show that the DBP concentration increased with the increase of [H2O2]: [Cl-] ratio due to the increased concentration of chlorine species. The highest total DBP concentration was 4860 μg L-1 at [H2O2]: [Cl-] = 4.0 and the lowest was 84 μg L-1 at [H2O2]: [Cl-] = 0.25. Both the DBP concentration and DBP toxicity increased with the increase of the [H2O2]: [Fe2+] ratio, because of the increased concentration and lifetime of the chlorine species. Most of the DBP were formed during the first minute of the reaction and stayed stable up to 3 h, indicating that DBP may not be preferred targets of hydroxyl radicals in the presence of a large amount of organics. In most cases, trihalomethanes dominated the DBP concentration, while haloacetonitriles dominated the total additive toxicity. This study has provided important implications to understand DBP formation during Fenton's oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syeed Md Iskander
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States
| | - Teng Zeng
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY 13244, United States
| | - Elizabeth Smiley
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States
| | - Stephanie C Bolyard
- Environmental Research & Education Foundation, Raleigh, NC 27609, United States
| | - John T Novak
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States
| | - Zhen He
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061, United States.
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Mao Y, Qi S, Zhao E, Yang H, Xie YF. Mechanism of ozonation enhanced formation of haloacetaldehydes during subsequent chlorination. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 236:124361. [PMID: 31325823 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.124361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 07/12/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Haloacetaldehydes (HAs) are the third prevalent group of disinfection by-products of great health concern. A bench-scale study was performed to investigate the formation and speciation of HAs in raw and treated waters after chlorination and ozonation-chlorination. Pre-ozonation resulted in enhanced HA formation during subsequent chlorination, and the HA yields from ozonation-chlorination were 1.66 and 1.63 times higher than that from chlorination of raw and treated waters. The mechanism about the increase of HA formation during ozonation-chlorination was systematically investigated in this study. The results showed that acetaldehyde formed after ozonation was the dominant precursor for the enhanced HA formation during subsequent chlorination. Increase in pH and chlorine dose increased HA formation during acetaldehyde chlorination. Based on the kinetic studies on the HA formation during acetaldehyde chlorination and the HA stabilities with and without free chlorine, it was found that chlorine was incorporated into the α-hydrogen in acetaldehyde to form a sequence of mono-, di- and tri-chloroacetaldehyde. During this process, these three chlorinated acetaldehydes would also undergo base-catalyzed hydrolysis through decarburization and dehalogenation pathways. This study elucidated that acetaldehyde formed after ozonation resulted in the increase of HA formation during subsequent chlorination. This study also revealed the formation pathway of HA during chlorination of acetaldehyde, which would help to minimize HA formation at drinking water plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqin Mao
- College of Biology and Environmental Engineering, Zhejiang Shuren University, Hangzhou, 310015, China
| | - Shengqi Qi
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
| | - Erzhuo Zhao
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China
| | - Hongwei Yang
- Research Institute for Environmental Innovation (Suzhou), Tsinghua, Suzhou, 215163, China
| | - Yuefeng F Xie
- School of Environment, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China; Environmental Engineering Programs, The Pennsylvania State University, Middletown, PA, 17057, USA
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43
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Furst KE, Coyte RM, Wood M, Vengosh A, Mitch WA. Disinfection Byproducts in Rajasthan, India: Are Trihalomethanes a Sufficient Indicator of Disinfection Byproduct Exposure in Low-Income Countries? ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:12007-12017. [PMID: 31549828 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b03484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The implementation of chlorine disinfection in low-income countries reduces the risk of waterborne illness but initiates exposure to disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Like high-income countries, low-income countries typically are adopting regulations focusing on trihalomethanes (THM4) as an indicator of overall DBP exposure. However, the use of impaired water sources can decouple the formation of THM4 from other DBP classes that are more potent toxins. The documentation of DBP species other than THM4 is rare in low-income countries, where water sources may be degraded by inadequate sanitation infrastructure and other uncontrolled wastewater discharges. We measured THM4 and 21 unregulated DBPs in tap waters and laboratory-treated source waters from two cities in northwestern India. The contribution of each DBP class to the cumulative toxicity was estimated by weighting each species by metrics of toxic potency; haloacetonitriles typically were the dominant contributor, while the contribution of THM4 was negligible. THM4 concentrations did not correlate with the total toxic potency-weighted DBP concentrations. Although THM4 rarely exceeded international guidelines, DBPs of greater toxicological concern were observed in high concentrations. The total toxic potency-weighted DBP concentrations in some waters were elevated compared to conventional drinking waters in high-income countries and more closely resembled chlorine-disinfected wastewater effluents. Artificial sweeteners confirmed widespread contamination of both surface and groundwaters by domestic sewage. The results suggest that THM4 may not be an adequate indicator of overall DBP exposure in impaired water supplies prevalent in some low-income nations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirin E Furst
