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Liang Z, Guo Y, Sharma A, McCurdy CR, Prentice BM. Multimodal Image Fusion Workflow Incorporating MALDI Imaging Mass Spectrometry and Microscopy for the Study of Small Pharmaceutical Compounds. Anal Chem 2024. [PMID: 38982936 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.4c01553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/11/2024]
Abstract
Multimodal imaging analyses of dosed tissue samples can provide more comprehensive insights into the effects of a therapeutically active compound on a target tissue compared to single-modal imaging. For example, simultaneous spatial mapping of pharmaceutical compounds and endogenous macromolecule receptors is difficult to achieve in a single imaging experiment. Herein, we present a multimodal workflow combining imaging mass spectrometry with immunohistochemistry (IHC) fluorescence imaging and brightfield microscopy imaging. Imaging mass spectrometry enables direct mapping of pharmaceutical compounds and metabolites, IHC fluorescence imaging can visualize large proteins, and brightfield microscopy imaging provides tissue morphology information. Single-cell resolution images are generally difficult to acquire using imaging mass spectrometry but are readily acquired with IHC fluorescence and brightfield microscopy imaging. Spatial sharpening of mass spectrometry images would thus allow for higher fidelity coregistration with other higher-resolution microscopy images. Imaging mass spectrometry spatial resolution can be predicted to a finer value via a computational image fusion workflow, which models the relationship between the intensity values in the mass spectrometry image and the features of a high-spatial resolution microscopy image. As a proof of concept, our multimodal workflow was applied to brain tissue extracted from a Sprague-Dawley rat dosed with a kratom alkaloid, corynantheidine. Four candidate mathematical models, including linear regression, partial least-squares regression, random forest regression, and two-dimensional convolutional neural network (2-D CNN), were tested. The random forest and 2-D CNN models most accurately predicted the intensity values at each pixel as well as the overall patterns of the mass spectrometry images, while also providing the best spatial resolution enhancements. Herein, image fusion enabled predicted mass spectrometry images of corynantheidine, GABA, and glutamine to approximately 2.5 μm spatial resolutions, a significant improvement compared to the original images acquired at 25 μm spatial resolution. The predicted mass spectrometry images were then coregistered with an H&E image and IHC fluorescence image of the μ-opioid receptor to assess colocalization of corynantheidine with brain cells. Our study also provides insights into the different evaluation parameters to consider when utilizing image fusion for biological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongling Liang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Yingchan Guo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Boone M Prentice
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
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Liang Z, Guo Y, Ellin N, King TI, Berthold EC, Mukhopadhyay S, Sharma A, McCurdy CR, Prentice BM. Formation of multiple ion types during MALDI imaging mass spectrometry analysis of Mitragyna speciosa alkaloids in dosed rat brain tissue. Talanta 2024; 274:125923. [PMID: 38569366 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.125923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2024] [Revised: 03/08/2024] [Accepted: 03/13/2024] [Indexed: 04/05/2024]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa, more commonly known as kratom, has emerged as an alternative to treat chronic pain and addiction. However, the alkaloid components of kratom, which are the major contributors to kratom's pharmaceutical properties, have not yet been fully investigated. In this study, matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) imaging mass spectrometry was used to map the biodistribution of three alkaloids (corynantheidine, mitragynine, and speciogynine) in rat brain tissues. The alkaloids produced three main ion types during MALDI analysis: [M + H]+, [M - H]+, and [M - 3H]+. Contrary to previous reports suggesting that the [M - H]+ and [M - 3H]+ ion types form during laser ablation, these ion types can also be produced during the MALDI matrix application process. Several strategies are proposed to accurately map the biodistribution of the alkaloids. Due to differences in the relative abundances of the ions in different biological regions of the tissue, differences in ionization efficiencies of the ions, and potential overlap of the [M - H]+ and [M - 3H]+ ion types with endogenous metabolites of the same empirical formula, a matrix that mainly produces the [M + H]+ ion type is optimal for accurate mapping of the alkaloids. Alternatively, the most abundant ion type can be mapped or the intensities of all ion types can be summed together to generate a composite image. The accuracy of each of these approaches is explored and validated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongling Liang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Yingchan Guo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Nicholas Ellin
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Tamara I King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Sushobhan Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Boone M Prentice
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA.
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Yang Y, Müller CP, Singh D. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) Use and Mental Health: A Systematic Review and Multilevel Meta-Analysis. Eur Addict Res 2024:1-22. [PMID: 38889703 DOI: 10.1159/000539338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2024] [Indexed: 06/20/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a medicinal tree native to Southeast Asia. The present multilevel meta-analysis describes the association between kratom use and the positive and negative indicators of mental health. METHODS A total of thirty-six articles were included in the meta-analysis to examine the associations, using a random-effects model. RESULTS The pooled effect size showed a very small positive association between kratom use and negative indicators of mental health {r = 0.092, 95% confidence interval (CI) = [0.020, 0.164], p < 0.05}, while no significant association was found with positive indicators of mental health (r = -0.031, 95% CI = [-0.149, 0.087], p > 0.05). Pooled effect sizes of specific mental health outcomes indicated that kratom use showed only a small positive correlation with externalizing disorders (r = 0.201, 95% CI = [0.107, 0.300], p < 0.001). No significant association was found between kratom use and quality of life (r = 0.069, 95% CI = [-0.104, 0.242], p > 0.05) and internalizing disorders (r = -0.001, 95% CI = [-0.115, 0.095], p > 0.05). Multilevel moderator analysis showed that the pooled effect size of the association between kratom use and substance use disorder was stronger in Malaysia (r = 0.347, 95% CI = [0.209, 0.516], p < 0.001), and with the mean age (β1 = -0.035, 95% CI = [-0.055, -0.014], p = 0.003), and the drug profile of those who were not co-using other drugs (r = 0.347, 95% CI = [0.209, 0.516], p < 0.001). CONCLUSION The meta-analysis supports the kratom instrumentalization concept, in that a positive gain from kratom consumption can be achieved without any significant adverse associations with mental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuting Yang
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | - Christian P Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
- Institute of Psychopharmacology, Central Institute of Mental Health, Faculty of Medicine Mannheim, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
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Karunakaran T, Vicknasingam B, Chawarski MC. Phytochemical analysis of water and ethanol liquid extracts prepared using freshly harvested leaves of Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.). Nat Prod Res 2024:1-8. [PMID: 38842220 DOI: 10.1080/14786419.2024.2362428] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Accepted: 05/27/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa, also known as kratom, has been reported to have a broad range of pharmacological properties. Freshly harvested leaves and their water extracts are consumed in Southeast Asia while preparations made from dried leaf material are consumed in Western countries. Our study evaluated the phytochemical composition of freshly harvested kratom leaves using LCMS/MS analysis of water and ethanol liquid extracts. Mitragynine and its congeners, including 7-hydroxymitragynine, speciocilliatine, speciogynine, paynantheine, as well as bioactive phenolics including chlorogenic acid, o-coumaric acid, quercitrin, and rutin were identified. However, 7-hydroxymitragynine was detected solely in the water-liquid extract. Currently, unknown compounds were also present in the chromatograms and mass spectra. The study results support that 7-hydroxymitragynine is a post-harvest oxidative derivative or metabolite of mitragynine. Further rigorous and comprehensive evaluations of the phytochemical composition of freshly harvested kratom leaves utilising advanced spectrometric methods are needed to establish the full spectrum of phytochemicals within the plant.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Marek C Chawarski
- Departments of Emergency Medicine and Psychiatry, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
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Liang Z, Guo Y, Sharma A, McCurdy CR, Prentice BM. A multi-modal image fusion workflow incorporating MALDI imaging mass spectrometry and microscopy for the study of small pharmaceutical compounds. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.03.12.584673. [PMID: 38559145 PMCID: PMC10980041 DOI: 10.1101/2024.03.12.584673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Multi-modal imaging analyses of dosed tissue samples can provide more comprehensive insight into the effects of a therapeutically active compound on a target tissue compared to single-modal imaging. For example, simultaneous spatial mapping of pharmaceutical compounds and endogenous macromolecule receptors is difficult to achieve in a single imaging experiment. Herein, we present a multi-modal workflow combining imaging mass spectrometry with immunohistochemistry (IHC) fluorescence imaging and brightfield microscopy imaging. Imaging mass spectrometry enables direct mapping of pharmaceutical compounds and metabolites, IHC fluorescence imaging can visualize large proteins, and brightfield microscopy imaging provides tissue morphology information. Single-cell resolution images are generally difficult to acquire using imaging mass spectrometry, but are readily acquired with IHC fluorescence and brightfield microscopy imaging. Spatial sharpening of mass spectrometry images would thus allow for higher fidelity co-registration with higher resolution microscopy images. Imaging mass spectrometry spatial resolution can be predicted to a finer value via a computational image fusion workflow, which models the relationship between the intensity values in the mass spectrometry image and the features of a high spatial resolution microscopy image. As a proof of concept, our multi-modal workflow was applied to brain tissue extracted from a Sprague Dawley rat dosed with a kratom alkaloid, corynantheidine. Four candidate mathematical models including linear regression, partial least squares regression (PLS), random forest regression, and two-dimensional convolutional neural network (2-D CNN), were tested. The random forest and 2-D CNN models most accurately predicted the intensity values at each pixel as well as the overall patterns of the mass spectrometry images, while also providing the best spatial resolution enhancements. Herein, image fusion enabled predicted mass spectrometry images of corynantheidine, GABA, and glutamine to approximately 2.5 μm spatial resolutions, a significant improvement compared to the original images acquired at 25 μm spatial resolution. The predicted mass spectrometry images were then co-registered with an H&E image and IHC fluorescence image of the μ-opioid receptor to assess co-localization of corynantheidine with brain cells. Our study also provides insight into the different evaluation parameters to consider when utilizing image fusion for biological applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongling Liang
