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Mora-Castaño G, Domínguez-Robles J, Himawan A, Millán-Jiménez M, Caraballo I. Current trends in 3D printed gastroretentive floating drug delivery systems: A comprehensive review. Int J Pharm 2024; 663:124543. [PMID: 39094921 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2024.124543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
Gastrointestinal (GI) environment is influenced by several factors (gender, genetics, sex, disease state, food) leading to oral drug absorption variability or to low bioavailability. In this scenario, gastroretentive drug delivery systems (GRDDS) have been developed in order to solve absorption problems, to lead to a more effective local therapy or to allow sustained drug release during a longer time period than the typical oral sustained release dosage forms. Among all GRDDS, floating systems seem to provide a promising and practical approach for achieving a long intra-gastric residence time and sustained release profile. In the last years, a novel technique is being used to manufacture this kind of systems: three-dimensional (3D) printing technology. This technique provides a versatile and easy process to manufacture personalized drug delivery systems. This work presents a systematic review of the main 3D printing based designs proposed up to date to manufacture floating systems. We have also summarized the most important parameters involved in buoyancy and sustained release of the systems, in order to facilitate the scale up of this technology to industrial level. Finally, a section discussing about the influence of materials in drug release, their biocompatibility and safety considerations have been included.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gloria Mora-Castaño
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Universidad de Sevilla, C/Profesor García González 2, 41012 Seville, Spain
| | - Juan Domínguez-Robles
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Universidad de Sevilla, C/Profesor García González 2, 41012 Seville, Spain
| | - Achmad Himawan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, Hasanuddin University, Makassar 90245, Indonesia; School of Pharmacy, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 7BL, United Kingdom
| | - Mónica Millán-Jiménez
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Universidad de Sevilla, C/Profesor García González 2, 41012 Seville, Spain.
| | - Isidoro Caraballo
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology, Universidad de Sevilla, C/Profesor García González 2, 41012 Seville, Spain
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2
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Meng H, Wei Y, Feng L. A microchip gas chromatography column assembly with a 3D metal printing micro column oven and a flexible stainless-steel column. J Chromatogr A 2024; 1729:465036. [PMID: 38843573 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2024.465036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2024] [Revised: 05/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/17/2024]
Abstract
In this work, a microchip gas chromatography (GC) column assembly utilizing a three-dimensional (3D) printed micro oven and a flexible stainless steel capillary column was developed. The assembly's performance and separation capabilities were characterized. The key components include a 3D printed aluminum plate (7.50 × 7.50 × 0.16 cm) with a 3-meter-long circular spiral channel, serving as the oven, and the column coiled on the channel with an inner diameter of 320 μm and a stationary phase of OV-1. A heating ceramic plate was affixed on the opposite side of the plate. The assembly weighed 40.3 g. The design allows for easy disassembly, or stacking of heating devices and columns, enabling flexibility in adjusting column length. When using n-C13 as the test analyte at 140 °C, a retention factor (k) was 8.5, and 7797 plates (2599 plates/m) were obtained. The assembly, employing resistance heating, demonstrated effective separation performance for samples containing alkanes, aromatics, alcohols and ketones, with good reproducibility. The reduction in theoretical plates compared to oven heating was only 2.95 %. In the boiling point range of C6 to C18, rapid temperature programming (120 °C/min) was achieved with a power consumption of 119.512 W. The assembly was successfully employed to separate benzene series compounds, gasoline and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), demonstrating excellent separation performance. This innovative design addresses the challenges of the complexity and low repeatability of the fabrication process and the high cost associated with microchip columns. Furthermore, its versatility makes it suitable for outdoor analysis applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hu Meng
- Department of Instrumentation and Analytical Chemistry, CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Dalian 116023, PR China
| | - Yuyu Wei
- Department of Instrumentation and Analytical Chemistry, CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Dalian 116023, PR China
| | - Liang Feng
- Department of Instrumentation and Analytical Chemistry, CAS Key Laboratory of Separation Science for Analytical Chemistry, Dalian Institute of Chemical Physics, Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), Dalian 116023, PR China; Technology Innovation Center of Food Safety Technique of Inspection for State Market Regulation (Rapid Screening and Traceability for Edible Agricultural Product Safety), PR China.
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de Sousa Alves BA, Kontziampasis D, Soliman AH. The Quest for the Holy Grail Of 3D Printing: A Critical Review of Recycling in Polymer Powder Bed Fusion Additive Manufacturing. Polymers (Basel) 2024; 16:2306. [PMID: 39204526 PMCID: PMC11359051 DOI: 10.3390/polym16162306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2024] [Revised: 08/07/2024] [Accepted: 08/12/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The benefits of additive manufacturing (AM) are widely recognised, boosting the AM method's use in industry, while it is predicted AM will dominate the global manufacturing industry. Alas, 3D printing's growth is hindered by its sustainability. AM methods generate vast amounts of residuals considered as waste, which are disposed of. Additionally, the energy consumed, the materials used, and numerous other factors render AM unsustainable. This paper aims to bring forward all documented solutions in the literature. The spotlight is on potential solutions for the Powder Bed Fusion (PBF) AM, focusing on Selective Laser Sintering (SLS), as these are candidates for mass manufacturing by industry. Solutions are evaluated critically, to identify research gaps regarding the recyclability of residual material. Only then can AM dominate the manufacturing industry, which is extremely important since this is a milestone for our transition into sustainable manufacturing. This transition itself is a complex bottleneck on our quest for becoming a sustainable civilisation. Unlike previous reviews that primarily concentrate on specific AM recycling materials, this paper explores the state of the art in AM recycling processes, incorporating the latest market data and projections. By offering a holistic and forward-looking perspective on the evolution and potential of AM, this review serves as a valuable resource for researchers and industry professionals alike.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Alexandre de Sousa Alves
- Department of Engineering, School of Digital, Technology, Innovation & Business, Staffordshire University, College Road, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire ST4 2DE, UK;
- Ford-Werke GmbH, Henry-Ford-Straße 1, 50735 Cologne, Germany
| | - Dimitrios Kontziampasis
- School of Science and Engineering, University of Dundee, Dundee DD1 4HN, UK
- Dundee International Institute of Central South University, Central South University, Tongzipo Road, Changsha 410013, China
- School of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Leeds, Woodhouse Ln, Leeds LS 29JT, UK
| | - Abdel-Hamid Soliman
- Department of Engineering, School of Digital, Technology, Innovation & Business, Staffordshire University, College Road, Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire ST4 2DE, UK;
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Barnett LMA, Zhang Q, Sharma S, Alqahtani S, Shannahan J, Black M, Wright C. 3D printer emissions elicit filament-specific and dose-dependent metabolic and genotoxic effects in human airway epithelial cells. Front Public Health 2024; 12:1408842. [PMID: 39071151 PMCID: PMC11273288 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2024.1408842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 07/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printers have become popular educational tools in secondary and post-secondary STEM curriculum; however, concerns have emerged regarding inhalation exposures and associated health risks. Current evidence suggests that filament materials and site conditions may cause differences in the chemical profiles and toxicological properties of 3D printer emissions; however, few studies have evaluated exposures directly in the classroom. In this study, we monitored and sampled particulate matter (PM) emitted from acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA) filaments during a 3-hour 3D printing session in a high school classroom using aerosol monitoring instrumentation and collection media. To evaluate potential inhalation risks, Multiple Path Particle Dosimetry (MPPD) modeling was used to estimate inhaled doses and calculate in vitro concentrations based on the observed aerosol data and specific lung and breathing characteristics. Dynamic light scattering was used to evaluate the hydrodynamic diameter, zeta potential, and polydispersity index (PDI) of extracted PM emissions dispersed in cell culture media. Small airway epithelial cells (SAEC) were employed to determine cellular viability, genotoxic, inflammatory, and metabolic responses to each emission exposure using MTS, ELISA, and high-performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS), respectively. Aerosol monitoring data revealed that emissions from ABS and PLA filaments generated similar PM concentrations within the ultrafine and fine ranges. However, DLS analysis showed differences in the physicochemical properties of ABS and PLA PM, where the hydrodynamic diameter of PLA PM was greater than ABS PM, which may have influenced particle deposition rates and cellular outcomes. While exposure to both ABS and PLA PM reduced cell viability and induced MDM2, an indicator of genomic instability, PLA PM alone increased gamma-H2AX, a marker of double-stranded DNA breaks. ABS and PLA emissions also increased the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines, although this did not reach significance. Furthermore, metabolic profiling via high performance liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS) and subsequent pathway analysis revealed filament and dose dependent cellular metabolic alterations. Notably, our metabolomic analysis also revealed key metabolites and pathways implicated in PM-induced oxidative stress, DNA damage, and respiratory disease that were perturbed across both tested doses for a given filament. Taken together, these findings suggest that use of ABS and PLA filaments in 3D printers within school settings may potentially contribute to adverse respiratory responses especially in vulnerable populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- LMA Barnett
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA, United States
| | - Q. Zhang
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA, United States
| | - S. Sharma
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA, United States
| | - S. Alqahtani
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
- Advanced Diagnostic and Therapeutics Technologies Institute, Health Sector, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - J. Shannahan
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, United States
| | - M. Black
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA, United States
| | - C. Wright
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA, United States
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5
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Do G, Tsai PJ, Yoon C. Evaluation of particle and volatile organic compound emissions during the use of 3D pens. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 931:173003. [PMID: 38710394 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2024] [Revised: 04/21/2024] [Accepted: 05/03/2024] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
This study investigated particle and volatile organic compound (VOC) emission rates (ER) from 3D pens, which are increasingly popular in children's toys. Nine filaments and two 3D pens were evaluated using a flow tunnel, a scanning mobility particle sizer, a proton-transfer-reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometer for particles, and a thermal desorption-gas chromatography-mass spectrometer for VOCs. Results showed that the ERs varied with the pen type, filament, and brand. The particle ER was highest for acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), followed by polylactic acid (PLA) and polycaprolactone (PCL). Notably, ERs of 83 % and 33 % of ABS and PLA filaments exceeded the maximum allowable particle ER (MAER; 5 × 109 particles/min) for 3D printers but were lower than the VOC MAER (173 μg/min in the office). Different filaments emitted diverse VOCs; ABS emitted styrene and benzene, PLA emitted lactide, and PCL emitted phenol. While particle ERs from 3D pens were comparable to those from printers, the total VOC ERs from 3D pens were slightly lower. Caution is warranted when using 3D pens because of potential health risks, especially their prolonged use, proximity to the breathing zone, and usage by children. This study highlights the need for considering particles and VOCs when assessing the safety of 3D pens, emphasizing awareness of potential hazards, particularly in child-oriented settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geonho Do
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Perng-Jy Tsai
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, College of Medicine, National Cheng Kung University, 138 Sheng-Li Road, North District, Tainan City 704, Taiwan
| | - Chungsik Yoon
- Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Graduate School of Public Health, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea; Institute of Health and Environment, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
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6
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He X, Smith MR, Jarrell ZR, Thi Ly V, Liang Y, Lee CM, Orr M, Go YM, Jones DP. Metabolic alterations and mitochondrial dysfunction in human airway BEAS-2B cells exposed to vanadium pentoxide. Toxicology 2024; 504:153772. [PMID: 38479551 PMCID: PMC11060939 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2024.153772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 02/25/2024] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
Vanadium pentoxide (V+5) is a hazardous material that has drawn considerable attention due to its wide use in industrial sectors and increased release into environment from human activities. It poses potential adverse effects on animals and human health, with pronounced impact on lung physiology and functions. In this study, we investigated the metabolic response of human bronchial epithelial BEAS-2B cells to low-level V+5 exposure (0.01, 0.1, and 1 ppm) using liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS). Exposure to V+5 caused extensive changes to cellular metabolism in BEAS-2B cells, including TCA cycle, glycolysis, fatty acids, amino acids, amino sugars, nucleotide sugar, sialic acid, vitamin D3, and drug metabolism, without causing cell death. Altered mitochondrial structure and function were observed with as low as 0.01 ppm (0.2 μM) V+5 exposure. In addition, decreased level of E-cadherin, the prototypical epithelial marker of epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT), was observed following V+5 treatment, supporting potential toxicity of V+5 at low levels. Taken together, the present study shows that V+5 has adverse effects on mitochondria and the metabolome which may result in EMT activation in the absence of cell death. Furthermore, results suggest that high-resolution metabolomics could serve as a powerful tool to investigate metal toxicity at levels which do not cause cell death.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojia He
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Matthew Ryan Smith
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA; Atlanta Department of Veterans Affairs Healthcare System, Decatur, GA 30322, USA
| | - Zachery R Jarrell
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - ViLinh Thi Ly
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Yongliang Liang
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Choon-Myung Lee
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Michael Orr
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Young-Mi Go
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Dean P Jones
- Division of Pulmonary, Allergy, Critical Care and Sleep Medicine, Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
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Farcas MT, McKinney W, Mandler WK, Knepp AK, Battelli L, Friend SA, Stefaniak AB, Service S, Kashon M, LeBouf RF, Thomas TA, Matheson J, Qian Y. Pulmonary evaluation of whole-body inhalation exposure of polycarbonate (PC) filament 3D printer emissions in rats. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2024; 87:325-341. [PMID: 38314584 PMCID: PMC11208878 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2024.2311170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2024]
Abstract
During fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing with polycarbonate (PC) filament, a release of ultrafine particles (UFPs) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) occurs. This study aimed to determine PC filament printing emission-induced toxicity in rats via whole-body inhalation exposure. Male Sprague Dawley rats were exposed to a single concentration (0.529 mg/m3, 40 nm mean diameter) of the 3D PC filament emissions in a time-course via whole body inhalation for 1, 4, 8, 15, and 30 days (4 hr/day, 4 days/week), and sacrificed 24 hr after the last exposure. Following exposures, rats were assessed for pulmonary and systemic responses. To determine pulmonary injury, total protein and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity, surfactant proteins A and D, total as well as lavage fluid differential cells in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) were examined, as well as histopathological analysis of lung and nasal passages was performed. To determine systemic injury, hematological differentials, and blood biomarkers of muscle, metabolic, renal, and hepatic functions were also measured. Results showed that inhalation exposure induced no marked pulmonary or systemic toxicity in rats. In conclusion, inhalation exposure of rats to a low concentration of PC filament emissions produced no significant pulmonary or systemic toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana T. Farcas
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
- Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, School of
Pharmacy, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Walter McKinney
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - W. Kyle Mandler
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Alycia K. Knepp
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Lori Battelli
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Sherri A Friend
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
| | | | - Samantha Service
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Michael Kashon
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Ryan F. LeBouf
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Treye A. Thomas
- Office of Hazard Identification and Reduction, U.S.