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Stanford University , 473 Via Ortega , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Rachel M Coyte
- Nicholas School of the Environment , Duke University , Durham , North Carolina 27708 , United States
| | - Margaret Wood
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Stanford University , 473 Via Ortega , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Avner Vengosh
- Nicholas School of the Environment , Duke University , Durham , North Carolina 27708 , United States
| | - William A Mitch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Stanford University , 473 Via Ortega , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
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Li Y, Xu H, He C, Shen Z, Chen W, Gao L, Lin C, Lin T, Lu C, Shi Q, Luo J, Wang W. Transformation and fate of dissolved organic nitrogen in drinking water supply system: A full scale case study from Yixing, China. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 673:435-444. [PMID: 30991333 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.03.309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2018] [Revised: 03/19/2019] [Accepted: 03/20/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The transformation of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON) in the drinking water treatment plants could be closely associated with nitrogenous disinfection by-product (N-DBP) formation. In this study, we have assessed the molecular transformation of DON and its impact on N-DBP formation in a full scale drinking water treatment plant. Based on the result of Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry (FT-ICR MS) analysis, DON compounds with low molecular weight (<1 kDa) were classified as CHON, CHON2 and CHON3 according to the number of nitrogen atoms. Via the analytical window of van Krevelen diagrams, we found that the molecular structural features of CHON, CHON2 and CHON3 were not altered before the chlorination process. In detail, the CHON2 and CHON3 compositions were concentrated on the regions assigned to a lignin-structure while CHON compositions were also distributed in other compounds including proteins, carbohydrates and tannin. Furthermore, CHON formation was more difficult to be removed before the V-filter process. For N-DBP, chlorine-containing DON (Cl-DON) composition was likely to be removed through flocculation and sedimentation processes, whereas N-nitrosamine compounds were removed in V-filter and biological activated carbon filter processes. The health risks of aromatic structure N-nitrosamines due to the pre-chlorination of the raw water should be further studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Li
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, No. 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210098, China
| | - Hang Xu
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, No. 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210098, China.
| | - Chen He
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
| | - Zhen Shen
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, No. 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210098, China
| | - Wei Chen
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, No. 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210098, China
| | - Li Gao
- Future Water Strategy Group, South East Water, 101 Wells Street, Frankston, Melbourne, Victoria 3199, Australia
| | - Chenshuo Lin
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, No. 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210098, China
| | - Tao Lin
- Key Laboratory of Integrated Regulation and Resource Development on Shallow Lakes, Ministry of Education, College of Environment, Hohai University, No. 1 Xikang Road, Nanjing 210098, China
| | - Chunhui Lu
- State Key Laboratory of Hydrology-Water Resources and Hydraulic Engineering, Hohai University, Nanjing, China
| | - Quan Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
| | - Jian Luo
- School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332-0355, USA
| | - Wei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Heavy Oil Processing, China University of Petroleum, Beijing 102249, China