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - Yingchan Guo
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610
| | - Boone M. Prentice
- Department of Chemistry, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611
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Smith KE, Rogers JM, Sharma A, McCurdy CR, Weiss ST, Dunn KE, Feldman JD, Kuntz MA, Mukhopadhyay S, Raju KSR, Taylor RC, Epstein DH. Responses to a "Typical" Morning Dose of Kratom in People Who Use Kratom Regularly: A Direct-Observation Study. J Addict Med 2024; 18:144-152. [PMID: 38174871 PMCID: PMC10939942 DOI: 10.1097/adm.0000000000001259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Use of kratom has outpaced systematic study of its effects, with most studies reliant on retrospective self-report. METHODS We aimed to assess acute effects following kratom use in adults who use regularly, and quantify alkaloids in the products, urine, and plasma. Between July and November 2022, 10 adults came to our clinic and orally self-administered their typical kratom dose; blinding procedures were not used. Physiological measures included blood pressure, respiratory rate, heart rate, pulse oximetry, temperature, and pupil diameter. Subjective outcomes included Subjective Opioid Withdrawal Scale, Addiction Research Center Inventory, and Drug Effects Questionnaire. Psychomotor performance was also assessed. RESULTS Participants were 6 men and 4 women, mean age 41.2 years. Nine were non-Hispanic White; 1 was biracial. They had used kratom for 6.6 years (SD, 3.8 years) on average (2.0-14.1). Sessions were 190.89 minutes on average (SD, 15.10 minutes). Mean session dose was 5.16 g (median, 4.38 g; range, 1.1-10.9 g) leaf powder. Relative to baseline, physiological changes were minor. However, pupil diameter decreased (right, b = -0.70, P < 0.01; left, b = -0.73, P < 0.01) 40-80 minutes postdose and remained below baseline >160 minutes. Subjective Opioid Withdrawal Scale pre-dosing was mild (5.5 ± 3.3) and decreased postdose (b = [-4.0, -2.9], P < 0.01). Drug Effects Questionnaire "feeling effects" increased to 40/100 (SD, 30.5) within 40 minutes and remained above baseline 80 to 120 minutes (b = 19.0, P = 0.04), peaking at 72.7/100; 6 participants rated euphoria as mild on the Addiction Research Center Inventory Morphine-Benzedrine-scale. Psychomotor performance did not reliably improve or deteriorate postdosing. CONCLUSIONS Among regular consumers, we found few clinically significant differences pre- and post-kratom dosing. Alkaloidal contents in products were within expected ranges.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E. Smith
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jeffrey M. Rogers
- San Diego State University/University of California San Diego Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, CA, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Stephanie T. Weiss
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kelly E. Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jeffrey D. Feldman
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Michelle A. Kuntz
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Sushobhan Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Kanumuri Siva Rama Raju
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Richard C. Taylor
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David H. Epstein
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
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Nam Y, Tam AT, Miller ER, Scheidt KA. A Platform for the Synthesis of Corynantheine-Type Corynanthe Alkaloids. J Am Chem Soc 2024; 146:118-124. [PMID: 38153983 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.3c12556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2023]
Abstract
Corynantheine-type alkaloids are major components of the Mitragyna speciosa, also known as kratom, that exhibit unique pharmacological activity. However, no universal method to prepare these alkaloids has been reported. Disclosed herein is a catalytic, asymmetric platform that enables rapid access to corynantheine alkaloids. The first enantioselective total synthesis of (-)-corynantheidine pseudoindoxyl is described. The first asymmetric syntheses of (+)-corynoxine and (-)-corynoxine B were also achieved, along with enantioselective syntheses of (-)-corynantheidol and (-)-corynantheidine. Through this work, all series of corynantheine alkaloids including indole, spirooxindole, and pseudoindoxyl can now be accessed in the laboratory, enabling comprehensive biological investigation of kratom alkaloids to be undertaken.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunchan Nam
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Anthony T Tam
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Eric R Miller
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
| | - Karl A Scheidt
- Department of Chemistry, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road, Evanston, Illinois 60208, United States
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Bowe A, Kerr PL. Endogenous Opioid Activity as the Mechanism of Action for Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom): The Current State of the Evidence. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2024; 35:287-313. [PMID: 38874729 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-45493-6_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a substance derived from botanical compounds native to Southeast Asia. This substance has been cultivated predominantly in Thailand, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Myanmar, where it has historically been used in traditional medicine as a near panacea for several health problems. Such ritualistic use of kratom has been present for centuries; however, recreational use appears to have increased globally, especially in the United States. Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic studies have found that kratom demonstrates a unique parabolic, dose-dependent pattern of effects ranging from stimulation to opioid and analgesic effects. Pharmacological research indicates that kratom is both a mu opioid receptor (μ-OR; MOR) and a kappa opioid receptor (κ-OR; KOR) agonist, which mediates its analgesic effects. Other research suggests that kratom may simultaneously act on dopaminergic and serotonergic receptors, which mediate its stimulant effects. This chapter reviews the literature related to the structural, functional, and cultural characteristics of kratom use. We begin with an overview of current and historical patterns of kratom, followed by a review of data on the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of kratom thus far.
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MESH Headings
- Mitragyna
- Humans
- Plant Extracts/pharmacology
- Animals
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/metabolism
- Receptors, Opioid, kappa/agonists
- Analgesics, Opioid/pharmacology
- Analgesics, Opioid/therapeutic use
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/metabolism
- Receptors, Opioid, mu/agonists
- Asia, Southeastern
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Affiliation(s)
- Adina Bowe
- West Virginia University School of Medicine-Charleston, Charleston, WV, USA.
| | - Patrick L Kerr
- West Virginia University School of Medicine-Charleston, Charleston, WV, USA
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Hossain R, Sultana A, Nuinoon M, Noonong K, Tangpong J, Hossain KH, Rahman MA. A Critical Review of the Neuropharmacological Effects of Kratom: An Insight from the Functional Array of Identified Natural Compounds. Molecules 2023; 28:7372. [PMID: 37959790 PMCID: PMC10648626 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28217372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2023] [Revised: 10/19/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth. Havil) has been considered a narcotic drug for years, barred by the law in many parts of the world, while extensive research over the past few decades proves its several beneficial effects, some of which are still in ambiguity. In many countries, including Thailand, the indiscriminate use and abuse of kratom have led to the loss of life. Nonetheless, researchers have isolated almost fifty pure compounds from kratom, most of which are alkaloids. The most prevalent compounds, mitragynine and 7-hydroxy mitragynine, are reported to display agonist morphine-like effects on human μ-opioid receptors and antagonists at κ- and δ-opioid receptors with multimodal effects at other central receptors. Mitragynine is also credited to be one of the modulatory molecules for the Keap1-Nrf2 pathway and SOD, CAT, GST, and associated genes' upregulatory cascades, leading it to play a pivotal role in neuroprotective actions while evidently causing neuronal disorders at high doses. Additionally, its anti-inflammatory, antioxidative, antibacterial, and gastroprotective effects are well-cited. In this context, this review focuses on the research gap to resolve ambiguities about the neuronal effects of kratom and demonstrate its prospects as a therapeutic target for neurological disorders associated with other pharmacological effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rahni Hossain
- School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Graduate Studies, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand; (R.H.); (M.N.); (K.N.)
- Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Product (RECIHP), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Abida Sultana
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh;
| | - Manit Nuinoon
- School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Graduate Studies, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand; (R.H.); (M.N.); (K.N.)
- Hematology and Transfusion Science Research Center, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Kunwadee Noonong
- School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Graduate Studies, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand; (R.H.); (M.N.); (K.N.)
- Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Product (RECIHP), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Jitbanjong Tangpong
- School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Graduate Studies, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand; (R.H.); (M.N.); (K.N.)
- Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Product (RECIHP), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
| | - Kazi Helal Hossain
- Angiogenesis and Brain Development Laboratory, Department of Neurosciences, Huntington Medical Research Institutes (HMRI), Pasadena, CA 91105, USA;
| | - Md Atiar Rahman
- School of Allied Health Sciences, College of Graduate Studies, Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand; (R.H.); (M.N.); (K.N.)
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, University of Chittagong, Chittagong 4331, Bangladesh;
- Research Excellence Center for Innovation and Health Product (RECIHP), Walailak University, Nakhon Si Thammarat 80160, Thailand
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Hassan Z, Singh D, Suhaimi FW, Chear NJY, Harun N, See CP, Kaur G, Mat NH, Bakar SNS, Yusof NSM, Kasinather VB, Chawarski MC, Murugaiyah V, Ramanathan S. Evaluation of toxicity profile of kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth) decoction in rats. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2023; 143:105466. [PMID: 37536550 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2023.105466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2023] [Revised: 07/22/2023] [Accepted: 07/31/2023] [Indexed: 08/05/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa Korth also known as kratom, is an herbal drug preparation for its therapeutic properties and opioid-replacement therapy. Kratom is consumed in a brewed decoction form in Malaysia and to date, no studies have characterized its chemical and toxicity profile. Thus, this study aims to evaluate kratom decoction's safety and toxicity profile after 28 days of treatment. Mitragynine content was quantified in kratom decoction and used as a marker to determine the concentration. Male and female Sprague Dawley rats were orally treated with vehicle or kratom decoction (10, 50 or 150 mg/kg) and two satellite groups were treated with vehicle and kratom decoction (150 mg/kg). Blood and organs were collected for hematology, biochemical and histopathology analysis at the end of treatment. No mortality was found after 28 days of treatment and no significant changes in body weight and hematology profile, except for low platelet count. High amounts of uric acid, AST, ALT and alkaline phosphatase were found in the biochemical analysis. Histological investigation of the heart and lungs detected no alterations except for the kidney, liver and brain tissues. In conclusion, repeated administration of kratom decoction provided some evidence of toxicity in the kidney and liver with no occurrence of mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | | | | | - Norsyifa Harun
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Cheah Pike See
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine & Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400, Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Gurjeet Kaur
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine (INFORMM), Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, USM, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Noorul Hamizah Mat
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | | | | | | | - Marek C Chawarski
- Departments of Psychiatry and Emergency Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Vikneswaran Murugaiyah
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia; Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Surash Ramanathan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800, Penang, Malaysia
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Citti C, Laganà A, Capriotti AL, Montone CM, Cannazza G. Kratom: The analytical challenge of an emerging herbal drug. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1703:464094. [PMID: 37262932 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa or kratom is emerging worldwide as a "legal" herbal drug of abuse. An increasing number of papers is appearing in the scientific literature regarding its pharmacological profile and the analysis of its chemical constituents, mainly represented by alkaloids. However, its detection and identification are not straightforward as the plant material is not particularly distinctive. Hyphenated techniques are generally preferred for the identification and quantification of these compounds, especially the main purported psychoactive substances, mitragynine (MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG), in raw and commercial products. Considering the vast popularity of this recreational drug and the growing concern about its safety, the analysis of alkaloids in biological specimens is also of great importance for forensic and toxicological laboratories. The review addresses the analytical aspects of kratom spanning the extraction techniques used to isolate the alkaloids, the qualitative and quantitative analytical methods and the strategies for the distinction of the naturally occurring isomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Citti
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, Lecce 73100, Italy.
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Anna Laura Capriotti
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Carmela Maria Montone
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, Modena 41125, Italy.
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12
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Laforest LC, Kuntz MA, Kanumuri SRR, Mukhopadhyay S, Sharma A, O'Connor SE, McCurdy CR, Nadakuduti SS. Metabolite and Molecular Characterization of Mitragyna speciosa Identifies Developmental and Genotypic Effects on Monoterpene Indole and Oxindole Alkaloid Composition. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2023; 86:1042-1052. [PMID: 36913648 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.3c00092] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The monoterpene indole alkaloid (MIA) mitragynine has garnered attention as a potential treatment for pain, opioid use disorder, and opioid withdrawal because of its combined pharmacology at opioid and adrenergic receptors in humans. This alkaloid is unique to Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), which accumulates over 50 MIAs and oxindole alkaloids in its leaves. Quantification of 10 targeted alkaloids from several tissue types and cultivars of M. speciosa revealed that mitragynine accumulation was highest in leaves, followed by stipules and stems, but was absent, along with other alkaloids, in roots. While mitragynine is the predominant alkaloid in mature leaves, juvenile leaves accumulate higher amounts of corynantheidine and speciociliatine. Interestingly, corynantheidine has an inverse relationship with mitragynine accumulation throughout leaf development. Characterization of various cultivars of M. speciosa indicated altered alkaloidal profiles ranging from undetectable to high levels of mitragynine. DNA barcoding and phylogenetic analysis using ribosomal ITS sequences revealed polymorphisms leading M. speciosa cultivars having lower mitragynine content to group with other mitragyna species, suggesting interspecific hybridization events. Root transcriptome analysis of low- and high-mitragynine-producing cultivars indicated significant differences in gene expression and revealed allelic variation, further supporting that hybridization events may have impacted the alkaloid profile of M. speciosa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Larissa C Laforest
- Plant Molecular and Cell Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Michelle A Kuntz
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Siva Rama Raju Kanumuri
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Sushobhan Mukhopadhyay
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Sarah E O'Connor
- Department of Natural Product Biosynthesis, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Straße 8, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
| | - Satya Swathi Nadakuduti
- Plant Molecular and Cell Biology Program, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, United States
- Department of Environmental Horticulture, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32606, United States
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13
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Mukhopadhyay S, Gupta S, Wilkerson JL, Sharma A, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR. Receptor Selectivity and Therapeutic Potential of Kratom in Substance Use Disorders. CURRENT ADDICTION REPORTS 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s40429-023-00472-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/31/2023]
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14
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Bodnar RJ. Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2021. Peptides 2023; 164:171004. [PMID: 36990387 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2023.171004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2023] [Revised: 03/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/23/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023]
Abstract
This paper is the forty-fourth consecutive installment of the annual anthological review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system, summarizing articles published during 2021 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides and receptors as well as effects of opioid/opiate agonizts and antagonists. The review is subdivided into the following specific topics: molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors (1), the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia in animals (2) and humans (3), opioid-sensitive and opioid-insensitive effects of nonopioid analgesics (4), opioid peptide and receptor involvement in tolerance and dependence (5), stress and social status (6), learning and memory (7), eating and drinking (8), drug abuse and alcohol (9), sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (10), mental illness and mood (11), seizures and neurologic disorders (12), electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (13), general activity and locomotion (14), gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (15), cardiovascular responses (16), respiration and thermoregulation (17), and immunological responses (18).
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Bodnar
- Department of Psychology and Neuropsychology Doctoral Sub-Program, Queens College, City University of New York, CUNY, 65-30 Kissena Blvd., Flushing, NY 11367, USA.
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15
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Chear NJY, Ching-Ga TAF, Khaw KY, León F, Tan WN, Yusof SR, McCurdy CR, Murugaiyah V, Ramanathan S. Natural Corynanthe-Type Cholinesterase Inhibitors from Malaysian Uncaria attenuata Korth.: Isolation, Characterization, In Vitro and In Silico Studies. Metabolites 2023; 13:metabo13030390. [PMID: 36984830 PMCID: PMC10059728 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13030390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 03/01/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The Uncaria genus is notable for its therapeutic potential in treating age-related dementia, such as Alzheimer’s disease. A phytochemical study of the leaves of Malaysian Uncaria attenuata Korth., afforded an undescribed natural corynanthe-type oxindole alkaloid, isovillocarine D (1) together with two known indole alkaloids, villocarine A (2) and geissoschizine methyl ether (3), and their structural identification was performed with extensive mono- and bidimensional NMR and MS spectroscopic methods. The isolated alkaloids were evaluated for their acetylcholinesterase (AChE)- and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE)-inhibitory activity. The results indicated that compound (2) was the most potent inhibitor against both AChE and BChE, with IC50 values of 14.45 and 13.95 µM, respectively, whereas compounds (1) and (3) were selective BChE inhibitors with IC50 values of 35.28 and 17.65 µM, respectively. In addition, molecular docking studies revealed that compound (2) interacts with the five main regions of AChE via both hydrogen and hydrophobic bonding. In contrast to AChE, the interactions of (2) with the enzymatic site of BChE are established only through hydrophobic bonding. The current finding suggests that U. attenuata could be a good source of bioactive alkaloids for treating age-related dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Tan Ai Fein Ching-Ga
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Kooi-Yeong Khaw
- School of Pharmacy, Monash University Malaysia, Bandar Sunway 47500, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29201, USA
| | - Wen-Nee Tan
- Chemistry Section, School of Distance Education, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Siti R. Yusof
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden 11800, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
| | - Vikneswaran Murugaiyah
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden 11800, Penang, Malaysia
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden 11800, Penang, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (V.M.); (S.R.)
| | - Surash Ramanathan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden 11800, Penang, Malaysia
- Correspondence: (V.M.); (S.R.)