Consumer Product Safety Commission, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Joanna Matheson
- Office of Hazard Identification and Reduction, U.S.
Consumer Product Safety Commission, Rockville, MD, USA
| | - Yong Qian
- National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,
Morgantown, WV, USA
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8
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Garcia-Gonzalez H, Lopez-Pola MT. Unlocking the nanoparticle emission potential: a study of varied filaments in 3D printing. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2024:10.1007/s11356-024-33257-2. [PMID: 38625471 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-024-33257-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
This study investigates nanoparticle emission during 3D printing processes, assessing various filament materials' impact on air quality. Commonly used 3D printers, including both filament and resin-based types, were examined. The study's scope encompasses diverse filament materials like ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene), PLA (polylactic acid), PETG (polyethylene terephthalate glycol), ASA (acrylonitrile styrene acrylate), TPU (thermoplastic polyurethane), PP (polypropylene), nylon, and wood-based variants, alongside three types of resins. The research delves into the relationship between the type of material and nanoparticle emissions, emphasizing temperature's pivotal role. Measurement instruments were employed for nanoparticle quantification, including an engine exhaust particle sizer spectrometer, condensation particle counter, and nanozen dust counters. Notably, results reveal substantial variations in nanoparticle emissions among different filament materials, with ASA, TPU, PP, and ABS showing considerably elevated emission levels and characteristic particle size distribution patterns. The findings prompt practical recommendations for reducing nanoparticle exposure, emphasizing printer confinement, material selection, and adequate ventilation. This study offers insights into potential health risks associated with 3D printing emissions and provides a basis for adopting preventive measures.
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9
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Korchevskiy AA, Hill WC, Hull M, Korchevskiy A. Using particle dimensionality-based modeling to estimate lung carcinogenicity of 3D printer emissions. J Appl Toxicol 2024; 44:564-581. [PMID: 37950573 DOI: 10.1002/jat.4561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2023] [Revised: 10/18/2023] [Accepted: 10/19/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
The use of 3D printing technologies by industry and consumers is expanding. However, the approaches to assess the risk of lung carcinogenesis from the emissions of 3D printers have not yet been developed. The objective of the study was to demonstrate a methodology for modeling lung cancer risk related to specific exposure levels as derived from an experimental study of 3D printer emissions for various types of filaments (ABS, PLA, and PETG). The emissions of 15 filaments were assessed at varying extrusion temperatures for a total of 23 conditions in a Class 1,000 cleanroom following procedures described by ANSI/CAN/UL 2904. Three approaches were utilized for cancer risk estimation: (a) calculation based on PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations, (b) a proximity assessment based on the pulmonary deposition fraction, and (c) modeling based on the mass-weighted aerodynamic diameter of particles. The combined distribution of emitted particles had the mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of 0.35 μm, GSD 2.25. The average concentration of PM2.5 was 25.21 μg/m3 . The spline-based function of aerodynamic diameter allowed us to reconstruct the carcinogenic potential of seven types of fine and ultrafine particles (crystalline silica, fine TiO2 , ultrafine TiO2 , ambient PM2.5 and PM10, diesel particulates, and carbon nanotubes) with a correlation of 0.999, P < 0.00001. The central tendency estimation of lung cancer risk for 3D printer emissions was found at the level of 14.74 cases per 10,000 workers in a typical exposure scenario (average cumulative exposure of 0.3 mg/m3 - years), with the lowest risks for PLA filaments, and the highest for PETG type.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - W Cary Hill
- ITA International, LLC, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Matthew Hull
- Virginia Tech, Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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10
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Thapa B, Bell DS, Anderson JL. Extraction of volatile organic compounds liberated upon filament extrusion by 3D pen and its comparison with a desktop 3D printer using solid-phase microextraction fiber and Arrow. J Chromatogr A 2024; 1719:464740. [PMID: 38401373 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2024.464740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Revised: 02/12/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/26/2024]
Abstract
Desktop 3D printers that operate by the fused deposition modeling (FDM) mechanism are known to release numerous hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) during printing, including some with potential carcinogenic effects. Operating in a similar manner to FDM 3D printers, 3D pens have gained popularity recently from their ability to allow users to effortlessly draw in the air or create various 3D printed shapes while handling the device like a pen. In contrast to numerous modern 3D printers, 3D pens lack their own ventilation systems and are often used in settings with minimum airflow. Their operation makes users more vulnerable to VOC emissions, as the released VOCs are likely to be in the breathing zone. Consequently, monitoring VOCs released during the use of 3D pens is crucial. In this study, VOCs liberated while extruding acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) filaments from a 3D pen were measured by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) combined with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). SPME was investigated using the traditional fiber and Arrow geometries with the DVB/Carbon WR/PDMS sorbent while four different brands of ABS filaments-Amazon Basics, Gizmodork, Mynt 3D, and Novamaker-were used with the 3D pen. Heatmap analysis showed differentiation among these brands based on the liberated VOCs. The nozzle temperature and printing speed were found to affect the number and amount of released VOCs. This study goes a step further and presents for the first time a comparison between 3D pen and a desktop 3D printer based on liberated VOCs. Interestingly, the findings reveal that the 3D pen releases a greater number and amount of VOCs compared to the printer. The amounts of liberated VOCs, as indicated by the corresponding chromatographic peak areas, were found to be 1.4 to 62.6 times higher for the 3D pen compared to the 3D printer when using SPME Arrow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhawana Thapa
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
| | - David S Bell
- Restek Corporation, 110 Benner Circle, Bellefonte, PA 16823, USA
| | - Jared L Anderson
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA.
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11
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Chuang YS, Berekute AK, Hsu HY, Wei HS, Gong WC, Hsu YY, Tsai CJ, Yu KP. Assessment of emissions and exposure in 3D printing workplaces in Taiwan. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2024; 21:270-286. [PMID: 38451632 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2024.2313655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing is an emerging and booming industry in Taiwan. Compared to traditional manufacturing, 3D printing has various advantages, such as advanced customization, additive manufacturing, reduced mold opening time, and reduced consumption of precursors. In this study, the real-time monitoring of particulate matter (PM) and total volatile organic compound (TVOC) emissions from various filaments is investigated using fused deposition modeling with material extrusion technology, a liquid-crystal display, a stereolithography apparatus based on vat photopolymerization technology, and binder jetting for occupational settings. An exposure assessment for nearby workers using the 3D printing process was performed, and improvement measures were recommended. Nine 3D printing fields were measured. The generation rate of ultrafine particles ranged from 1.19 × 1010 to 4.90 × 1012 #/min, and the geometric mean particle size ranged from 30.91 to 55.50 nm. The average concentration of ultrafine particles ranged from 2.31 × 103 to 7.36 × 104 #/cm3, and the PM2.5 and PM10 concentrations in each field ranged from 0.74 ± 0.27 to 12.46 ± 5.61 μg/m3 and from 2.39 ± 0.60 to 30.65 ± 21.26 μg/m3, respectively. The TVOC concentration ranged from 0.127 ± 0.012 to 1.567 ± 0.172 ppm. The respiratory deposition (RDUFPs) dose ranged from 2.02 × 1013 to 5.54 × 1014 nm2/day. Depending on the operating conditions, appropriate control and protective measures should be employed to protect workers' health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yung-Sheng Chuang
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Abiyu Kerebo Berekute
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Arba Minch University, Arbaminch, Ethiopia
| | - Hsuan-Yu Hsu
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
| | - Ho-Sheng Wei
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Cheng Gong
- Department of Chemistry, College of Natural and Computational Sciences, Arba Minch University, Arbaminch, Ethiopia
| | - Ya-Yuan Hsu
- Institute of Labor, Occupational Safety and Health, Ministry of Labor, New Taipei City, Taiwan
| | - Chuen-Jinn Tsai
- Institute of Environmental Engineering, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Hsinchu City, Taiwan
| | - Kuo-Pin Yu
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
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12
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Hasan F, Potter PM, Al-Abed SR, Matheson J, Lomnicki SM. Investigating environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs) emissions of 3D printing process. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING JOURNAL (LAUSANNE, SWITZERLAND : 1996) 2024; 480:1-6. [PMID: 38510278 PMCID: PMC10953813 DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2023.148158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
In recent years, the emission of particles and gaseous pollutants from 3D printing has attracted much attention due to potential health risks. This study investigated the generation of environmentally persistent free radicals (EPFRs, organic free radicals stabilized on or inside particles) in total particulate matter (TPM) released during the 3D printing process. Commercially available 3D printer filaments, made of acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) in two different colors and metal content, ABS-blue (19.66 μg/g Cu) and ABS-black (3.69 μg/g Fe), were used for printing. We hypothesized that the metal content/composition of the filaments contributes not only to the type and number of EPFRs in TPM emissions, but also impacts the overall yield of TPM emissions. TPM emissions during printing with ABS-blue (11.28 μg/g of printed material) were higher than with ABS-black (7.29 μg/g). Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy, employed to measure EPFRs in TPM emissions of both filaments, revealed higher EPFR concentrations in ABS-blue TPM (6.23 × 1017 spins/g) than in ABS-black TPM (9.72 × 1016 spins/g). The presence of copper in the ABS-blue contributed to the formation of mostly oxygen-centered EPFR species with a g-factor of ~2.0041 and a lifetime of 98 days. The ABS-black EPFR signal had a lower g-factor of ~2.0011, reflecting the formation of superoxide radicals during the printing process, which were shown to have an "estimated tentative" lifetime of 26 days. Both radical species (EPFRs and superoxides) translate to a potential health risk through inhalation of emitted particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farhana Hasan
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
| | - Phillip M. Potter
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Research and Emergency Response, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Souhail R. Al-Abed
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Research and Emergency Response, Cincinnati, OH 45268, USA
| | - Joanna Matheson
- U.S. Consumer Product and Safety Commission, Health Sciences Directorate, Rockville, MD 20850, USA
| | - Slawomir M. Lomnicki
- Department of Environmental Sciences, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA 70803, USA
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13
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He X, Barnett LM, Jeon J, Zhang Q, Alqahtani S, Black M, Shannahan J, Wright C. Real-Time Exposure to 3D-Printing Emissions Elicits Metabolic and Pro-Inflammatory Responses in Human Airway Epithelial Cells. TOXICS 2024; 12:67. [PMID: 38251022 PMCID: PMC10818734 DOI: 10.3390/toxics12010067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/09/2024] [Indexed: 01/23/2024]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printer usage in household and school settings has raised health concerns regarding chemical and particle emission exposures during operation. Although the composition of 3D printer emissions varies depending on printer settings and materials, little is known about the impact that emissions from different filament types may have on respiratory health and underlying cellular mechanisms. In this study, we used an in vitro exposure chamber system to deliver emissions from two popular 3D-printing filament types, acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA), directly to human small airway epithelial cells (SAEC) cultured in an air-liquid interface during 3D printer operation. Using a scanning mobility particle sizer (SMPS) and an optical particle sizer (OPS), we monitored 3D printer particulate matter (PM) emissions in terms of their particle size distribution, concentrations, and calculated deposited doses. Elemental composition of ABS and PLA emissions was assessed using scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). Finally, we compared the effects of emission exposure on cell viability, inflammation, and metabolism in SAEC. Our results reveal that, although ABS filaments emitted a higher total concentration of particles and PLA filaments emitted a higher concentration of smaller particles, SAEC were exposed to similar deposited doses of particles for each filament type. Conversely, ABS and PLA emissions had distinct elemental compositions, which were likely responsible for differential effects on SAEC viability, oxidative stress, release of inflammatory mediators, and changes in cellular metabolism. Specifically, while ABS- and PLA-emitted particles both reduced cellular viability and total glutathione levels in SAEC, ABS emissions had a significantly greater effect on glutathione relative to PLA emissions. Additionally, pro-inflammatory cytokines including IL-1β, MMP-9, and RANTES were significantly increased due to ABS emissions exposure. While IL-6 and IL-8 were stimulated in both exposure scenarios, VEGF was exclusively increased due to PLA emissions exposures. Notably, ABS emissions induced metabolic perturbation on amino acids and energy metabolism, as well as redox-regulated pathways including arginine, methionine, cysteine, and vitamin B3 metabolism, whereas PLA emissions exposures caused fatty acid and carnitine dysregulation. Taken together, these results advance our mechanistic understanding of 3D-printer-emissions-induced respiratory toxicity and highlight the role that filament emission properties may play in mediating different respiratory outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojia He
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA 30067, USA; (X.H.); (L.M.B.); (J.J.); (Q.Z.); (M.B.)