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Cuthbertson AA, Kimura SY, Liberatore HK, Summers RS, Knappe DRU, Stanford BD, Maness JC, Mulhern RE, Selbes M, Richardson SD. Does Granular Activated Carbon with Chlorination Produce Safer Drinking Water? From Disinfection Byproducts and Total Organic Halogen to Calculated Toxicity. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:5987-5999. [PMID: 31038939 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.9b00023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Granular activated carbon (GAC) adsorption is well-established for controlling regulated disinfection byproducts (DBPs), but its effectiveness for unregulated DBPs and DBP-associated toxicity is unclear. In this study, GAC treatment was evaluated at three full-scale chlorination drinking water treatment plants over different GAC service lives for controlling 61 unregulated DBPs, 9 regulated DBPs, and speciated total organic halogen (total organic chlorine, bromine, and iodine). The plants represented a range of impacts, including algal, agricultural, and industrial wastewater. This study represents the most extensive full-scale study of its kind and seeks to address the question of whether GAC can make drinking water safer from a DBP perspective. Overall, GAC was effective for removing DBP precursors and reducing DBP formation and total organic halogen, even after >22 000 bed volumes of treated water. GAC also effectively removed preformed DBPs at plants using prechlorination, including highly toxic iodoacetic acids and haloacetonitriles. However, 7 DBPs (mostly brominated and nitrogenous) increased in formation after GAC treatment. In one plant, an increase in tribromonitromethane had significant impacts on calculated cytotoxicity, which only had 7-17% reduction following GAC. While these DBPs are highly toxic, the total calculated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity for the GAC treated waters for the other two plants was reduced 32-83% (across young-middle-old GAC). Overall, calculated toxicity was reduced post-GAC, with preoxidation allowing further reductions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy A Cuthbertson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of South Carolina , Columbia , South Carolina 29208 , United States
| | - Susana Y Kimura
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of South Carolina , Columbia , South Carolina 29208 , United States
- Department of Chemistry , University of Calgary , 2500 University Drive , NW Calgary , Alberta T2N 1N4 , Canada
| | - Hannah K Liberatore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of South Carolina , Columbia , South Carolina 29208 , United States
| | - R Scott Summers
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering , University of Colorado , Boulder , Colorado 80309-0428 , United States
| | - Detlef R U Knappe
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering , North Carolina State University , Campus Box 7908, Raleigh , North Carolina 27695-7908 , United States
| | - Benjamin D Stanford
- Hazen and Sawyer , 143 S. Union Blvd., Suite 200 , Lakewood , Colorado 80228 , United States
| | - J Clark Maness
- Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering , North Carolina State University , Campus Box 7908, Raleigh , North Carolina 27695-7908 , United States
| | - Riley E Mulhern
- Department of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering , University of Colorado , Boulder , Colorado 80309-0428 , United States
| | - Meric Selbes
- Hazen and Sawyer , 4035 Ridge Top Road, Suite 400 , Fairfax , Virginia 22030 , United States
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of South Carolina , Columbia , South Carolina 29208 , United States
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Zhang D, Bond T, Krasner SW, Chu W, Pan Y, Xu B, Yin D. Trace determination and occurrence of eight chlorophenylacetonitriles: An emerging class of aromatic nitrogenous disinfection byproducts in drinking water. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 220:858-865. [PMID: 33395807 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.12.127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2018] [Revised: 12/16/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Two chlorophenylacetonitriles (CPANs) (2-chloro- and 3,4-dichlorophenylacetonitrile), representatives of an emerging class of aromatic nitrogenous disinfection byproducts, were recently identified in chlor(am)inated drinking water with liquid/liquid extraction and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Due to their high cytotoxicity, they are potentially significant drinking water contaminants. The detection limit for these two CPANs with the previous method was 100 ng L-1. To search for additional CPAN isomers, a more sensitive method for the simultaneous determination of eight CPANs was developed using solid-phase extraction (SPE)-GC/MS. GC/MS parameters and SPE pre-concentration conditions, including SPE cartridge, eluent type, eluent volume, and sample pH, were optimized. Under optimized conditions, the new method had method detection limits, method quantification limits, and precision ranging from 0.15 to 0.37 ng L-1, 0.50-0.95 ng L-1, and 5.8%-11%, respectively. The recoveries of the eight CPANs ranged from 92% to 102%. The concentrations of the eight CPANs in nine finished drinking waters were determined to be at concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 155 ng L-1. Seven CPANs were detectable in all samples. CPANs were detected at concentrations between 0.8 and 155 ng L-1 in chlorinated waters, and from 0.5 to 15 ng L-1 in chloraminated waters. Across all waters, the sum of all CPANs in chloraminated waters was 13% of that in chlorinated systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Di Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Tom Bond
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Surrey, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | | | - Wenhai Chu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China.