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16
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Suhaimi FW, Aznal ANZ, Nor Hazalin NAM, Teh LK, Hassan Z, Salleh MZ. Kratom (M. speciosa) exposure during adolescence caused long-lasting cognitive behavioural deficits associated with perturbated brain metabolism pathways in adult rats. Behav Brain Res 2023; 446:114411. [PMID: 36997094 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2023.114411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/30/2023]
Abstract
Kratom (M. speciosa Korth) is an herbal plant native to Southeast Asia. The leaves have been widely used to alleviate pain and opioid withdrawal symptoms. However, the increasing trend of recreational use of kratom among youth is concerning because substance abuse may render the adolescent brain more susceptible to neuropathological processes, causing dramatic consequences that persist into adulthood. Therefore, the present study aimed to investigate the long-term effects of mitragynine, the main alkaloid and lyophilized kratom decoction (LKD) exposure during adolescence on cognitive behaviours and brain metabolite profiles in adult rats. Adolescent male Sprague-Dawley rats were given mitragynine (3, 10 or 30mg/kg) or LKD orally for 15 consecutive days during postnatal days 31-45 (PND31-45). Behavioural testing was performed during adulthood (PND70-84) and the brains were subjected to metabolomic analysis. The results show that a high dose of mitragynine impaired long-term object recognition memory. Social behaviour and spatial learning were not affected, but both mitragynine and LKD impaired reference memory. Brain metabolomic study revealed several altered metabolic pathways that may be involved in the cognitive behavioural effects of LKD and mitragynine exposure. These pathways include arachidonic acid, taurine and hypotaurine, pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis, and tryptophan metabolism, while the N-isovalerylglycine was identified as the potential biomarker. In summary, adolescent kratom exposure can cause long-lasting cognitive behavioural deficits and alter brain metabolite profiles that are still evident in adulthood. This finding also indicates that the adolescent brain is vulnerable to the impact of early kratom use.
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17
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Sengnon N, Vonghirundecha P, Chaichan W, Juengwatanatrakul T, Onthong J, Kitprasong P, Sriwiriyajan S, Chittrakarn S, Limsuwanchote S, Wungsintaweekul J. Seasonal and Geographic Variation in Alkaloid Content of Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) Havil.) from Thailand. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:949. [PMID: 36840297 PMCID: PMC9966779 DOI: 10.3390/plants12040949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to obtain data on the distribution of alkaloids in kratom plants grown in Thailand. Two collections were performed, covering the southern, central, and northern regions of Thailand and different seasons. The contents of alkaloids, including mitragynine (MG), paynantheine (PAY), and speciogynine (SG), were determined using the validated HPLC method. The 134 samples in the first collection were collected from Nam Phu subdistrict, Ban Na San, Surat Thani, Thailand, during June and October 2019 and January 2020. The maximum mitragynine content was 4.94% w/w in June (late summer), and the minimum content was 0.74% w/w in October (rainy season). To expand the study area after kratom decriminalization, 611 samples were collected in June-August 2021, October-December 2021, and January-April 2022. The accumulation of MG ranged from 0.35 to 3.46% w/w, 0.31 to 2.54% w/w, and 0.48 to 2.81% w/w, respectively. The meteorological data supported the climate's effect on alkaloid production. Soil analysis revealed the importance of Ca and Mg in promoting alkaloid production. Geographical locations played a role in the variation of MG in kratom leaves, but did not affect the color of leaf veins. In conclusion, the present study suggested that the alkaloid content in kratom diverges based on seasonal and geographical origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Narumon Sengnon
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
| | - Phanita Vonghirundecha
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
| | - Wiraphon Chaichan
- Narcotic Crops Survey and Monitoring Institute, Office of the Narcotics Control Board, City Hall, Muang, Chiang Mai 50303, Thailand
| | - Thaweesak Juengwatanatrakul
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ubon Ratchathani University, Warinchamrab District, Ubon Ratchathani 34190, Thailand
| | - Jumpen Onthong
- Agricultural Innovation and Management Division, Faculty of Natural Resources, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus, Songkhla 90110, Thailand
| | - Pongmanat Kitprasong
- Agricultural Innovation and Management Division, Faculty of Natural Resources, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus, Songkhla 90110, Thailand
| | - Somchai Sriwiriyajan
- Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus, Songkhla 90110, Thailand
| | - Somsmorn Chittrakarn
- Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus, Songkhla 90110, Thailand
| | - Supattra Limsuwanchote
- Division of Health and Applied Sciences, Faculty of Science, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus, Songkhla 90110, Thailand
| | - Juraithip Wungsintaweekul
- Department of Pharmacognosy and Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai Campus, Songkhla 90112, Thailand
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18
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Panda SS, Girgis AS, Aziz MN, Bekheit MS. Spirooxindole: A Versatile Biologically Active Heterocyclic Scaffold. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 28:molecules28020618. [PMID: 36677676 PMCID: PMC9861573 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28020618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/01/2023] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Spirooxindoles occupy an important place in heterocyclic chemistry. Many natural spirooxindole-containing compounds have been identified as bio-promising agents. Synthetic analogs have also been synthesized utilizing different pathways. The present article summarizes the recent development of both natural and synthetic spirooxindole-containing compounds prepared from isatin or its derivatives reported in the last five years. The spirooxindoles are categorized based on their mentioned biological properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siva S. Panda
- Department of Chemistry and Physics, Augusta University, Augusta, GA 30912, USA
- Correspondence: or
| | - Adel S. Girgis
- Department of Pesticide Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Marian N. Aziz
- Department of Pesticide Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Mohamed S. Bekheit
- Department of Pesticide Chemistry, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
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19
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Affiliation(s)
- David Love
- United States Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, USA
| | - Nicole S. Jones
- RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA,70113th Street, N.W., Suite 750, Washington, DC, 20005-3967, USA,Corresponding author. RTI International, Applied Justice Research Division, Center for Forensic Sciences, 3040 E. Cornwallis Road, Research Triangle Park, NC, 22709-2194, USA.