| | - Lillie Marie Barnett
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA 30067, USA; (X.H.); (L.M.B.); (J.J.); (Q.Z.); (M.B.)
| | - Jennifer Jeon
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA 30067, USA; (X.H.); (L.M.B.); (J.J.); (Q.Z.); (M.B.)
| | - Qian Zhang
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA 30067, USA; (X.H.); (L.M.B.); (J.J.); (Q.Z.); (M.B.)
| | - Saeed Alqahtani
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; (S.A.); (J.S.)
- Advanced Diagnostic and Therapeutics Technologies Institute, Health Sector, King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh 12354, Saudi Arabia
| | - Marilyn Black
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA 30067, USA; (X.H.); (L.M.B.); (J.J.); (Q.Z.); (M.B.)
| | - Jonathan Shannahan
- School of Health Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA; (S.A.); (J.S.)
| | - Christa Wright
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA 30067, USA; (X.H.); (L.M.B.); (J.J.); (Q.Z.); (M.B.)
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14
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Alijagic A, Kotlyar O, Larsson M, Salihovic S, Hedbrant A, Eriksson U, Karlsson P, Persson A, Scherbak N, Färnlund K, Engwall M, Särndahl E. Immunotoxic, genotoxic, and endocrine disrupting impacts of polyamide microplastic particles and chemicals. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2024; 183:108412. [PMID: 38183898 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2023] [Revised: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 12/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/08/2024]
Abstract
Due to their exceptional properties and cost effectiveness, polyamides or nylons have emerged as widely used materials, revolutionizing diverse industries, including industrial 3D printing or additive manufacturing (AM). Powder-based AM technologies employ tonnes of polyamide microplastics to produce complex components every year. However, the lack of comprehensive toxicity assessment of particulate polyamides and polyamide-associated chemicals, especially in the light of the global microplastics crisis, calls for urgent action. This study investigated the physicochemical properties of polyamide-12 microplastics used in AM, and assessed a number of toxicity endpoints focusing on inflammation, immunometabolism, genotoxicity, aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) activation, endocrine disruption, and cell morphology. Specifically, microplastics examination by means of field emission scanning electron microscopy revealed that work flow reuse of material created a fraction of smaller particles with an average size of 1-5 µm, a size range readily available for uptake by human cells. Moreover, chemical analysis by means of gas chromatography high-resolution mass spectrometry detected several polyamide-associated chemicals including starting material, plasticizer, thermal stabilizer/antioxidant, and migrating slip additive. Even if polyamide particles and chemicals did not induce an acute inflammatory response, repeated and prolonged exposure of human primary macrophages disclosed a steady increase in the levels of proinflammatory chemokine Interleukin-8 (IL-8/CXCL-8). Moreover, targeted metabolomics disclosed that polyamide particles modulated the kynurenine pathway and some of its key metabolites. The p53-responsive luciferase reporter gene assay showed that particles per se were able to activate p53, being indicative of a genotoxic stress. Polyamide-associated chemicals triggered moderate activation of AhR and elicited anti-androgenic activity. Finally, a high-throughput and non-targeted morphological profiling by Cell Painting assay outlined major sites of bioactivity of polyamide-associated chemicals and indicated putative mechanisms of toxicity in the cells. These findings reveal that the increasing use of polyamide microplastics may pose a potential health risk for the exposed individuals, and it merits more attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andi Alijagic
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden; Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden; School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden.
| | - Oleksandr Kotlyar
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden; Centre for Applied Autonomous Sensor Systems (AASS), Mobile Robotics and Olfaction Lab (MRO), Örebro University, SE-701 82 Örebro, Sweden
| | - Maria Larsson
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Samira Salihovic
- Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden; School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Alexander Hedbrant
- Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden; School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Ulrika Eriksson
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Patrik Karlsson
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Alexander Persson
- Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden; School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Nikolai Scherbak
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden
| | | | - Magnus Engwall
- Man-Technology-Environment Research Center (MTM), Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden
| | - Eva Särndahl
- Inflammatory Response and Infection Susceptibility Centre (iRiSC), Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden; School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine and Health, Örebro University, Örebro SE-701 82, Sweden
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15
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Wade AM, Peloquin DM, Matheson JM, Luxton TP. Dermal and oral exposure risks to heavy metals from 3D printing metal-fill thermoplastics. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 903:166538. [PMID: 37625731 PMCID: PMC10653099 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.166538] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 08/27/2023]
Abstract
Manufacturing advancements in polymer printing now allow for the addition of metal additives to thermoplastic feedstock up to 80-90 % by weight and subsequent printing on low-cost desktop 3D printers. Particles associated with metal additives are not chemically bound to the plastic polymer, meaning these particles can potentially migrate and become bioavailable. This study investigated the degree to which two human exposure pathways, oral (ingestion) and dermal (skin contact), are important exposure pathways for metals (copper, chromium, and tin) from metal-fill thermoplastics used in consumer fused filament fabrication (FFF). We found that dermal exposure to copper and bronze filaments presents the highest exposure risk due to chloride (Cl-) in synthetic sweat driving copper (Cu2+) release and dissolution. Chromium and tin were released as micron-sized particles < 24 μm in diameter with low bioaccessibility during simulated oral and dermal exposure scenarios, with potential to undergo dissolution in the gastrointestinal tract based on testing using synthetic stomach fluids. The rate of metal particle release increased by one to two orders of magnitude when thermoplastics were degraded under 1 year of simulated UV weathering. This calls into question the long-term suitability of biodegradable polymers such as PLA for use in metal-fill thermoplastics if they are designed not to be sintered. The greatest exposure risk appears to be from the raw filaments rather than the printed forms, with the former having higher metal release rates in water and synthetic body fluids for all but one filament type. For brittle feedstock that requires greater handling, as metal-fill thermoplastics can be, practices common in metal powder 3D printing such as wearing gloves and washing hands may adequately reduce metal exposure risks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna M Wade
- Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, 1299 Bethel Valley Road, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, 5995 Center Hill Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA.
| | - Derek M Peloquin
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, 5995 Center Hill Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA.
| | - Joanna M Matheson
- U.S. Consumer Product and Safety Commission, 5 Research Place, Rockville, MD 20850, USA.
| | - Todd P Luxton
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Center for Environmental Solutions and Emergency Response, 5995 Center Hill Avenue, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA.
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16
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Finnegan M, Thach CL, Khaki S, Markey E, O’Connor DJ, Smeaton AF, Morrin A. Characterization of Volatile and Particulate Emissions from Desktop 3D Printers. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 23:9660. [PMID: 38139506 PMCID: PMC10747962 DOI: 10.3390/s23249660] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
The rapid expansion of 3D printing technologies has led to increased utilization in various industries and has also become pervasive in the home environment. Although the benefits are well acknowledged, concerns have arisen regarding potential health and safety hazards associated with emissions of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and particulates during the 3D printing process. The home environment is particularly hazardous given the lack of health and safety awareness of the typical home user. This study aims to assess the safety aspects of 3D printing of PLA and ABS filaments by investigating emissions of VOCs and particulates, characterizing their chemical and physical profiles, and evaluating potential health risks. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was employed to profile VOC emissions, while a particle analyzer (WIBS) was used to quantify and characterize particulate emissions. Our research highlights that 3D printing processes release a wide range of VOCs, including straight and branched alkanes, benzenes, and aldehydes. Emission profiles depend on filament type but also, importantly, the brand of filament. The size, shape, and fluorescent characteristics of particle emissions were characterized for PLA-based printing emissions and found to vary depending on the filament employed. This is the first 3D printing study employing WIBS for particulate characterization, and distinct sizes and shape profiles that differ from other ambient WIBS studies were observed. The findings emphasize the importance of implementing safety measures in all 3D printing environments, including the home, such as improved ventilation, thermoplastic material, and brand selection. Additionally, our research highlights the need for further regulatory guidelines to ensure the safe use of 3D printing technologies, particularly in the home setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Finnegan
- School of Chemical Sciences, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, D09 DXA0 Dublin, Ireland; (M.F.); (S.K.); (D.J.O.)
- Insight SFI Research Centre for Data Analytics, Dublin City University, D09 Y5N0 Dublin, Ireland;
| | - Colleen Lee Thach
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66046, USA;
| | - Shirin Khaki
- School of Chemical Sciences, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, D09 DXA0 Dublin, Ireland; (M.F.); (S.K.); (D.J.O.)
- Insight SFI Research Centre for Data Analytics, Dublin City University, D09 Y5N0 Dublin, Ireland;
| | - Emma Markey
- School of Chemical Sciences, Dublin City University, D09 Y5N0 Dublin, Ireland;
| | - David J. O’Connor
- School of Chemical Sciences, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, D09 DXA0 Dublin, Ireland; (M.F.); (S.K.); (D.J.O.)
- Insight SFI Research Centre for Data Analytics, Dublin City University, D09 Y5N0 Dublin, Ireland;
| | - Alan F. Smeaton
- Insight SFI Research Centre for Data Analytics, Dublin City University, D09 Y5N0 Dublin, Ireland;
| | - Aoife Morrin
- School of Chemical Sciences, National Centre for Sensor Research, Dublin City University, D09 DXA0 Dublin, Ireland; (M.F.); (S.K.); (D.J.O.)