| | - Yang Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, Jiangsu, China
| | - Bin Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China
| | - Daqiang Yin
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resources Reuse, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, International Joint Research Center for Sustainable Urban Water System, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Shanghai, 200092, China; Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Security, Shanghai, 200092, China
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Ackerson NOB, Killinger AH, Liberatore HK, Ternes TA, Plewa MJ, Richardson SD, Duirk SE. Impact of chlorine exposure time on disinfection byproduct formation in the presence of iopamidol and natural organic matter during chloramination. J Environ Sci (China) 2019; 78:204-214. [PMID: 30665639 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2018.09.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Revised: 09/17/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Chloramines, in practice, are formed onsite by adding ammonia to chlorinated drinking water to achieve the required disinfection. While regulated disinfection byproducts (DBPs) are reduced during chloramine disinfection, other DBPs such as iodinated (iodo-) DBPs, that elicit greater toxicity are formed. The objective of this study was to investigate the impact of prechlorination time on the formation of both halogen-specific total organic halogen (TOX) and iodo/chlorinated (chloro-) DBPs during prechlorination/chloramination in source waters (SWs) containing iopamidol, an X-ray contrast medium. Barberton SW (BSW) and Cleveland SW (CSW) containing iopamidol were prechlorinated for 5-60 min and afterwards chloraminated for 72 hr with ammonium chloride. Chlorine contact time (CCT) did not significantly impact total organic iodine (TOI) concentrations after prechlorination or chloramination. Concentrations of total organic chlorine (TOCl) formed during prechlorination did not significantly change regardless of pH and prechlorination time, while TOCl appeared to decrease after 72 hr chloramination period. Dichloroiodomethane (CHCl2I) formation during prechlorination did not exhibit any significant trends as a function of pH or CCT, but after chloramination, significant increases were observed at pHs 6.5 and 7.5 with respect to CCT. Iodo-HAAs were not formed during prechlorination but were detected after chloramination. Significant quantities of chloroform (CHCl3) and trichloroacetic acid (TCAA) were formed during prechlorination but formation ceased upon ammonia addition. Therefore, prechlorination studies should measure TOX and DBP concentrations prior to ammonia addition to obtain data regarding the initial conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alexis H Killinger
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA
| | - Hannah K Liberatore
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, 631 Sumter St., Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Thomas A Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Am Mainzer Tor 1, D-56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Michael J Plewa
- Department of Crop Sciences and Safe Global Water Institute and NSF Science and Technology Center of Advanced Materials for the Purification of Water with Systems, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 1101 West Peabody Drive, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of South Carolina, 631 Sumter St., Columbia, SC 29208, USA
| | - Stephen E Duirk
- Department of Civil Engineering, University of Akron, Akron, OH 44325, USA.
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Vatankhah H, Szczuka A, Mitch WA, Almaraz N, Brannum J, Bellona C. Evaluation of Enhanced Ozone-Biologically Active Filtration Treatment for the Removal of 1,4-Dioxane and Disinfection Byproduct Precursors from Wastewater Effluent. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:2720-2730. [PMID: 30698962 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ozonation followed by biologically active filtration (BAF) (O3-BAF) treatment has become an alternative to reverse osmosis in potable wastewater reuse applications because of the ability to produce a high-quality effluent while reducing brine production and disposal. In this study, effluent from a sequencing batch membrane bioreactor (SBMBR) was treated by O3-BAF at three specific ozone doses (0.5, 0.7, and 1.0 mg O3/mg DOC) and different empty bed contact times (EBCTs; 15-45 min). The reaction of O3 with granular activated carbon (GAC) (O3/GAC) to promote the formation of hydroxyl radicals (·OH) was evaluated at 1.0 mg O3/mg DOC followed by BAF at 15-45 min EBCT. The efficacy of these techniques was compared for the removal of O3 refractory 1,4-dioxane and the reduction in the formation of bromate, 35 regulated and unregulated halogenated disinfection byproducts (DBPs), and 8 N-nitrosamines after chloramination. Conventional ozonation (without the presence of GAC during ozonation) removed 6-11% of 1,4-dioxane, while BAF increased the removal to ∼25%. O3/GAC improved the removal of 1,4-dioxane to ∼40%, while BAF increased the removal to ∼50%. No bromate was detected during conventional ozonation. Although O3/GAC formed 12.5 μg/L bromate, this concentration was reduced during BAF treatment to <6.8 μg/L. Even though conventional ozonation was more effective than O3/GAC for the reduction in chloramine-reactive N-nitrosodimethylamine (NDMA) precursors, BAF treatment after either conventional or enhanced ozonation reduced NDMA formation during chloramination to <10 ng/L. O3/GAC was more effective at reducing halogenated DBP formation during postchloramination. Regardless, the reduction in halogenated DBP formation during postchloramination achieved by BAF treatment was ∼90% relative to the formation in the SBMBR effluent after either conventional or enhanced ozonation. The reduction of haloacetic acid (HAA) formation improved moderately with increasing BAF EBCT. Both O3-BAF and (O3/GAC)-BAF met regulatory levels for trihalomethanes, HAAs, NDMA, and bromate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hooman Vatankhah