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20
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Zul Aznal AN, Mohamad Nor Hazalin NA, Hassan Z, Mat NH, Chear NJY, Teh LK, Salleh MZ, Suhaimi FW. Adolescent kratom exposure affects cognitive behaviours and brain metabolite profiles in Sprague-Dawley rats. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:1057423. [PMID: 36518677 PMCID: PMC9744228 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.1057423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2022] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Adolescence is a critical developmental period during which exposure to psychoactive substances like kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) can cause long-lasting deleterious effects. Here, we evaluated the effects of mitragynine, the main alkaloid of kratom, and lyophilised kratom decoction (LKD) on cognitive behaviours and brain metabolite profiles in adolescent rats. Male Sprague-Dawley rats (Postnatal day, PND31) were given vehicle, morphine (5 mg/kg), mitragynine (3, 10, or 30 mg/kg), or LKD (equivalent dose of 30 mg/kg mitragynine) for 15 consecutive days. Later, a battery of behavioural testing was conducted, brain was extracted and metabolomic analysis was performed using LCMS-QTOF. The results showed that mitragynine did not affect the recognition memory in the novel object recognition task. In the social interaction task, morphine, mitragynine, and LKD caused a marked deficit in social behaviour, while in Morris water maze task, mitragynine and LKD only affected reference memory. Metabolomic analysis revealed distinct metabolite profiles of animals with different treatments. Several pathways that may be involved in the effects of kratom exposure include arachidonic acid, pantothenate and CoA, and tryptophan pathways, with several potential biomarkers identified. These findings suggest that adolescent kratom exposure can cause cognitive behavioural deficits that may be associated with changes in the brain metabolite profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nurul Aqmar Mohamad Nor Hazalin
- Integrative Pharmacogenomics Institute (iPROMISE), Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Selangor, Kampus Puncak Alam, Puncak Alam, Malaysia
| | - Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | - Noorul Hamizah Mat
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | | | - Lay Kek Teh
- Integrative Pharmacogenomics Institute (iPROMISE), Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Selangor, Kampus Puncak Alam, Puncak Alam, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Zaki Salleh
- Integrative Pharmacogenomics Institute (iPROMISE), Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Selangor, Kampus Puncak Alam, Puncak Alam, Malaysia
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21
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Leksungnoen N, Andriyas T, Ngernsaengsaruay C, Uthairatsamee S, Racharak P, Sonjaroon W, Kjelgren R, Pearson BJ, McCurdy CR, Sharma A. Variations in mitragynine content in the naturally growing Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa) population of Thailand. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:1028547. [PMID: 36388525 PMCID: PMC9648690 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1028547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2022] [Accepted: 10/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
We analyzed the content of mitragynine (MG) found in kratom leaves (Mitragyna speciosa) and the influence of different environmental conditions (air and soil variables) on the yield in various regions of Thailand. The content of MG in kratom leaves ranged from 7.5 - 26.6 mg g-1 of dry leaf weight. Canonical correspondence analysis showed that the most significant environmental variables affecting the MG content among the various regions were light intensity, relative humidity, soil volumetric water content (VW), soil pH, and calcium. This study is a first step towards providing information about environmental conditions suitable to maximize the quality and quantity of bioactive alkaloids in kratom. Future studies should focus on leaf collection and the post-harvest processes in order to assure the desired alkaloidal content in finished products, when produced under suitable environmental conditions identified in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisa Leksungnoen
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Kasetsart University Research and Development Institute (KURDI), Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- Center for Advance Studies in Tropical Natural Resources, National Research University-Kasetsart University, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Tushar Andriyas
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Suwimon Uthairatsamee
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Phruet Racharak
- Department of Forest Biology, Faculty of Forestry, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | | | - Roger Kjelgren
- The University of Florida (UF)/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Department of Environmental Horticulture, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, FL, United States
| | - Brian J. Pearson
- The University of Florida (UF)/Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences (IFAS) Department of Environmental Horticulture, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
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22
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Stanciu C, Ahmed S, Gnanasegaram S, Gibson S, Penders T, Grundmann O, McCurdy C. Kratom as an opioid alternative: harm, or harm reduction? A systematic review of literature. THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF DRUG AND ALCOHOL ABUSE 2022; 48:509-528. [PMID: 36001875 DOI: 10.1080/00952990.2022.2111685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Background: Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) products are increasingly endorsed for self-management of multiple ailments, including as opioid substitution. The FDA has expressed that there is no evidence to indicate that this botanical is safe or effective for any medical use.Objective: We systematically review the current state of the literature concerning the impact of kratom and its alkaloids in all paradigms that involve opioids.Methods: A keyword search of online literature databases identified 16 preclinical studies, 25 case reports, and 10 observational studies meeting our pre-selected criteria.Results: All rodent models support alkaloids' action on opioid receptors, translating in their ability to mitigate opioid withdrawal. Some studies found mitragynine (MG) to have less reinforcing properties than morphine, and possessing tolerance-sparing properties when coadministered with morphine. Two studies that assessed 7-hydroxymitragynine (7OHMG) found it to substitute for morphine with potential for tolerance and dependence. Aside from addiction development, case reports outline a variety of confounding toxicities. Ten surveys of users, some conducted with assistance from pro-kratom lobbying organizations, find a high self-reported efficacy as an opioid substitute, with minimal reported adverse effects.Conclusion: With no reported controlled human clinical trials, in the light of rising concerns surrounding kratom's liabilities, there is insufficient evidence to allow any conclusions to be drawn. Case reports and observational studies carry significant bias toward harm and efficacy, respectively. Existing animal studies are heterogeneous in methodology and ultimately findings, with concern for interspecies variability and human translatability. Further research should investigate the safety and efficacy of using kratom alkaloids as opioid substitutes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornel Stanciu
- New Hampshire Hospital, Psychiatry at Dartmouth's Geisel School of Medicine, Concord, NH, USA
| | - Saeed Ahmed
- Department of Psychiatry, Rutland Regional Medical Centre, Rutland, VT, USA
| | | | - Stephen Gibson
- Pharmacy Department, New Hampshire Hospital, Concord, NH, USA
| | - Thomas Penders
- Department of Addiction, Brody School of Medicine, East Carolina University, Greenville, NC, USA
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
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23
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Manwill PK, Flores-Bocanegra L, Khin M, Raja HA, Cech NB, Oberlies NH, Todd DA. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) Validation: Quantitative Analysis of Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids Reveals Chemotypes of Plants and Products. PLANTA MEDICA 2022; 88:838-857. [PMID: 35468648 PMCID: PMC9343938 DOI: 10.1055/a-1795-5876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
Many consumers are turning to kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) to self-manage pain and opioid addiction. In the United States, an array of capsules, powders, and loose-leaf kratom products are readily available. Additionally, several online sites supply live kratom plants. A prerequisite to establishing quality control and quality assurance standards for the kratom industry, or understanding how alkaloid levels effect clinical outcomes, is the identification and quantitation of major and minor alkaloid constituents within available products and preparations. To this end, an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-high resolution mass spectrometry method was developed for the analysis of 8 indole alkaloids (7-hydroxymitragynine, ajmalicine, paynantheine, mitragynine, speciogynine, isopaynantheine, speciociliatine, and mitraciliatine) and 6 oxindole alkaloids (isomitraphylline, isospeciofoleine, speciofoline, corynoxine A, corynoxeine, and rhynchophylline) in US-grown kratom plants and commercial products. These commercial products shared a qualitatively similar alkaloid profile, with 12 - 13 detected alkaloids and high levels of the indole alkaloid mitragynine (13.9 ± 1.1 - 270 ± 24 mg/g). The levels of the other major alkaloids (paynantheine, speciociliatine, speciogynine, mitraciliatine, and isopaynantheine) and the minor alkaloids varied in concentration from product to product. The alkaloid profile of US-grown M. speciosa "Rifat" showed high levels of the indole alkaloid speciogynine (7.94 ± 0.83 - 11.55 ± 0.18 mg/g) and quantifiable levels of isomitraphylline (0.943 ± 0.033 - 1.47 ± 0.18 mg/g). Notably, the alkaloid profile of a US-grown M. speciosa seedling was comparable to the commercial products with a high level of mitragynine (15.01 ± 0.20 mg/g). This work suggests that there are several M. speciosa chemotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preston K. Manwill
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
| | - Laura Flores-Bocanegra
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
| | - Manead Khin
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
| | - Huzefa A. Raja
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
| | - Nadja B. Cech
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
| | - Nicholas H. Oberlies
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
- Dr. Nicholas H. Oberlies University of North Carolina at GreensboroDepartment of Chemistry and
Biochemistry301 McIver St. – Sullivan Science Building27402 Greensboro
NCUSA+ 1 33 63 34 54 74+ 1 33 63 34 54 02
| | - Daniel A. Todd
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, USA
- Correspondence Dr. Daniel A Todd University of North Carolina at GreensboroDepartment of Chemistry and
Biochemistry301 McIver St. – Sullivan Science Building27402 Greensboro
NCUSA+ 1 33 63 34 47 68+ 1 33 63 34 54 02
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Smith KE, Dunn KE, Epstein DH, Feldman JD, Garcia-Romeu A, Grundmann O, Henningfield JE, McCurdy CR, Rogers JM, Schriefer D, Singh D, Weiss ST. Need for clarity and context in case reports on kratom use, assessment, and intervention. Subst Abus 2022; 43:1221-1224. [PMID: 35657649 DOI: 10.1080/08897077.2022.2074608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
This Letter to the Editor is a response to Broyan and colleagues who recently published a Case Report presenting data on 28 patients in the United States who identified kratom as their primary substance of use and who were subsequently induced on buprenorphine/naloxone for a reported diagnosis of kratom use disorder. We applaud the authors for helping to advance the science on kratom and recognize the difficulties in conducting kratom-related clinical assessment and research. However, a number of inconsistences and generalizations were identified in this Case Report, which also lacked some critical context. Importantly, such inconsistencies and generalizations can be observed throughout kratom-specific case reports. We feel this is now an important opportunity to highlight these issues that are present in the Broyan and colleagues Case report but emphasize that they are not unique to it. We do this with the hope that by acknowledging these issues it can help inform editors, clinicians, and researchers who may not be familiar with kratom and, as a result of this unfamiliarity, may inadvertently present findings in a manner that could confuse readers and even misinform clinical researchers and practitioners.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E Smith