- Insight SFI Research Centre for Data Analytics, Dublin City University, D09 Y5N0 Dublin, Ireland;
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17
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Zhang Q, Black MS. Exposure hazards of particles and volatile organic compounds emitted from material extrusion 3D printing: Consolidation of chamber study data. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2023; 182:108316. [PMID: 37952412 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2023.108316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2023] [Revised: 10/31/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Ultrafine particles and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) have been detected from material extrusion 3D printing, which is widely used in non-industrial environments. This study consolidates data of 447 particle emission and 58 VOC emission evaluations from a chamber study using a standardized testing method with various 3D printing scenarios. The interquartile ranges of the observed emission rates were 109-1011 #/h for particles and 0.2-1.0 mg/h for total VOC. Print material contributed largely to the variations of particle and total VOC emissions and determined the most abundantly emitted VOCs. Printing conditions and filament specifications, included printer brand, print temperature and speed, build plate heating setup, filament brand, color and composite, also affected emissions and resulted in large variations observed in emission profiles. Multiple regression showed that particle emissions were more impacted by various print conditions than VOC emissions. According to indoor exposure modeling, personal and residential exposure scenarios were more likely to result in high exposure levels, often exceeding recommended exposure limits. Hazardous VOCs commonly emitted from 3D printing included aromatics, aldehydes, alcohols, ketones, esters and siloxanes, among which were various carcinogens, irritants and developmental and reproductive toxins. Therefore, 3D printing emits a complex mixture of ultrafine particles and various hazardous chemicals, exposure to which may exceed recommended exposure limits and potentially induce acute, chronic, or developmental health effects for users depending on exposure scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA 30067, USA.
| | - Marilyn S Black
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, UL Research Institutes, Marietta, GA 30067, USA
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18
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Minář J, Pilnaj D, Uřičář J, Veselý P, Dušek K. Application of solid-phase microextraction arrows for characterizing volatile organic compounds from 3D printing of acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate filament. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1705:464180. [PMID: 37393779 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2023] [Accepted: 06/25/2023] [Indexed: 07/04/2023]
Abstract
3D printing is an extensively used manufacturing technique that can pose specific health concerns due to the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOC). Herein, a detailed characterization of 3D printing-related VOC using solid-phase microextraction-gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (SPME-GC/MS) is described for the first time. The VOC were extracted in dynamic mode during the printing from the acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate filament in an environmental chamber. The effect of extraction time on the extraction efficiency of 16 main VOC was studied for four different commercial SPME arrows. The volatile and semivolatile compounds were the most effectively extracted by carbon wide range-containing and polydimethyl siloxane arrows, respectively. The differences in extraction efficiency between arrows were further correlated to the molecular volume, octanol-water partition coefficient, and vapour pressure of observed VOC. The repeatability of SPME arrows towards the main VOC was assessed from static mode measurements of filament in headspace vials. In addition, we performed a group analysis of 57 VOC classified into 15 categories according to their chemical structure. Divinylbenzene-polydimethyl siloxane arrow turned out to be a good compromise between the total extracted amount and its distribution among tested VOC. Thus, this arrow was used to demonstrate the usefulness of SPME for the qualification of VOC emitted during printing in a real-life environment. A presented methodology can serve as a fast and reliable method for the qualification and semi-quantification of 3D printing-related VOC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaroslav Minář
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic.
| | - Dominik Pilnaj
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic; Department of Environmental Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Environment, Jan Evangelista Purkyně University, Ústí nad Labem 400 96, Czech Republic
| | - Jonáš Uřičář
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic
| | - Petr Veselý
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic
| | - Karel Dušek
- Department of Electrotechnology, Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Prague 160 00, Czech Republic
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19
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Fang R, Mohammed AN, Yadav JS, Wang J. Cytotoxicity and Characterization of Ultrafine Particles from Desktop Three-Dimensional Printers with Multiple Filaments. TOXICS 2023; 11:720. [PMID: 37755731 PMCID: PMC10536656 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11090720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/17/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Previous research has indicated that ultrafine particles (UFPs, particles less than 100 nm) emitted from desktop three-dimensional (3D) printers exhibit cytotoxicity. However, only a limited number of particles from different filaments and their combinations have been tested for cytotoxicity. This study quantified the emissions of UFPs from a commercially available filament extrusion desktop 3D printer using three different filaments, including acrylonitrile butadiene Styrene (ABS), thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU), and polyethylene terephthalate glycol (PETG). In this study, controlled experiments were conducted where the particles emitted were used to expose cells grown in an air-liquid interface (ALI) system. The ALI exposures were utilized for in vitro characterization of particle mixtures, including UFPs from a 3D printer. Additionally, a lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxic effects of these UFPs. A549 cells were exposed at the ALI to UFPs generated by an operational 3D printer for an average of 45 and 90 min. Twenty-four hours post-exposure, the cells were analyzed for percent cytotoxicity in a 24-well ALI insert (LDH assay). UFP exposure resulted in diminished cell viability, as evidenced by significantly increased LDH levels. The findings demonstrate that ABS has the most significant particle emission. ABS was the only filament that showed a significant difference compared to the high efficiency particulate arrestance (HEPA) following 90 min of exposure (p-value < 0.05). Both ABS and PETG exhibited a significant difference compared to the HEPA control after 45 min of exposure. A preliminary analysis of potential exposure to these products in a typical environment advises caution when operating multiple printer and filament combinations in poorly ventilated spaces or without combined gas and particle filtration systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Runcheng Fang
- Environmental and Industrial Hygiene, Department of Environmental and Public Health Sciences, College of Medicine University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA;
| | - Afzaal Nadeem Mohammed
- Environmental Genetics and Molecular Toxicology, Department of Environmental and Public Health Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA; (A.N.M.); (J.S.Y.)
| | - Jagjit Singh Yadav
- Environmental Genetics and Molecular Toxicology, Department of Environmental and Public Health Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA; (A.N.M.); (J.S.Y.)
| | - Jun Wang
- Environmental and Industrial Hygiene, Department of Environmental and Public Health Sciences, College of Medicine University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, OH 45267, USA;
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20
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Krajnak K, Farcas M, McKinney W, Waugh S, Mandler K, Knepp A, Jackson M, Richardson D, Hammer M, Matheson J, Thomas T, Qian Y. Inhalation of polycarbonate emissions generated during 3D printing processes affects neuroendocrine function in male rats. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART A 2023; 86:575-596. [PMID: 37350301 PMCID: PMC10527863 DOI: 10.1080/15287394.2023.2226198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/24/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printing of manufactured goods has increased in the last 10 years. The increased use of this technology has resulted in questions regarding the influence of inhaling emissions generated during printing. The goal of this study was to determine if inhalation of particulate and/or toxic chemicals generated during printing with polycarbonate (PC) plastic affected the neuroendocrine system. Male rats were exposed to 3D-printer emissions (592 µg particulate/m3 air) or filtered air for 4 h/day (d), 4 days/week and total exposures lengths were 1, 4, 8, 15 or 30 days. The effects of these exposures on hormone concentrations, and markers of function and/or injury in the olfactory bulb, hypothalamus and testes were measured after 1, 8 and 30 days exposure. Thirty days of exposure to 3D printer emissions resulted in reductions in thyroid stimulating hormone, follicle stimulating hormone and prolactin. These changes were accompanied by (1) elevation in markers of cell injury; (2) reductions in active mitochondria in the olfactory bulb, diminished gonadotropin releasing hormone cells and fibers as well as less tyrosine hydroxylase immunolabeled fibers in the arcuate nucleus; and (3) decrease in spermatogonium. Polycarbonate plastics may contain bisphenol A, and the effects of exposure to these 3D printer-generated emissions on neuroendocrine function are similar to those noted following exposure to bisphenol A.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristine Krajnak
- Physical Effects Research Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Mariana Farcas
- Physiology and Pathology Research BranchHealth Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Walter McKinney
- Physical Effects Research Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Stacey Waugh
- Physical Effects Research Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Kyle Mandler
- Physiology and Pathology Research BranchHealth Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Alycia Knepp
- Physiology and Pathology Research BranchHealth Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Mark Jackson
- Physical Effects Research Branch, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Diana Richardson
- Histopathology Core, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - MaryAnne Hammer
- Histopathology Core, Health Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Joanna Matheson
- Office of Hazard Identification and Reduction, U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Treye Thomas
- Office of Hazard Identification and Reduction, U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Yong Qian
- Physiology and Pathology Research BranchHealth Effects Laboratory Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
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21
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Saliakas S, Damilos S, Karamitrou M, Trompeta AF, Milickovic TK, Charitidis C, Koumoulos EP. Integrating Exposure Assessment and Process Hazard Analysis: The Nano-Enabled 3D Printing Filament Extrusion Case. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:2836. [PMID: 37447482 DOI: 10.3390/polym15132836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 06/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Nanoparticles are being used in novel applications of the thermoplastics industry, including automotive parts, the sports industry and leisure and consumer goods, which can be produced nowadays through additive manufacturing. However, there is limited information on the health and safety aspects during the production of these new materials, mainly from recycled sources. This study covers the exposure assessment to nano- and micro-size particles emitted from the nanocomposites during the production of filaments for 3D printing through a compounding and extrusion pilot line using recycled (post-industrial) thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU) and recycled polyamide 12 (PA12), which have been also upcycled through reinforcement with iron oxide nanoparticles (Fe3O4 NPs), introducing matrix healing properties triggered by induction heating. The assessment protocol included near- and far-field measurements, considering the extruder as the primary emission source, and portable measuring devices for evaluating particulate emissions reaching the inhalable zone of the lab workers. A Failure Modes and Effects Analysis (FMEA) study for the extrusion process line was defined along with a Failure Tree Analysis (FTA) process in which the process deviations, their sources and the relations between them were documented. FTA allowed the identification of events that should take place in parallel (simultaneously) or in series for the failure modes to take place and the respective corrective actions to be proposed (additional to the existing control measures).
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Affiliation(s)
- Stratos Saliakas
- Innovation in Research & Engineering Solutions (IRES), 1780 Wemmel, Belgium
| | - Spyridon Damilos
- Innovation in Research & Engineering Solutions (IRES), 1780 Wemmel, Belgium
| | - Melpo Karamitrou
- Research Lab of Advanced, Composites, Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology (R-NanoLab), School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zographos, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Aikaterini-Flora Trompeta
- Research Lab of Advanced, Composites, Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology (R-NanoLab), School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zographos, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Tatjana Kosanovic Milickovic
- Research Lab of Advanced, Composites, Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology (R-NanoLab), School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zographos, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Costas Charitidis
- Research Lab of Advanced, Composites, Nanomaterials and Nanotechnology (R-NanoLab), School of Chemical Engineering, National Technical University of Athens, Zographos, 15780 Athens, Greece
| | - Elias P Koumoulos
- Innovation in Research & Engineering Solutions (IRES), 1780 Wemmel, Belgium
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22
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Thamatam N, Ahn J, Chowdhury M, Sharma A, Gupta P, Marr LC, Nazhandali L, Agah M. A MEMS-enabled portable gas chromatography injection system for trace analysis. Anal Chim Acta 2023; 1261:341209. [PMID: 37147055 DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2023.341209] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Revised: 03/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Growing concerns about environmental conditions, public health, and disease diagnostics have led to the rapid development of portable sampling techniques to characterize trace-level volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from various sources. A MEMS-based micropreconcentrator (μPC) is one such approach that drastically reduces the size, weight, and power constraints offering greater sampling flexibility in many applications. However, the adoption of μPCs on a commercial scale is hindered by a lack of thermal desorption units (TDUs) that easily integrate μPCs with gas chromatography (GC) systems equipped with a flame ionization detector (FID) or a mass spectrometer (MS). Here, we report a highly versatile μPC-based, single-stage autosampler-injection unit for traditional, portable, and micro-GCs. The system uses μPCs packaged in 3D-printed swappable cartridges and is based on a highly modular interfacing architecture that allows easy-to-remove, gas-tight fluidic, and detachable electrical connections (FEMI). This study describes the FEMI architecture and demonstrates the FEMI-Autosampler (FEMI-AS) prototype (9.5 cm × 10 cm x 20 cm, ≈500 gms). The system was integrated with GC-FID, and the performance was investigated using synthetic gas samples and ambient air. The results were contrasted with the sorbent tube sampling technique using TD-GC-MS. FEMI-AS could generate sharp injection plugs (≈240 ms) and detect analytes with concentrations <15 ppb within 20 s and <100 ppt within 20 min of sampling time. With more than 30 detected trace-level compounds from ambient air, the demonstrated FEMI-AS, and the FEMI architecture significantly accelerate the adoption of μPCs on a broader scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nipun Thamatam
- VT MEMS Lab, The Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Jeonghyeon Ahn
- VT MEMS Lab, The Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Mustahsin Chowdhury
- VT MEMS Lab, The Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Arjun Sharma
- CESCA, The Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Poonam Gupta
- CESCA, The Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Linsey C Marr
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Leyla Nazhandali
- CESCA, The Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States
| | - Masoud Agah
- VT MEMS Lab, The Bradley Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, 24061, United States.