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Colorado School of Mines , 1500 Illinois Street , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
- National Science Foundation Engineering Research Center for Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure (ReNUWIt) , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Aleksandra Szczuka
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Stanford University , 473 Via Ortega , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
- National Science Foundation Engineering Research Center for Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure (ReNUWIt) , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - William A Mitch
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Stanford University , 473 Via Ortega , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
- National Science Foundation Engineering Research Center for Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure (ReNUWIt) , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Nohemi Almaraz
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Colorado School of Mines , 1500 Illinois Street , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
| | - Jacob Brannum
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Colorado School of Mines , 1500 Illinois Street , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
- National Science Foundation Engineering Research Center for Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure (ReNUWIt) , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
| | - Christopher Bellona
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering , Colorado School of Mines , 1500 Illinois Street , Golden , Colorado 80401 , United States
- National Science Foundation Engineering Research Center for Re-Inventing the Nation's Urban Water Infrastructure (ReNUWIt) , Stanford , California 94305 , United States
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Huang H, Shao KL, Duan SY, Zhong CY. Effect of copper corrosion products on the formation and speciation of haloacetamides and haloacetonitriles during chlorination. Sep Purif Technol 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.seppur.2018.10.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Vu TN, Kimura SY, Plewa MJ, Richardson SD, Mariñas BJ. Predominant N-Haloacetamide and Haloacetonitrile Formation in Drinking Water via the Aldehyde Reaction Pathway. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:850-859. [PMID: 30522267 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b02862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
In drinking water disinfection, switching from free chlorine to alternative chemical disinfectants such as monochloramine may result in the formation of different classes of toxic disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Haloacetonitriles (HANs) and haloacetamides (HAMs) are two currently unregulated nitrogen-containing DBP (N-DBP) groups commonly found in water disinfected with monochloramine that have been shown to be more cyto- and genotoxic than regulated DBPs. For the first time, this study confirms the formation of HAN and HAM dominant species found in disinfected water, dichloroacetonitrile and dichloroacetamide, from the reaction between monochloramine and dichloroacetaldehyde via the aldehyde reaction pathway. Results from experiments with natural water treated with labeled 15 N-monochloramine confirmed the relevance of the aldehyde pathway. Monochloramine reacted quickly with dichloroacetaldehyde reaching equilibrium with the carbinolamine 2,2-dichloro-1-(chloroamino)ethanol ( K1 = 1.87 × 104 M-1 s-1). Then, 2,2-dichloro-1-(chloroamino)ethanol underwent two parallel reactions where, (1) it slowly dehydrated to 1,1-dichloro-2-(chloroimino)ethane ( k2 = 1.09 × 10-5 s-1) and further decomposed to dichloroacetonitrile, and (2) it was oxidized by monochloramine ( k3 = 4.87 × 10-2 M-1 s-1) to form a recently reported N-DBP, the N-haloacetamide N,2,2-trichloroacetamide. At high pH, dichloroacetonitrile hydrolyzed to dichloroacetamide ( k40 = 3.12 × 10-7 s-1, k4OH = 3.54 M-1 s-1). Additionally, trichloroacetaldehyde was also produced from the reaction of dichloracetaldehyde and monochloramine ( k5 = 2.12 × 10-2 M-1 s-1) under the presence of monochlorammonium ion, a product of monochloramine protonation. Within the N-haloacetamide family, N,2,2-trichloroacetamide (LC50 = 3.90 × 10-4 M) was found to be more cytotoxic than N-chloroacetamide but slightly less potent than N,2-dichloroacetamide.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Susana Y Kimura
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of South Carolina , Columbia , South Carolina 29208 , United States
| | | | - Susan D Richardson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry , University of South Carolina , Columbia , South Carolina 29208 , United States
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