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Kelly E Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David H Epstein
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Feldman
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Albert Garcia-Romeu
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jack E Henningfield
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA.,Pinney Associates, Inc, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Jeffrey M Rogers
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA.,SDSU/UCSD Joint Doctoral Program in Clinical Psychology, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Destiny Schriefer
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA.,The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Stephanie T Weiss
- Translational Addiction Medicine Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, USA
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25
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Hughes S, van de Klashorst D, Veltri CA, Grundmann O. Acute, Sublethal, and Developmental Toxicity of Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) Leaf Preparations on Caenorhabditis elegans as an Invertebrate Model for Human Exposure. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:6294. [PMID: 35627831 PMCID: PMC9140534 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19106294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth.) is a tree native to Southeast Asia with stimulant and opioid-like effects which has seen increased use in Europe and North America in recent years. Its safety and pharmacological effects remain under investigation, especially in regard to developmental and generational toxicity. In the current study, we investigated commercial kratom preparations using the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans as a translational model for toxicity and pharmacological effects. The pure alkaloids mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine as well as aqueous, ethanolic, and methanolic extracts of three commercial kratom products were evaluated using a battery of developmental, genotoxic, and opioid-related experiments. As determined previously, the mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine content in kratom samples was higher in the alcoholic extracts than the aqueous extracts. Above the human consumption range equivalent of 15-70 µg/mL, kratom dose-dependently reduced brood size and health of parent worms and their progeny. 7-hydroxymitragynine, but not mitragynine, presented with toxic and developmental effects at very high concentrations, while the positive control, morphine, displayed toxic effects at 0.5 mM. Kratom and its alkaloids did not affect pumping rate or interpump interval in the same way as morphine, suggesting that kratom is unlikely to act primarily via the opioid-signalling pathway. Only at very high doses did kratom cause developmental and genotoxic effects in nematodes, indicating its relative safety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha Hughes
- A-LIFE Amsterdam Institute for Life and Environment, Section Environmental Health and Toxicology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands;
| | | | - Charles A. Veltri
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA;
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ 85308, USA;
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610, USA
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26
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Zhang M, Sharma A, León F, Avery B, Kjelgren R, McCurdy CR, Pearson BJ. Plant growth and phytoactive alkaloid synthesis in kratom [Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.)] in response to varying radiance. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0259326. [PMID: 35472200 PMCID: PMC9041851 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0259326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2022] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Leaves harvested from kratom [Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.)] have a history of use as a traditional ethnobotanical medicine to combat fatigue and improve work productivity in Southeast Asia. In recent years, increased interest in the application and use of kratom has emerged globally, including North America, for its potential application as an alternative source of medicine for pain management and opioid withdrawal syndrome mitigation. Although the chemistry and pharmacology of major kratom alkaloids, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine, are well documented, foundational information on the impact of plant production environment on growth and kratom alkaloids synthesis is unavailable. To directly address this need, kratom plant growth, leaf chlorophyll content, and alkaloid concentration were evaluated under three lighting conditions: field full sun (FLD-Sun), greenhouse unshaded (GH-Unshaded), and greenhouse shaded (GH-Shaded). Nine kratom alkaloids were quantified using an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method. Greenhouse cultivation generally promoted kratom height and width extension by 93-114% and 53-57%, respectively, compared to FLD-Sun. Similarly, total leaf area and leaf number were increased by 118-160% and 54-80% under such conditions. Average leaf size of plants grown under GH-Shaded was 41 and 69% greater than GH-Unshaded and FLD-Sun, respectively; however, no differences were observed between GH-Unshaded and FLD-Sun treatments. At the termination of the study, total leaf chlorophyll a+b content of FLD-Sun was 17-23% less than those grown in the greenhouse. Total leaf dry mass was maximized when cultivated in the greenhouse and was 89-91% greater than in the field. Leaf content of four alkaloids to include speciociliatine, mitraphylline, corynantheidine, and isocorynantheidine were not significantly impacted by lighting conditions, whereas 7-hydroxymitragynine was below the lower limit of quantification across all treatments. However, mitragynine, paynantheine, and corynoxine concentration per leaf dry mass were increased by 40%, 35%, and 111%, respectively, when cultivated under GH-Shaded compared to FLD-Sun. Additionally, total alkaloid yield per plant was maximized and nearly tripled for several alkaloids when plants were cultivated under such conditions. Furthermore, rapid, non-destructive chlorophyll evaluation correlated well (r2 = 0.68) with extracted chlorophyll concentrations. Given these findings, production efforts where low-light conditions can be implemented are likely to maximize plant biomass and total leaf alkaloid production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengzi Zhang
- Department of Environmental Horticulture, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, Florida, United States of America
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Bonnie Avery
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Roger Kjelgren
- Department of Environmental Horticulture, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, Florida, United States of America
| | - Christopher R. McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, United States of America
| | - Brian J. Pearson
- Department of Environmental Horticulture, Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, Florida, United States of America
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27
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Smith KE, Rogers JM, Dunn KE, Grundmann O, McCurdy CR, Schriefer D, Epstein DH. Searching for a Signal: Self-Reported Kratom Dose-Effect Relationships Among a Sample of US Adults With Regular Kratom Use Histories. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:765917. [PMID: 35300296 PMCID: PMC8921773 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.765917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
There is limited understanding regarding kratom use among US adults. Although motivations for use are increasingly understood, typical kratom doses, threshold of (low and high) doses for perceived effectiveness, and effects produced during cessation are not well documented. We aimed to extend prior survey work by recruiting adults with current and past kratom exposure. Our goal was to better understand kratom dosing, changes in routines, and perception of effects, including time to onset, duration, and variability of beneficial and adverse outcomes from use and cessation. Among respondents who reported experiencing acute kratom effects, we also sought to determine if effects were perceived as helpful or unhelpful in meeting daily obligations. Finally, we attempted to detect any signal of a relationship between the amount of kratom consumed weekly and weeks of regular use with ratings of beneficial effects from use and ratings of adverse effects from cessation. We conducted an online survey between April-May 2021 by re-recruiting participants from a separate study who reported lifetime kratom use. A total of 129 evaluable surveys were collected. Most (59.7%) had used kratom >100 times and reported currently or having previously used kratom >4 times per week (62 weeks on average). Under half (41.9%) reported that they considered themselves to be a current "regular kratom user." A majority (79.8%) reported experiencing acute effects from their typical kratom dose and that onset of effects began in minutes but dissipated within hours. Over a quarter reported that they had increased their kratom dose since use initiation, whereas 18.6% had decreased. Greater severity of unwanted effects from ≥1 day of kratom cessation was predicted by more weeks of regular kratom use (β = 6.74, p = 0.02). Acute kratom effects were largely reported as compatible with, and sometimes helpful in, meeting daily obligations. In the absence of human laboratory studies, survey methods must be refined to more precisely assess dose-effect relationships. These can help inform the development of controlled observational and experimental studies needed to advance the public health understanding of kratom product use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsten E Smith
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Jeffrey M Rogers
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Kelly E Dunn
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Oliver Grundmann
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Destiny Schriefer
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - David H Epstein
- Real-World Assessment, Prediction, and Treatment Unit, National Institute on Drug Abuse Intramural Research Program, Baltimore, MD, United States
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28
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Karunakaran T, Ngew KZ, Zailan AAD, Mian Jong VY, Abu Bakar MH. The Chemical and Pharmacological Properties of Mitragynine and Its Diastereomers: An Insight Review. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:805986. [PMID: 35281925 PMCID: PMC8907881 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.805986] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitragynine, is a naturally occurring indole alkaloid that can be isolated from the leaves of a psychoactive medicinal plant. Mitragyna speciosa, also known as kratom, is found to possess promising analgesic effects on mediating the opioid receptors such as µ (MOR), δ (DOR), and κ (KOR). This alkaloid has therapeutic potential for pain management as it has limited adverse effect compared to a classical opioid, morphine. Mitragynine is frequently regarded to behave like an opioid but possesses milder withdrawal symptoms. The use of this alkaloid as the source of an analgesic candidate has been proven through comprehensive preclinical and clinical studies. The present data have shown that mitragynine is able to bind to opioid receptors, particularly MOR, to exhibit the analgesic effect. Moreover, the chemical and pharmacological aspects of mitragynine and its diastereomers, speciogynine, speciociliatine, and mitraciliatine, are discussed. It is interesting to know how the difference in stereochemical configuration could lead to the difference in the bioactivity of the respective compounds. Hence, in this review, the updated pharmacological and toxicological properties of mitragynine and its diastereomers are discussed to render a comprehensive understanding of the pharmacological properties of mitragynine and its diastereomers based on their structure–activity relationship study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thiruventhan Karunakaran
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
- School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
- *Correspondence: Thiruventhan Karunakaran, ; Vivien Yi Mian Jong,
| | - Kok Zhuo Ngew
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
- School of Chemical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
| | | | - Vivien Yi Mian Jong