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23
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Lee H, Kwak DB, Choi CY, Ahn KH. Accurate measurements of particle emissions from a three-dimensional printer using a chamber test with a mixer-installed sampling system. Sci Rep 2023; 13:6495. [PMID: 37081153 PMCID: PMC10119104 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-33538-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 04/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, three-dimensional (3D) printing has attracted attention as a new manufacturing technology. However, there is lack of data and regulations regarding the emissions of ultrafine particles from 3D printers. Therefore, we investigated particle emissions from a 3D printer using a chamber system. The test system was improved by installing a developed mixer for accurate measurement. Without a mixer, the particle concentration was unstable depending on the sampling point; however, reliable data with good uniformity were obtained by installing a mixer. Using the test system with a mixer, we investigated particle emissions from a 3D printer during operation. Filaments made each of acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and polylactic acid (PLA) were used as the printing material. The effects of nozzle temperature and printing time were investigated. Compared to the effect of the printing time, the nozzle temperature had greater impact on the particle emissions. The dominant particle size for the emissions from a 3D printer is less than 10 nm, and the particle concentration decreased with increasing particle size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Handol Lee
- Department of Environmental Engineering, Inha University, 100 Inha-ro, Michuhol-gu, Incheon, 22212, Republic of Korea
| | - Dong-Bin Kwak
- Particle Technology Laboratory, Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, 111 Church St., Minneapolis, S.E., 55455, USA
| | - Chi Young Choi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan, 15588, Republic of Korea
| | - Kang-Ho Ahn
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hanyang University, 55 Hanyangdaehak-ro, Sangnok-gu, Ansan, 15588, Republic of Korea.
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24
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Thapa B, Hsieh SA, Bell DS, Anderson JL. Monitoring the liberation of volatile organic compounds during fused deposition modeling three dimensional printing using solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1693:463886. [PMID: 36870231 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.463886] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2023] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 02/18/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Three-dimensional (3D) printers have gained tremendous popularity and are being widely used in offices, laboratories, and private homes. Fused deposition modeling (FDM) is among the most commonly used mechanisms by desktop 3D printers in indoor settings and relies on the extrusion and deposition of heated thermoplastic filaments, resulting in the liberation of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). With the growing use of 3D printers, concerns regarding human health have risen as the exposure to VOCs may cause adverse health effects. Therefore, it is important to monitor VOC liberation during printing and to correlate it to filament composition. In this study, VOCs liberated with a desktop printer were measured by solid-phase microextraction (SPME) combined with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). SPME fibers featuring sorbent coatings of varied polarity were chosen for the extraction of VOCs liberated from acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), tough polylactic acid, and copolyester+ (CPE+) filaments. It was found that for all three filaments tested, longer print times resulted in a greater number of extracted VOCs. The ABS filament liberated the most VOCs while the CPE+ filaments liberated the fewest VOCs. Through the use of hierarchical cluster analysis and principal component analysis, filaments as well as fibers could be differentiated based on the liberated VOCs. This study demonstrates that SPME is a promising tool to sample and extract VOCs liberated during 3D printing under non-equilibrium conditions and can be used to aid in tentative identification of the VOCs when coupled to gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bhawana Thapa
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 USA
| | - Shu-An Hsieh
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 USA
| | - David S Bell
- Restek Corporation, 110 Benner Circle, Bellefonte, Pennsylvania 16823, USA
| | - Jared L Anderson
- Department of Chemistry, Iowa State University, Ames, Iowa 50011 USA.
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25
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Zhang Q, Weber RJ, Luxton TP, Peloquin DM, Baumann EJ, Black MS. Metal compositions of particle emissions from material extrusion 3D printing: Emission sources and indoor exposure modeling. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 860:160512. [PMID: 36442638 PMCID: PMC10259682 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Revised: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Material extrusion 3D printing has been widely used in industrial, educational and residential environments, while its exposure health impacts have not been well understood. High levels of ultrafine particles are found being emitted from 3D printing and could pose a hazard when inhaled. However, metals that potentially transfer from filament additives to emitted particles could also add to the exposure hazard, which have not been well characterized for their emissions. This study analyzed metal (and metalloid) compositions of raw filaments and in the emitted particles during printing; studied filaments included pure polymer filaments with metal additives and composite filaments with and without metal powder. Our chamber study found that crustal metals tended to have higher partitioning factors from filaments to emitted particles; silicon was the most abundant element in emitted particles and had the highest yield per filament mass. However, bronze and stainless-steel powder added in composite filaments were less likely to transfer from filament to particle. For some cases, boron, arsenic, manganese, and lead were only detected in particles, which indicated external sources, such as the printers themselves. Heavy metals with health concerns were also detected in emitted particles, while their estimated exposure concentrations in indoor air were below air quality standards and occupational regulations. However, total particle exposure concentrations estimated for indoor environments could exceed ambient air fine particulate standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, GA 30067, USA.
| | - Rodney J Weber
- School of Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA 30332, USA
| | - Todd P Luxton
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA
| | - Derek M Peloquin
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA; Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, USA
| | - Eric J Baumann
- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, National Risk Management Research Laboratory, Cincinnati, OH 45224, USA
| | - Marilyn S Black
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, GA 30067, USA
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26
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Kim T, Hong D, Moon S, Kim N. Evaluation of formaldehyde, particulate matters 2.5 and 10 emitted to a 3D printing workspace based on ventilation. Sci Rep 2022; 12:21638. [PMID: 36517631 PMCID: PMC9750962 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-25957-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Recently, the development of 3D printing (3DP) technology and its application in various fields have improved our quality of life. However, hazardous materials that affect the human body, such as formaldehyde and particulate matter (PM), are emitted into the air during 3DP. This study measured the formaldehyde, PM10, and PM2.5 emitted by 3DP with the ventilation operation using six materials in material extrusion (ME) and vat photopolymerization (VP) and compared them between the 3DP workspace and the control setting with test-retest validation by two researchers. The experiments were divided into four stages based on the 3DP and ventilation operation. A linear mixed model was used to analyze the mean differences and tendencies between the 3DP workspace and the control setting. The change as ventilation was switched from off to on was evaluated by calculating the area. The differences and tendencies were shown in the statistically significant differences from a post-hoc test (α = 0.0125) except for some cases. There was a significant difference in formaldehyde depending on the ventilation operation; however, only a minor difference in PM10, and PM2.5 was confirmed. The amount of formaldehyde exceeding the standard was measured in all materials during 3DP without ventilation. Therefore, it is recommended to operate ventilation systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taehun Kim
- grid.267370.70000 0004 0533 4667Department of Convergence Medicine, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea ,grid.267370.70000 0004 0533 4667Department of Biomedical Engineering, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Dayeong Hong
- grid.267370.70000 0004 0533 4667Department of Convergence Medicine, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea ,grid.267370.70000 0004 0533 4667Department of Biomedical Engineering, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea ,grid.468823.30000 0004 0647 9964Department of Radiological science, Dongnam Health University, Suwon-si, Gyeonggi-do 50 Cheoncheon-ro 74 Gil, Jangan-gu, Republic of Korea
| | - Sojin Moon
- grid.267370.70000 0004 0533 4667Department of Convergence Medicine, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Namkug Kim
- grid.267370.70000 0004 0533 4667Department of Convergence Medicine, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea ,grid.267370.70000 0004 0533 4667Department of Biomedical Engineering, Asan Medical Institute of Convergence Science and Technology, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea ,grid.413967.e0000 0001 0842 2126Department of Radiology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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27
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Haug H, Klein L, Sauerwald T, Poelke B, Beauchamp J, Roloff A. Sampling Volatile Organic Compound Emissions from Consumer Products: A Review. Crit Rev Anal Chem 2022:1-22. [PMID: 36306209 DOI: 10.1080/10408347.2022.2136484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
Abstract
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are common constituents of many consumer products. Although many VOCs are generally considered harmless at low concentrations, some compound classes represent substances of concern in relation to human (inhalation) exposure and can elicit adverse health effects, especially when concentrations build up, such as in indoor settings. Determining VOC emissions from consumer products, such as toys, utensils or decorative articles, is of utmost importance to enable the assessment of inhalation exposure under real-world scenarios with respect to consumer safety. Due to the diverse sizes and shapes of such products, as well as their differing uses, a one-size-fits-all approach for measuring VOC emissions is not possible, thus, sampling procedures must be chosen carefully to best suit the sample under investigation. This review outlines the different sampling approaches for characterizing VOC emissions from consumer products, including headspace and emission test chamber methods. The advantages and disadvantages of each sampling technique are discussed in relation to their time and cost efficiency, as well as their suitability to realistically assess VOC inhalation exposures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen Haug
- Department of Sensory Analytics and Technologies, Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Freising, Germany
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Chair of Aroma and Smell Research, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Luise Klein
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Tilman Sauerwald
- Department of Sensory Analytics and Technologies, Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Freising, Germany
| | - Birte Poelke
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
| | - Jonathan Beauchamp
- Department of Sensory Analytics and Technologies, Fraunhofer Institute for Process Engineering and Packaging IVV, Freising, Germany
| | - Alexander Roloff
- Department of Chemical and Product Safety, German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment (BfR), Berlin, Germany
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28
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Yuan F, Li C, Yang R, Tan Y, Ma R, Zhang X, Zheng S, Sun Z. High-efficient mineralization of formaldehyde by three-dimensional "PIZZA"-like bismuth molybdate-titania/diatomite composite. J Colloid Interface Sci 2022; 624:713-724. [PMID: 35696789 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2022.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2022] [Revised: 06/03/2022] [Accepted: 06/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The application of TiO2-based photocatalysts in air pollution control has attracted much attention thanks to their advantageous green and sustainable performance. However, how to improve the degradation efficiency under visible light is still challenging. Herein, we report a ternary three-dimensional "PIZZA"-like Bi2MoO6-TiO2/diatomite (BTD) composite with high-efficient mineralization and recycling performance towards gaseous formaldehyde (HCHO) under visible light. The high-efficient adsorption-photocatalysis collaborative system with intimate interface combination is successfully established among Bi2MoO6 (BMO), TiO2 and diatomite. The HCHO mineralization rate constant of BTD-1:2 composite is up to around 4.03 times and 2.18 times higher than those of bare BMO and binary Bi2MoO6-TiO2 composite, respectively. It is indicated that the introduction of diatomite increases active sites and plays the vital role in the improvement of photocatalysis. In addition, the photogenerated holes (h+) and hydroxyl radical (OH) are proved to be the main active species for HCHO mineralization. Furthermore, there is a competitive adsorption relationship between water (H2O) molecules and HCHO molecules, and both H2O molecules and oxygen (O2) molecules participated in the reaction of HCHO mineralization based on in-situ DRIFTs spectra analysis. Our work would give a new perspective on gaseous HCHO purification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fang Yuan
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China; Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Chunquan Li
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
| | - Renfeng Yang
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
| | - Ye Tan
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China; Faculty of Science, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Singapore
| | - Ruixin Ma
- Hebei Key Laboratory of Hazardous Chemicals Safety and Control Technology, School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, North China Institute of Science and Technology, Langfang 065201, China
| | - Xiangwei Zhang
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
| | - Shuilin Zheng
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China
| | - Zhiming Sun
- School of Chemical and Environmental Engineering, China University of Mining and Technology (Beijing), Beijing 100083, China.