- Centre of Applied Science Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Kuching, Malaysia
- *Correspondence: Thiruventhan Karunakaran, ; Vivien Yi Mian Jong,
| | - Mohamad Hafizi Abu Bakar
- Bioprocess Technology Division, School of Industrial Technology, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
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29
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Berthold EC, Kamble SH, Raju KS, Kuntz MA, Senetra AS, Mottinelli M, León F, Restrepo LF, Patel A, Ho NP, Hiranita T, Sharma A, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR. The Lack of Contribution of 7-Hydroxymitragynine to the Antinociceptive Effects of Mitragynine in Mice: A Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Study. Drug Metab Dispos 2022; 50:158-167. [PMID: 34759012 PMCID: PMC8969138 DOI: 10.1124/dmd.121.000640] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 11/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa), a Southeast Asian tree, has been used for centuries in pain relief and mitigation of opium withdrawal symptoms. Mitragynine (MTG), the major kratom alkaloid, is being investigated for its potential to provide analgesia without the deleterious effects associated with typical opioids. Concerns have been raised regarding the active metabolite of MTG, 7-hydroxymitragynine (7HMG), which has higher affinity and efficacy at µ-opioid receptors than MTG. Here we investigated the hotplate antinociception, pharmacokinetics, and tissue distribution of MTG and 7HMG at equianalgesic oral doses in male and female C57BL/6 mice to determine the extent to which 7HMG metabolized from MTG accounts for the antinociceptive effects of MTG and investigate any sex differences. The mechanism of action was examined by performing studies with the opioid receptor antagonist naltrexone. A population pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic model was developed to predict the behavioral effects after administration of various doses of MTG and 7HMG. When administered alone, 7HMG was 2.8-fold more potent than MTG to produce antinociception. At equivalent effective doses of MTG and 7HMG, there was a marked difference in the maximum brain concentration of 7HMG achieved, i.e., 11-fold lower as a metabolite of MTG. The brain concentration of 7HMG observed 4 hours post administration, producing an analgesic effect <10%, was still 1.5-fold higher than the maximum concentration of 7HMG as a metabolite of MTG. These results provide strong evidence that 7HMG has a negligible role in the antinociceptive effects of MTG in mice. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Mitragynine (MTG) is being investigated for its potential to aid in pain relief, opioid withdrawal syndrome, and opioid use disorder. The active metabolite of MTG, 7-hydroxymitragynine (7HMG), has been shown to have abuse potential and has been implicated in the opioid-like analgesic effect after MTG administration. The results of this study suggest a lack of involvement of 7HMG in the antinociceptive effects of MTG in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Shyam H Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Kanumuri S Raju
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Michelle A Kuntz
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Alexandria S Senetra
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Marco Mottinelli
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Francisco León
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Luis F Restrepo
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Avi Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Nicholas P Ho
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, (E.C.B., S.H.K., K.S.R., M.A.K., A.S.S., A.S., C.R.M.), Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Science Institute (S.H.K., K.S.R., A.S., C.R.M.), Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy (M.M., F.L., C.R.M.), and Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, USA (L.F.R., A.P., N.P.H., T.H., L.R.M.) University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida
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Structure-dependent of 3-fluorooxindole derivatives interacting with ctDNA: Binding effects and molecular docking approaches. Bioorg Chem 2022; 121:105698. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2022.105698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Accepted: 02/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Henningfield JE, Wang DW, Huestis MA. Kratom Abuse Potential 2021: An Updated Eight Factor Analysis. Front Pharmacol 2022; 12:775073. [PMID: 35197848 PMCID: PMC8860177 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.775073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Drugs are regulated in the United States (US) by the Controlled Substances Act (CSA) if assessment of their abuse potential, including public health risks, show such control is warranted. An evaluation via the 8 factors of the CSA provides the comprehensive assessment required for permanent listing of new chemical entities and previously uncontrolled substances. Such an assessment was published for two kratom alkaloids in 2018 that the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) have identified as candidates for CSA listing: mitragynine (MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG) (Henningfield et al., 2018a). That assessment concluded the abuse potential of MG was within the range of many other uncontrolled substances, that there was not evidence of an imminent risk to public health, and that a Schedule I listing (the only option for substances that are not FDA approved for therapeutic use such as kratom) carried public health risks including drug overdoses by people using kratom to abstain from opioids. The purpose of this review is to provide an updated abuse potential assessment reviewing greater than 100 studies published since January 1, 2018. These include studies of abuse potential and physical dependence/withdrawal in animals; in-vitro receptor binding; assessments of potential efficacy treating pain and substance use disorders; pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic studies with safety-related findings; clinical studies of long-term users with various physiological endpoints; and surveys of patterns and reasons for use and associated effects including dependence and withdrawal. Findings from these studies suggest that public health is better served by assuring continued access to kratom products by consumers and researchers. Currently, Kratom alkaloids and derivatives are in development as safer and/or more effective medicines for treating pain, substances use disorders, and mood disorders. Placing kratom in the CSA via scheduling would criminalize consumers and possession, seriously impede research, and can be predicted to have serious adverse public health consequences, including potentially thousands of drug overdose deaths. Therefore, CSA listing is not recommended. Regulation to minimize risks of contaminated, adulterated, and inappropriately marketed products is recommended.
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Wainwright CL, Teixeira MM, Adelson DL, Buenz EJ, David B, Glaser KB, Harata-Lee Y, Howes MJR, Izzo AA, Maffia P, Mayer AM, Mazars C, Newman DJ, Nic Lughadha E, Pimenta AM, Parra JA, Qu Z, Shen H, Spedding M, Wolfender JL. Future Directions for the Discovery of Natural Product-Derived Immunomodulating Drugs. Pharmacol Res 2022; 177:106076. [PMID: 35074524 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2022.106076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Drug discovery from natural sources is going through a renaissance, having spent many decades in the shadow of synthetic molecule drug discovery, despite the fact that natural product-derived compounds occupy a much greater chemical space than those created through synthetic chemistry methods. With this new era comes new possibilities, not least the novel targets that have emerged in recent times and the development of state-of-the-art technologies that can be applied to drug discovery from natural sources. Although progress has been made with some immunomodulating drugs, there remains a pressing need for new agents that can be used to treat the wide variety of conditions that arise from disruption, or over-activation, of the immune system; natural products may therefore be key in filling this gap. Recognising that, at present, there is no authoritative article that details the current state-of-the-art of the immunomodulatory activity of natural products, this in-depth review has arisen from a joint effort between the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR) Natural Products and Immunopharmacology, with contributions from a Powered by Editorial Manager® and ProduXion Manager® from Aries Systems Corporation number of world-leading researchers in the field of natural product drug discovery, to provide a "position statement" on what natural products has to offer in the search for new immunomodulatory argents. To this end, we provide a historical look at previous discoveries of naturally occurring immunomodulators, present a picture of the current status of the field and provide insight into the future opportunities and challenges for the discovery of new drugs to treat immune-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cherry L Wainwright
- Centre for Natural Products in Health, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK.
| | - Mauro M Teixeira
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - David L Adelson
- Molecular & Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Australia.
| | - Eric J Buenz
- Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology, New Zealand.
| | - Bruno David
- Green Mission Pierre Fabre, Pierre Fabre Laboratories, Toulouse, France.
| | - Keith B Glaser
- AbbVie Inc., Integrated Discovery Operations, North Chicago, USA.
| | - Yuka Harata-Lee
- Molecular & Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - Melanie-Jayne R Howes
- Royal Botanic Gardens Kew, Richmond, Surrey, UK; Institute of Pharmaceutical Science, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, UK.
| | - Angelo A Izzo
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples Federico II, Italy.
| | - Pasquale Maffia
- Department of Pharmacy, School of Medicine, University of Naples Federico II, Italy; Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.
| | - Alejandro Ms Mayer
- Department of Pharmacology, College of Graduate Studies, Midwestern University, IL, USA.
| | - Claire Mazars
- Green Mission Pierre Fabre, Pierre Fabre Laboratories, Toulouse, France.
| | | | | | - Adriano Mc Pimenta
- Laboratory of Animal Venoms and Toxins, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
| | - John Aa Parra
- Laboratory of Animal Venoms and Toxins, Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil
| | - Zhipeng Qu
- Molecular & Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - Hanyuan Shen
- Molecular & Biomedical Science, University of Adelaide, Australia
| | | | - Jean-Luc Wolfender
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Geneva, Switzerland; Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences of Western Switzerland, University of Geneva, Switzerland.
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Abstract
INTRODUCTION Since 2007, kratom use in the United States has increased, centered around nonmedical self-treatment of pain, psychiatric, and substance use disorder symptoms. Reports of kratom withdrawal have emerged amidst description of therapeutic effects, yet we know little about disordered use. Our objective was to assess Diagnostic and Statistical Manual-5 substance use disorder for kratom ("kratom use disorder," KUD) and examine kratom withdrawal symptoms among those who ever used regularly. We also sought to identify clinical characteristics of respondents who qualified for current, remitted, or never KUD. METHODS Between April and May 2021, we re-recruited online respondents who reported lifetime kratom use on an unrelated survey into our cross-sectional kratom survey study, permitting a diverse sample of current and former kratom-using persons. RESULTS A total of 129/289 (44.6%) evaluable surveys were obtained. Over half (52.7%) of respondents never met KUD diagnostic criteria; 17.8% were assessed remitted, and 29.5% met current (past-year) KUD threshold. For past-year KUD, severity was: 14.0% mild, 7.0% moderate, and 8.5% severe. Pain, psychiatric symptoms, and polydrug use were found across all groups. KUD symptoms reflected increased use, tolerance, withdrawal, unsuccessful quit attempts, and craving; 9.3% reported decreases in important social, occupational, or recreational activities because of use. Withdrawal symptoms were moderate and included gastrointestinal upset, restlessness, anxiety, irritability, fatigue/low energy, and craving. CONCLUSIONS As assessed here, tolerance and withdrawal are primary KUD features rather than psychosocial impairments. As kratomis often used among persons with a myriad of health conditions, clinicians should be aware of and assess for kratom use and withdrawal.