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29
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Hill WC, Seitz DW, Hull MS, Ballentine ML, Kennedy AJ. Additives influence 3D printer emission profiles: Implications for working safely with polymer filament composites. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13130. [PMID: 36305064 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 09/24/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
It is critical to thoroughly investigate, characterize, and understand the unique emission profiles of common and novel polymer feedstocks used in fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printers as these products become increasingly ubiquitous in consumer and industrial environments. This work contributes unique insights regarding the effects of polymer composite feedstocks with metal, ceramic, or carbonaceous particle additives on particulate emissions in a variety of filaments under various print conditions, including print temperature. In addition to active characterization of particulate size and concentration following the ANSI/CAN/UL 2904 method, particulate sampling and subsequent analysis by scanning electron microscopy revealed agglomeration behavior that may have important health implications. Specifically, fine particles (0.3-2.5 μm) generated by certain filaments including acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) and glycol-modified poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PETG) are shown to be formed via agglomeration of emitted ultrafine particles rather than composed of coherent primary particles; accordingly, transport and behavior of these particulates after inhalation may not follow expected patterns for micrometer-sized particles. Structures resembling carbonaceous additives (e.g., graphene and nanotubes) were also captured by airborne sampling during printing of filaments containing carbonaceous advanced materials.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Matthew S Hull
- NanoSafe, Inc., Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- Virginia Tech, Institute for Critical Technology and Applied Science, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Mark L Ballentine
- U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Environmental Laboratory, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA
| | - Alan J Kennedy
- U.S. Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Environmental Laboratory, Vicksburg, Mississippi, USA
- Virginia Tech, Macromolecules Innovation Institute, Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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30
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Salthammer T. TVOC - Revisited. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 167:107440. [PMID: 35932535 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2022.107440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 07/24/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND TVOC (total volatile organic compounds) has been used as a sum parameter in indoor air sciences for over 40 years. In the beginning, individual VOC concentrations determined by gas chromatography were simply added together. However, several methods for calculating TVOC have become established over time. METHODS To understand the manifold definitions of TVOC, one must trace the history of indoor air sciences and analytical chemistry. Therefore, in this work, the original approaches of TVOC are searched and explained. A detailed description of the measurement methods is followed by a critical evaluation of the various TVOC values and their possible applications. The aim is to give the reader a deeper understanding of TVOC in order to use this parameter correctly and to be able to better assess published results. In addition, related sum values such as TSVOC and TVVOC are also addressed. RESULTS A milestone was the analytical definition of VOCs and TVOC in 1997. A list of VOCs that should at least be considered when calculating TVOC was also provided. This list represented the status at that time, is no longer up-to-date and is being updated by a European working group as part of a harmonization process. However, there is still confusion about the exact definition and reasonable application of TVOC. The signals of other sum parameters, measured with photoacoustics, flame ionization, photoionization or electrochemical sensors, are also often given under the term TVOC. CONCLUSIONS It was recognized early that TVOC is not a toxicologically based parameter and is therefore only suitable for a limited number of screening purposes. Consequently, TVOC cannot be used in connection with health-related and odor-related issues. Nevertheless, such references are repeatedly made, which has led to controversial scientific discussions and even court decisions in Germany about the correct and improper use of TVOC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tunga Salthammer
- Fraunhofer WKI, Department of Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry, Bienroder Weg 54 E, 38108 Braunschweig, Germany.
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31
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Salthammer T. Microplastics and their Additives in the Indoor Environment. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022; 61:e202205713. [PMID: 35670249 PMCID: PMC9400961 DOI: 10.1002/anie.202205713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Analyses of air and house dust have shown that pollution of the indoor environment with microplastics could pose a fundamental hygienic problem. Indoor microplastics can result from abrasion, microplastic beads are frequently added to household products and microplastic granules can be found in artificial turf for sports activities and in synthetic admixtures in equestrian hall litter. In this context, the question arose as to what extent particulate emissions of thermoplastic materials from 3D printing should be at least partially classified as microplastics or nanoplastics. The discussion about textiles as a possible source of indoor microplastics has also been intensified. This Minireview gives an overview of the current exposure of residents to microplastics. Trends can be identified from the results and preventive measures can be derived if necessary. It is recommended that microplastics and their additives be given greater consideration in indoor environmental surveys in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tunga Salthammer
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry Fraunhofer WKI Bienroder Weg 54 E 38108 Braunschweig Germany
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Hashemi Sanatgar R, Cayla A, Guan J, Chen G, Nierstrasz V, Campagne C. Piezoresistive Properties of 3D-Printed Polylactic Acid (PLA) Nanocomposites. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14152981. [PMID: 35893945 PMCID: PMC9331926 DOI: 10.3390/polym14152981] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2022] [Revised: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
An increasing interest is focused on the application of 3D printing for sensor manufacturing. Using 3D printing technology offers a new approach to the fabrication of sensors that are both geometrically and functionally complex. This work presents the analysis of the 3D-printed thermoplastic nanocomposites compress under the applied force. The response for the corresponding resistance changes versus applied load is obtained to evaluate the effectiveness of the printed layer as a pressure/force sensor. Multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNT) and high-structured carbon black (Ketjenblack) (KB) in the polylactic acid (PLA) matrix were extruded to develop 3D-printable filaments. The electrical and piezoresistive behaviors of the created 3D-printed layers were investigated. The percolation threshold of MWNT and KB 3D-printed layers are 1 wt.% and 4 wt.%, respectively. The PLA/1 wt.% MWNT 3D-printed layers with 1 mm thickness exhibit a negative pressure coefficient (NPC) characterized by a decrease of about one decade in resistance with increasing compressive loadings up to 18 N with a maximum strain up to about 16%. In the cyclic mode with a 1 N/min force rate, the PLA/1 wt.% MWNT 3D-printed layers showed good performance with the piezoresistive coefficient or gauge factor (G) of 7.6 obtained with the amplitude of the piezoresistive response (Ar) of about -0.8. KB composites could not show stable piezoresistive responses in a cyclic mode. However, under high force rate compression, the PLA/4 wt.% KB 3D-printed layers led to responses of large sensitivity (Ar = −0.90) and were exempt from noise with a high value of G = 47.6 in the first cycle, which is a highly efficient piezoresistive behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Razieh Hashemi Sanatgar
- Textile Materials Technology, Department of Textile Technology, Faculty of Textiles, Engineering and Business, University of Borås, SE-501 90 Borås, Sweden;
- ENSAIT, ULR 2461—GEMTEX—Génie et Matériaux Textiles, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (A.C.); (C.C.)
- College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China; (J.G.); (G.C.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Aurélie Cayla
- ENSAIT, ULR 2461—GEMTEX—Génie et Matériaux Textiles, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (A.C.); (C.C.)
| | - Jinping Guan
- College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China; (J.G.); (G.C.)
| | - Guoqiang Chen
- College of Textile and Clothing Engineering, Soochow University, Suzhou 215006, China; (J.G.); (G.C.)
| | - Vincent Nierstrasz
- Textile Materials Technology, Department of Textile Technology, Faculty of Textiles, Engineering and Business, University of Borås, SE-501 90 Borås, Sweden;
| | - Christine Campagne
- ENSAIT, ULR 2461—GEMTEX—Génie et Matériaux Textiles, Université de Lille, F-59000 Lille, France; (A.C.); (C.C.)
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du Plessis J, du Preez S, Stefaniak AB. Identification of effective control technologies for additive manufacturing. JOURNAL OF TOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH. PART B, CRITICAL REVIEWS 2022; 25:211-249. [PMID: 35758103 PMCID: PMC9420827 DOI: 10.1080/10937404.2022.2092569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Additive manufacturing (AM) refers to several types of processes that join materials to build objects, often layer-by-layer, from a computer-aided design file. Many AM processes release potentially hazardous particles and gases during printing and associated tasks. There is limited understanding of the efficacy of controls including elimination, substitution, administrative, and personal protective technologies to reduce or remove emissions, which is an impediment to implementation of risk mitigation strategies. The Medline, Embase, Environmental Science Collection, CINAHL, Scopus, and Web of Science databases and other resources were used to identify 42 articles that met the inclusion criteria for this review. Key findings were as follows: 1) engineering controls for material extrusion-type fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3-D printers and material jetting printers that included local exhaust ventilation generally exhibited higher efficacy to decrease particle and gas levels compared with isolation alone, and 2) engineering controls for particle emissions from FFF 3-D printers displayed higher efficacy for ultrafine particles compared with fine particles and in test chambers compared with real-world settings. Critical knowledge gaps identified included a need for data: 1) on efficacy of controls for all AM process types, 2) better understanding approaches to control particles over a range of sizes and gas-phase emissions, 3) obtained using a standardized collection approach to facilitate inter-comparison of study results, 4) approaches that go beyond the inhalation exposure pathway to include controls to minimize dermal exposures, and 5) to evaluate not just the engineering tier, but also the prevention-through-design and other tiers of the hierarchy of controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johan du Plessis
- Occupational Hygiene and Health Research Initiative, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Sonette du Preez
- Occupational Hygiene and Health Research Initiative, North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Aleksandr B. Stefaniak
- Respiratory Health Division, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
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Hossain SKM, Toledo Vega A, Valles-Rosales D, Park YH, Kuravi S, Sohn H. Particulate suspension: a review of studies characterizing particulates and volatile organic compounds emissions during additive manufacturing processes. PARTICULATE SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1080/02726351.2022.2094301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Azul Toledo Vega
- Department of Industrial Engineering, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA
| | - Delia Valles-Rosales
- Department of Industrial Engineering, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA
| | - Young Ho Park
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA
| | - Sarada Kuravi
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA
| | - Hansuk Sohn
- Department of Industrial Engineering, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, New Mexico, USA
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Wojnowski W, Marć M, Kalinowska K, Kosmela P, Zabiegała B. Emission Profiles of Volatiles during 3D Printing with ABS, ASA, Nylon, and PETG Polymer Filaments. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27123814. [PMID: 35744939 PMCID: PMC9229569 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27123814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In this short communication we characterize the emission of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing using four polymer materials, namely polyethylene terephthalate glycol-modified (PETG), acrylonitrile styrene acrylate (ASA), Nylon, and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). Detailed emission profiles are obtained during thermal degradation of the polymers as a function of temperature and also in real-time during 3D printing. Direct quantitative measurement was performed using proton transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-ToF-MS). Qualitative determination of the volatiles emitted from the printed elements at various temperatures was accomplished using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The emission rates of VOCs differ significantly between the different polymer filaments, with the emission from Nylon and PETG more than an order of magnitude lower than that of ABS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Wojnowski
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.M.); (K.K.); (B.Z.)
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Oslo, 0371 Oslo, Norway
- Correspondence:
| | - Mariusz Marć
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.M.); (K.K.); (B.Z.)
| | - Kaja Kalinowska
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.M.); (K.K.); (B.Z.)
| | - Paulina Kosmela
- Department of Polymer Technology, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland;
| | - Bożena Zabiegała
- Department of Analytical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Gdańsk University of Technology, 80-233 Gdańsk, Poland; (M.M.); (K.K.); (B.Z.)
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36
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Salthammer T. Microplastics and their Additives in the Indoor Environment. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.202205713] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tunga Salthammer
- Fraunhofer WKI Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry Bienroder Weg 54 E 38108 Braunschweig GERMANY
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37
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Väisänen A, Alonen L, Ylönen S, Hyttinen M. Volatile organic compound and particulate emissions from the production and use of thermoplastic biocomposite 3D printing filaments. JOURNAL OF OCCUPATIONAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL HYGIENE 2022; 19:381-393. [PMID: 35404756 DOI: 10.1080/15459624.2022.2063879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Biocomposites (BCs) can be used as substitutes for unsustainable polymers in 3D printing, but their safety demands additional investigation as biological fillers may produce altered emissions during thermal processing. Commercial filament extruders can be used to produce custom feedstocks, but they are another source of airborne contaminants and demand further research. These knowledge gaps are targeted in this study. Volatile organic compound (VOC), carbonyl compound, ultrafine particle (UFP), and fine (PM2.5) and coarse (PM10) particle air concentrations were measured in this study as a filament extruder and a 3D printer were operated under an office environment using one PLA and four PLA-based BC feedstocks. Estimates of emission rates (ERs) for total VOCs (TVOC) and UFPs were also calculated. VOCs were analyzed with a GC-MS system, carbonyls were analyzed with an LC-MS/MS system, whereas real-time particle concentrations were monitored with continuously operating instruments. VOC concentrations were low throughout the experiment; TVOC ranged between 34-63 µg/m3 during filament extrusion and 41-56 µg/m3 during 3D printing, which represent calculated TVOC ERs of 2.6‒3.6 × 102 and 2.9‒3.6 × 102 µg/min. Corresponding cumulative carbonyls ranged between 60-91 and 190-253 µg/m3. Lactide and miscellaneous acids and alcohols were the dominant VOCs, while acetone, 2-butanone, and formaldehyde were the dominant carbonyls. Terpenes contributed for ca. 20-40% of TVOC during BC processing. The average UFP levels produced by the filament extruder were 0.85 × 102-1.05 × 103 #/cm3, while the 3D printer generated 6.05 × 102-2.09 × 103 #/cm3 particle levels. Corresponding particle ERs were 5.3 × 108-6.6 × 109 and 3.8 × 109-1.3 × 1010 #/min. PM2.5 and PM10 particles were produced in the following average quantities; PM2.5 levels ranged between 0.2-2.2 µg/m3, while PM10 levels were between 5-20 µg/m3 for all materials. The main difference between the pure PLA and BC feedstock emissions was terpenes, present during all BC extrusion processes. BCs are similar emission sources as pure plastics based on our findings, and a filament extruder produces contaminants at comparable or slightly lower levels in comparison to 3D printers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antti Väisänen
- Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Lauri Alonen
- School of Engineering and Technology, Savonia University of Applied Sciences, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Sampsa Ylönen
- School of Engineering and Technology, Savonia University of Applied Sciences, Kuopio, Finland
| | - Marko Hyttinen
- Faculty of Science and Forestry, Department of Environmental and Biological Sciences, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland
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Salthammer T, Zhao J, Schieweck A, Uhde E, Hussein T, Antretter F, Künzel H, Pazold M, Radon J, Birmili W. A holistic modeling framework for estimating the influence of climate change on indoor air quality. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13039. [PMID: 35762234 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The IPCC 2021 report predicts rising global temperatures and more frequent extreme weather events in the future, which will have different effects on the regional climate and concentrations of ambient air pollutants. Consequently, changes in heat and mass transfer between the inside and outside of buildings will also have an increasing impact on indoor air quality. It is therefore surprising that indoor spaces and occupant well-being still play a subordinate role in the studies of climate change. To increase awareness for this topic, the Indoor Air Quality Climate Change (IAQCC) model system was developed, which allows short and long-term predictions of the indoor climate with respect to outdoor conditions. The IAQCC is a holistic model that combines different scenarios in the form of submodels: building physics, indoor emissions, chemical-physical reaction and transformation, mold growth, and indoor exposure. IAQCC allows simulation of indoor gas and particle concentrations with outdoor influences, indoor materials and activity emissions, particle deposition and coagulation, gas reactions, and SVOC partitioning. These key processes are fundamentally linked to temperature and relative humidity. With the aid of the building physics model, the indoor temperature and humidity, and pollutant transport in building zones can be simulated. The exposure model refers to the calculated concentrations and provides evaluations of indoor thermal comfort and exposure to gaseous, particulate, and microbial pollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tunga Salthammer
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry, Fraunhofer WKI, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jiangyue Zhao
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry, Fraunhofer WKI, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Alexandra Schieweck
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry, Fraunhofer WKI, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Erik Uhde
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry, Fraunhofer WKI, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Tareq Hussein
- Department of Material Analysis and Indoor Chemistry, Fraunhofer WKI, Braunschweig, Germany
- University of Helsinki, Institute for Atmospheric and Earth System Research (INAR), Helsinki, Finland
- School of Science, Department of Physics, Environmental and Atmospheric Research Laboratory (EARL), University of Jordan, Amman, Jordan
| | - Florian Antretter
- Department Hygrothermics, Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP), Valley, Germany
- C3RROlutions GmbH, Raubling, Germany
| | - Hartwig Künzel
- Department Hygrothermics, Fraunhofer Institute for Building Physics (IBP), Valley, Germany
| | | | - Jan Radon
- C3RROlutions GmbH, Raubling, Germany
- Faculty of Environmental Engineering, University of Agriculture in Krakow, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wolfram Birmili
- Department II 1 "Environmental Hygiene", German Environment Agency (Umweltbundesamt), Berlin, Germany
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Farcas MT, McKinney W, Coyle J, Orandle M, Mandler WK, Stefaniak AB, Bowers L, Battelli L, Richardson D, Hammer MA, Friend SA, Service S, Kashon M, Qi C, Hammond DR, Thomas TA, Matheson J, Qian Y. Evaluation of Pulmonary Effects of 3-D Printer Emissions From Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene Using an Air-Liquid Interface Model of Primary Normal Human-Derived Bronchial Epithelial Cells. Int J Toxicol 2022; 41:312-328. [PMID: 35586871 DOI: 10.1177/10915818221093605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated the inhalation toxicity of the emissions from 3-D printing with acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS) filament using an air-liquid interface (ALI) in vitro model. Primary normal human-derived bronchial epithelial cells (NHBEs) were exposed to ABS filament emissions in an ALI for 4 hours. The mean and mode diameters of ABS emitted particles in the medium were 175 ± 24 and 153 ± 15 nm, respectively. The average particle deposition per surface area of the epithelium was 2.29 × 107 ± 1.47 × 107 particle/cm2, equivalent to an estimated average particle mass of 0.144 ± 0.042 μg/cm2. Results showed exposure of NHBEs to ABS emissions did not significantly affect epithelium integrity, ciliation, mucus production, nor induce cytotoxicity. At 24 hours after the exposure, significant increases in the pro-inflammatory markers IL-12p70, IL-13, IL-15, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-17A, VEGF, MCP-1, and MIP-1α were noted in the basolateral cell culture medium of ABS-exposed cells compared to non-exposed chamber control cells. Results obtained from this study correspond with those from our previous in vivo studies, indicating that the increase in inflammatory mediators occur without associated membrane damage. The combination of the exposure chamber and the ALI-based model is promising for assessing 3-D printer emission-induced toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana T Farcas
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Walter McKinney
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Jayme Coyle
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Marlene Orandle
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - W Kyle Mandler
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Aleksandr B Stefaniak
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Lauren Bowers
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA.,Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, School of Pharmacy, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Lori Battelli
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Diana Richardson
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Mary A Hammer
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Sherri A Friend
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Samantha Service
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Michael Kashon
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Chaolong Qi
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Duane R Hammond
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Treye A Thomas
- Respiratory Health Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Joanna Matheson
- Respiratory Health Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
| | - Yong Qian
- Health Effects Laboratory Division, 114426National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, WV, USA
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Yeom S, Kim H, Hong T, Jeong K. Analysis of ways to reduce potential health risk from ultrafine and fine particles emitted from 3D printers in the makerspace. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13053. [PMID: 35622719 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 05/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Due to the growing maker culture, maker spaces using multiple fused deposition modeling (FDM)-3D printers have spread around the world. However, the 3D printing process is known to cause the release of ultrafine and fine particles, which may have adverse health effects on occupants. Therefore, this experiment-based study was conducted on FDM-3D printers placed in an actual makerspace by the following three scenarios: the number of operating FDM-3D printers, ventilation, and measurement location to compare the concentrations of ultrafine and fine particles. In addition, the deposited dose in alveolar region for ultrafine and fine particles was predicted using a respiratory deposition model to analyze the potential health risk on occupants. As a result, the scenario-based comparison revealed that if the number of operating 3D printers is reduced by less than half, the potential health risk can be decreased by 34.1%, proper ventilation can reduce potential health risk by 55.5%, and working away from the 3D printer can also reduce potential health risk by up to 27.5%. This study analyzed the potential health risk of multiple FDM-3D printers on users in an actual makerspace, and proposed various improvement measures to reduce the potential health risk of ultrafine and fine particles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seungkeun Yeom
- Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Hakpyeong Kim
- Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Taehoon Hong
- Department of Architecture and Architectural Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Kwangbok Jeong
- Deep Learning Architecture Research Center, Department of Architectural Engineering, Sejong University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Zhang Y, Sun M, Peng M, Du E, Xu X, Wang CC. The fabrication strategies and enhanced performances of metal-organic frameworks and carbon dots composites: State of the art review. CHINESE CHEM LETT 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cclet.2022.04.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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42
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Fused Filament Fabrication 3D Printing: Quantification of Exposure to Airborne Particles. JOURNAL OF COMPOSITES SCIENCE 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/jcs6050119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) has been established as a widely practiced Additive Manufacturing technique, using various thermoplastic filaments. Carbon fibre (CF) additives enhance mechanical properties of the materials. The main operational hazard of the FFF technique explored in the literature is the emission of Ultrafine Particles and Volatile Organic Compounds. Exposure data regarding novel materials and larger scale operations is, however, still lacking. In this work, a thorough exposure assessment measurement campaign is presented for a workplace applying FFF 3D printing in various setups (four different commercial devices, including a modified commercial printer) and applying various materials (polylactic acid, thermoplastic polyurethane, copolyamide, polyethylene terephthalate glycol) and CF-reinforced thermoplastics (thermoplastic polyurethane, polylactic acid, polyamide). Portable exposure assessment instruments are employed, based on an established methodology, to study the airborne particle exposure potential of each process setup. The results revealed a distinct exposure profile for each process, necessitating a different safety approach per setup. Crucially, high potential for exposure is detected in processes with two printers working simultaneously. An updated engineering control scheme is applied to control exposures for the modified commercial printer. The establishment of a flexible safety system is vital for workplaces that apply FFF 3D printing.
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Li L, Xu Y, Li S, Zhang X, Feng H, Dai Y, Zhao J, Yue T. Molecular modeling of nanoplastic transformations in alveolar fluid and impacts on the lung surfactant film. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2022; 427:127872. [PMID: 34862107 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.127872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 11/18/2021] [Accepted: 11/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Airborne nanoplastics can be inhaled to threaten human health, but research on the inhaled nanoplastic toxicity is in its infancy, and interaction mechanisms are largely unknown. By means of molecular dynamics simulation, we employed spherical nanoplastics of different materials and aging properties to predict and elucidate nanoplastic transformations in alveolar fluid and impacts on the lung surfactant (LS) film at the alveolar air-water interface. Results showed spontaneous adsorption of LS molecules on nanoplastics of 10 nm in diameter, and the adsorption layer can be defined as coronas, which increased the particle size, reduced and equalized the surface hydrophobicity, and endowed nanoplastics with negative surface charges. Nanoplastics of polypropylene and polyvinylchloride materials were dissolved by LS, which could increase bioavailability of polymers and toxic additives. Aging properties represented by the nanoplastic size, polymer's molecular weight and surface chemistry altered nanoplastic transformations through modulating competition between polymer-LS and polymer-polymer interactions. Upon transferred to the alveolar air-water interface through vesicle fusion, nanoplastics could interfere with the normal biophysical function of LS through disrupting the LS ultrastructure and fluidity, and prompting collapse of the LS film. These results provide new molecular level insights into fate and toxicity of airborne nanoplastics in human respiratory system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingzhi Li
- College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Yan Xu
- College of Electronic Engineering and Automation, Shandong University of Science and Technology, Qingdao 266590, China
| | - Shixin Li
- Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-product Safety of the Ministry of Education, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, China
| | - Xiaoyang Zhang
- College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Hao Feng
- College of Chemical Engineering, China University of Petroleum (East China), Qingdao 266580, China
| | - Yanhui Dai
- Institute of Coastal Environmental Pollution Control, Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China
| | - Jian Zhao
- Institute of Coastal Environmental Pollution Control, Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China
| | - Tongtao Yue
- Institute of Coastal Environmental Pollution Control, Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology, Ministry of Education, Ocean University of China, Qingdao 266100, China; Laboratory for Marine Ecology and Environmental Science, Qingdao National Laboratory for Marine Science and Technology, Qingdao 266237, China.
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Tedla G, Jarabek AM, Byrley P, Boyes W, Rogers K. Human exposure to metals in consumer-focused fused filament fabrication (FFF)/ 3D printing processes. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 814:152622. [PMID: 34963600 PMCID: PMC8961686 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.152622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2021] [Revised: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/19/2021] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Fused filament fabrication (FFF) or 3D printing is a growing technology used in industry, cottage industry and for consumer applications. Low-cost 3D printing devices have become increasingly popular among children and teens. Consequently, 3D printers are increasingly common in households, schools, and libraries. Because the operation of 3D printers is associated with the release of inhalable particles and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), there are concerns of possible health implications, particularly for use in schools and residential environments that may not have adequate ventilation such as classrooms bedrooms and garages, etc. Along with the growing consumer market for low-cost printers and printer pens, there is also an expanding market for a range of specialty filaments with additives such as inorganic colorants, metal particles and nanomaterials as well as metal-containing flame retardants, antioxidants, heat stabilizers and catalysts. Inhalation of particulate-associated metals may represent a health risk depending on both the metal and internal dose to the respiratory tract. Little has been reported, however, about the presence, speciation, and source of metals in the emissions; or likewise the effect of metals on emission processes and toxicological implications of these 3D printer generated emissions. This report evaluates various issues including the following: metals in feedstock with a focus on filament characteristics and function of metals; the effect of metals on the emissions and metals detected in emissions; printer emissions, particle formation, transport, and transformation; exposure and translation to internal dose; and potential toxicity on inhaled dose. Finally, data gaps and potential areas of future research are discussed within these contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Getachew Tedla
- Watershed and Ecosystem Characterization Division, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, USEPA, RTP, NC 27711, United States of America
| | - Annie M Jarabek
- Health and Environmental Effects Assessment Division, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, USEPA, RTP, NC 27711, United States of America
| | - Peter Byrley
- Health and Environmental Effects Assessment Division, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, USEPA, RTP, NC 27711, United States of America
| | - William Boyes
- Public Health and Integrated Toxicology Division, Center for Public Health and Environmental Assessment, USEPA, RTP, NC 27711, United States of America
| | - Kim Rogers
- Watershed and Ecosystem Characterization Division, Center for Environmental Measurement and Modeling, USEPA, RTP, NC 27711, United States of America.
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Kim B, Shin JH, Kim HP, Jo MS, Kim HS, Lee JS, Lee HK, Kwon HC, Han SG, Kang N, Gulumian M, Bello D, Yu IJ. On-Site Deployment of an Air-Liquid-Interphase Device to Assess Health Hazard Potency of Airborne Workplace Contaminants: The Case of 3-D Printers. FRONTIERS IN TOXICOLOGY 2022; 4:818942. [PMID: 35399295 PMCID: PMC8990836 DOI: 10.3389/ftox.2022.818942] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2021] [Accepted: 01/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Biomonitoring of workers is an approach of evaluating workers’ exposure to chemicals and particulate matter by measuring biomarkers of parent chemicals, their metabolites, and reaction products in workers’ biospecimens. Prerequisites for biological monitoring in the workplace include permission to enter the workplace, approval of the study plan from the IRB (Institutional Review Board), and obtaining consent from workers. Because of the complex legal process involved in biomonitoring, few studies have been conducted so far on biomonitoring of workers’ exposures to nanoparticles and other hazards from emerging materials and advanced nanotechnologies. We have developed a cell-based biomonitoring device that can evaluate acute cytotoxicity and various other effect biomakers, such as inflammation, at realistic workplace exposure. This device is based on air–liquid interphase (ALI) and can be used to evaluate cell toxicity and early effect biomarkers along adverse outcome pathways. Following exposure of A549 lung epithelial cells in ALI to workplace air for 1–2 h, the cells were processed to assess the induction of inflammatory and cell damage biomarkers. Initially, we estimated the deposition rate of nanoparticles in the transwell by exposing the cell-free ALI device to silver nanoparticle aerosols (AgNP 20–30 nm) for 2 h in the laboratory. Then A549 lung epithelial cells cultured on the transwell in the ALI device were exposed to AgNP nanoaerosols for 2 h and evaluated for cytotoxicity and induction of mRNAs of pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-1b, IL-6, and TNF-α. Then the cells in the ALI device were exposed to 3-D printer emissions at the workplace and evaluated for the same matched endpoints. The mRNA levels for IL-1b, IL-6, and TNF-α increased significantly at the end of 2-h exposure of A549 cells to the positive control AgNP aerosols. These mRNAs, as well as LDH and microprotein concentrations, increased even more after 24-h post-exposure incubation (p < 0.05). Cytotoxicity evaluation of 3-D printer emissions at 810 and 957 μg/m3, which was more than 80 times higher than the airborne total suspended particulate concentrations in the workplace air (9–12.5 μg/m3), suggested no significant acute cytotoxicity at the end of 2-h exposure to 3-D-printing emission, as well as at 24-h post-exposure incubation. Hyperspectral microscopic observation showed that 3-D printers emitted particles to be attached to A549 cells after 2-h exposure, and many particles were internalized by A549 cells after 24 h of post-exposure incubation. The mRNA expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine IL-1b and IL-6 increased significantly after 2-h exposure to 3-D printer emissions and after 24-h incubation (only IL-6). In contrast, the expression of TNF-α mRNA decreased significantly after 2 h of exposure to 3-D printers and decreased even more after 24-h post-exposure incubation. These results support the use of cell-based ALI devices for direct assessment of airborne hazards in the workplace, for probing toxicological properties of airborne contaminants using adverse molecular pathways, and for guiding study design for workplace biomonitoring. ALI devices can bridge conventional exposure assessment with cellular toxicity testing platforms for hazard and risk assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boowook Kim
- Institute of Health and Environment, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
- Institute of Occupation and Environment, KCOMWEL, Incheon, Korea
| | - Jae Hoon Shin
- Institute of Occupation and Environment, KCOMWEL, Incheon, Korea
| | - Hoi Pin Kim
- Aerosol Toxicology Research Center, HCTm, Icheon, Korea
| | - Mi Seong Jo
- Aerosol Toxicology Research Center, HCTm, Icheon, Korea
| | - Hee Sang Kim
- Aerosol Toxicology Research Center, HCTm, Icheon, Korea
| | - Jong Sung Lee
- Institute of Occupation and Environment, KCOMWEL, Incheon, Korea
| | - Hong Ku Lee
- Aerosol Toxicology Research Center, HCTm, Icheon, Korea
| | - Hyuk Cheol Kwon
- Toxicology Laboratory, Sanghuh College of Life Science, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sung Gu Han
- Toxicology Laboratory, Sanghuh College of Life Science, Konkuk University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Noeul Kang
- Division of Allergy, Department of Medicine, Samsung Medical Center, Sungkyunkwan University School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Mary Gulumian
- Haematology and Molecular Medicine, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Water Research Group, Unit for Environmental Sciences and Management, North West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
| | - Dhimiter Bello
- Department of Biomedical and Nutritional Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Lowell, MA, United States
| | - Il Je Yu
- HCT. Co., Icheon, Korea
- *Correspondence: Il Je Yu,
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Zhang Q, Davis AY, Black MS. Emissions and Chemical Exposure Potentials from Stereolithography Vat Polymerization 3D Printing and Post-processing Units. ACS CHEMICAL HEALTH & SAFETY 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.chas.2c00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Qian Zhang
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, Georgia 30067, United States
| | - Aika Y. Davis
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, Georgia 30067, United States
| | - Marilyn S. Black
- Chemical Insights Research Institute, Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Marietta, Georgia 30067, United States
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Saidulu D, Srivastava A, Gupta AK. Enhancement of wastewater treatment performance using 3D printed structures: A major focus on material composition, performance, challenges, and sustainable assessment. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2022; 306:114461. [PMID: 35032942 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2022.114461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Revised: 12/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/04/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
In order to enhance the performance and sustainability of wastewater treatment technologies, researchers are showing keen interest in the development of novel materials which can overcome the drawbacks associated with conventional materials. In this context, 3D printing gained significant attention due to its capability of fabricating complex geometrics using different material compositions. The present review focuses on recent advancements of 3D printing applications in various physicochemical and biological wastewater treatment techniques. In physicochemical treatment methods, substantial research has been aimed at fabricating feed spacers and other membrane parts, photocatalytic feed spacers, catalysts, scaffolds, monoliths, and capsules. Several advantages, such as membrane fouling mitigation, enhanced degradation efficiency, and recovery and reusability potential, have been associated with the aforementioned 3D printed materials. While in biofilm-based biological treatment methods, the use of 3D printed bio-carriers has led to enhanced mass transfer efficiency and microbial activities. Moreover, the application of these bio-carriers has shown better removal efficiency of chemical oxygen demand (∼90%), total nitrogen (∼73%), ammonia nitrogen (95%), and total phosphorous (∼100%). Although the removal efficiencies were comparable with conventional carriers, 3D printed carriers led to ∼40% reduction in hydraulic retention time, which could significantly save capital and operational expenditures. This review also emphasizes the challenges and sustainability aspects of 3D printing technology and outlines future recommendations which could be vital for further research in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duduku Saidulu
- Environmental Engineering Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Ashish Srivastava
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India
| | - Ashok Kumar Gupta
- Environmental Engineering Division, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, 721302, India.
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Characterization of Emissions in Fab Labs: An Additive Manufacturing Environment Issue. SUSTAINABILITY 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/su14052900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The emergence of additive manufacturing (AM) technologies, such as 3D printing and laser cutting, has created opportunities for new design practices covering a wide range of fields and a diversity of learning and teaching settings. The potential health impact of particulate matter and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) emitted from AM technologies is, therefore, a growing concern for makers. The research behind this paper addresses this issue by applying an indoor air quality assessment protocol in an educational fabrication laboratory. The paper presents the evaluation of the particle emission rate of different AM technologies. Real-time monitoring of multiple three-dimensional Polylactic Acid (PLA), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS) and Thermoplastic Elastomers (TPE) printers and Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) laser cutters was performed in different usage scenarios. Non-contact electrical detectors and off-line gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) were used to detect VOCs. The results show that the emitted particle surface area concentrations vary between 294 and 406.2 μm2/cm3 for three-dimensional printers, and between 55.06 and 92.3 μm2/cm3 for laser cutters. The experiments demonstrate that the emission concentrations were highly dependent on the filtration systems in place. The highest quantities of VOCs emitted included Cyclohexene and Benzyl Alcohol for PLA, ABS and TPE 3D printers, and formic acid and Xylene for PMMA laser cutters. The experiment concludes that signature emissions are detectable for a given material type and an AM technology pair. A suitable mitigation strategy can be specified for each signature detected. Finally, this paper outlines some guidelines for improving indoor air quality in such specific environments. The data provided, as well as the proposed indoor air quality protocol, can be used as a baseline for future studies, and thus help to determine whether the proposed strategies can enhance operator and bystander safety.
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Qian X, Ostwal M, Asatekin A, Geise GM, Smith ZP, Phillip WA, Lively RP, McCutcheon JR. A critical review and commentary on recent progress of additive manufacturing and its impact on membrane technology. J Memb Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.memsci.2021.120041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Tang CL, Seeger S. Systematic ranking of filaments regarding their particulate emissions during fused filament fabrication 3D printing by means of a proposed standard test method. INDOOR AIR 2022; 32:e13010. [PMID: 35347793 DOI: 10.1111/ina.13010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 02/17/2022] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The diversity of fused filament fabrication (FFF) filaments continues to grow rapidly as the popularity of FFF-3D desktop printers for the use as home fabrication devices has been greatly increased in the past decade. Potential harmful emissions and associated health risks when operating indoors have induced many emission studies. However, the lack of standardization of measurements impeded an objectifiable comparison of research findings. Therefore, we designed a chamber-based standard method, i.e., the strand printing method (SPM), which provides a standardized printing procedure and quantifies systematically the particle emission released from individual FFF-3D filaments under controlled conditions. Forty-four marketable filament products were tested. The total number of emitted particles (TP) varied by approximately four orders of magnitude (109 ≤ TP ≤ 1013 ), indicating that origin of polymers, manufacturer-specific additives, and undeclared impurities have a strong influence. Our results suggest that TP characterizes an individual filament product and particle emissions cannot be categorized by the polymer type (e.g., PLA or ABS) alone. The user's choice of a filament product is therefore decisive for the exposure to released particles during operation. Thus, choosing a filament product awarded for low emissions seems to be an easily achievable preemptive measure to prevent health hazards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chi-Long Tang
- Division 4.2 - Materials and Air Pollutants, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Berlin, Germany
| | - Stefan Seeger
- Division 4.2 - Materials and Air Pollutants, Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Berlin, Germany
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