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Deng Y, Li Y, Wang Y, Sun S, Ma S, Jia P, Li W, Wang K, Yan W. Efficient enantioselective synthesis of CF2H-containing dispiro[benzo[b]thiophene-oxindole-pyrrolidine]s via organocatalytic cycloaddition. Org Chem Front 2022. [DOI: 10.1039/d1qo01392k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
A novel kind of CF2H-containing dispiro[benzo[b]thiophene-oxindole-pyrrolidine] has been achieved via an organocatalyzed 1,3-dipole reaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yabo Deng
- The Institute of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Yongzhen Li
- The Institute of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Yalan Wang
- The Institute of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Shuo Sun
- The Institute of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Sichao Ma
- The Institute of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Pengfei Jia
- The Institute of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Wenguang Li
- The Institute of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Kairong Wang
- The Institute of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
| | - Wenjin Yan
- The Institute of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou 730000, China
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Hiranita T, Obeng S, Sharma A, Wilkerson JL, McCurdy CR, McMahon LR. In vitro and in vivo pharmacology of kratom. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2021; 93:35-76. [PMID: 35341571 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2021.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Kratom products have been historically and anecdotally used in south Asian countries for centuries to manage pain and opioid withdrawal. The use of kratom products has dramatically increased in the United States. More than 45 kratom alkaloids have been isolated, yet the overall pharmacology of the individual alkaloids is still not well characterized. The purpose of this chapter is to summarize in vitro and in vivo opioid activities of the primary kratom alkaloid mitragynine and its more potent metabolite 7-hydroxymitragynine. Following are experimental procedures described to characterize opioid receptor activity; receptor binding and functional assays, antinociceptive assays, operant conditioning assays, and respiratory plethysmography. The capacity of kratom alkaloids to confer tolerance and physical dependence as well as their pharmacokinetic properties are also summarized. The data reviewed here suggest that kratom products and mitragynine possess low efficacy agonist activity at the mu-opioid receptor in vivo. In addition, kratom products and mitragynine have been demonstrated to antagonize the effects of high efficacy mu-opioid agonists. The data further suggest that 7-hydroxymitragynine formed in vivo by metabolism of mitragynine may be minimally involved in the overall behavioral profile of mitragynine and kratom, whereas 7-hydroxymitragynine itself, at sufficiently high doses administered exogenously, shares many of the same abuse- and dependence-related behavioral effects associated with traditional opioid agonists. The apparent low efficacy of kratom products and mitragynine at mu-opioid receptors supports the development of these ligands as effective and potentially safe medications for opioid use disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Samuel Obeng
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Jenny L Wilkerson
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.
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Hanapi NA, Chear NJY, Azizi J, Yusof SR. Kratom Alkaloids: Interactions With Enzymes, Receptors, and Cellular Barriers. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:751656. [PMID: 34867362 PMCID: PMC8637859 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.751656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Parallel to the growing use of kratom, there is a wealth of evidence from self-report, preclinical, and early clinical studies on therapeutic benefits of its alkaloids in particular for treating pain, managing substance use disorder, and coping with emotional or mental health conditions. On the other hand, there are also reports on potential health risks concerning kratom use. These two aspects are often discussed in reviews on kratom. Here, we aim to highlight specific areas that are of importance to give insights into the mechanistic of kratom alkaloids pharmacological actions. This includes their interactions with drug-metabolizing enzymes and predictions of clinical drug-drug interactions, receptor-binding properties, interactions with cellular barriers in regards to barrier permeability, involvement of membrane transporters, and alteration of barrier function when exposed to the alkaloids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nur Aziah Hanapi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | | | - Juzaili Azizi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | - Siti R Yusof
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
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Lv M, Li X. Ni(II)-Catalyzed Asymmetric Nitration of Oxindoles: Construction of Cipargamin Analogues. ACS Catal 2021. [DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.1c04460] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mingjun Lv
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
| | - Xiaoxun Li
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology (Ministry of Education), School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, Shandong 250012, China
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Chakraborty S, Uprety R, Slocum ST, Irie T, Le Rouzic V, Li X, Wilson LL, Scouller B, Alder AF, Kruegel AC, Ansonoff M, Varadi A, Eans SO, Hunkele A, Allaoa A, Kalra S, Xu J, Pan YX, Pintar J, Kivell BM, Pasternak GW, Cameron MD, McLaughlin JP, Sames D, Majumdar S. Oxidative Metabolism as a Modulator of Kratom's Biological Actions. J Med Chem 2021; 64:16553-16572. [PMID: 34783240 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c01111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The leaves of Mitragyna speciosa (kratom), a plant native to Southeast Asia, are increasingly used as a pain reliever and for attenuation of opioid withdrawal symptoms. Using the tools of natural products chemistry, chemical synthesis, and pharmacology, we provide a detailed in vitro and in vivo pharmacological characterization of the alkaloids in kratom. We report that metabolism of kratom's major alkaloid, mitragynine, in mice leads to formation of (a) a potent mu opioid receptor agonist antinociceptive agent, 7-hydroxymitragynine, through a CYP3A-mediated pathway, which exhibits reinforcing properties, inhibition of gastrointestinal (GI) transit and reduced hyperlocomotion, (b) a multifunctional mu agonist/delta-kappa antagonist, mitragynine pseudoindoxyl, through a CYP3A-mediated skeletal rearrangement, displaying reduced hyperlocomotion, inhibition of GI transit and reinforcing properties, and (c) a potentially toxic metabolite, 3-dehydromitragynine, through a non-CYP oxidation pathway. Our results indicate that the oxidative metabolism of the mitragynine template beyond 7-hydroxymitragynine may have implications in its overall pharmacology in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumen Chakraborty
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Rajendra Uprety
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Samuel T Slocum
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Takeshi Irie
- Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Valerie Le Rouzic
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Xiaohai Li
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Lisa L Wilson
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Brittany Scouller
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Biological Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Amy F Alder
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Biological Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Andrew C Kruegel
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York 10027, United States
| | - Michael Ansonoff
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854-8021, United States
| | - Andras Varadi
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Shainnel O Eans
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Amanda Hunkele
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Abdullah Allaoa
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Sanjay Kalra
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Jin Xu
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Ying Xian Pan
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - John Pintar
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854-8021, United States
| | - Bronwyn M Kivell
- Centre for Biodiscovery, School of Biological Science, Victoria University of Wellington, Wellington 6012, New Zealand
| | - Gavril W Pasternak
- Department of Neurology and Molecular Pharmacology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York 10065, United States
| | - Michael D Cameron
- Department of Molecular Therapeutics, Scripps Research Institute, Jupiter, Florida 33458, United States
| | - Jay P McLaughlin
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Dalibor Sames
- Department of Chemistry, Columbia University, New York 10027, United States
| | - Susruta Majumdar
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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Domnic G, Jeng-Yeou Chear N, Abdul Rahman SF, Ramanathan S, Lo KW, Singh D, Mohana-Kumaran N. Combinations of indole based alkaloids from Mitragyna speciosa (Kratom) and cisplatin inhibit cell proliferation and migration of nasopharyngeal carcinoma cell lines. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 279:114391. [PMID: 34224811 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2021] [Revised: 06/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) or kratom is a medicinal plant indigenous to Southeast Asia. The leaf of M. speciosa is used as a remedy in pain management including cancer related pain, in a similar way as opioids and cannabis. Despite its well-known analgesic effect, there is a scarce of information on the cancer-suppressing potential of M. speciosa and its active constituents. AIM OF THE STUDY To assess the potential applicability of M. speciosa alkaloids (mitragynine, speciociliatine or paynantheine) as chemosensitizers for cisplatin in Nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) cell lines. MATERIALS AND METHODS The cytotoxic effects of the extracts, fractions and compounds were determined by conducting in vitro cytotoxicity assays. Based on the cytotoxic screening, the alkaloid extract of M. speciosa exhibited potent inhibitory effect on the NPC cell line NPC/HK1, and therefore, was chosen for further fractionation and purification. NPC cell lines NPC/HK1 and C666-1 were treated with combinations of cisplatin and M. speciosa alkaloids combinations in 2D monolayer culture. The effect of cisplatin and mitragynine as a combination on cell migration was tested using in vitro wound healing and spheroid invasion assays. RESULTS In our bioassay guided isolation, both methanolic and alkaloid extracts showed mild to moderate cytotoxic effect against the NPC/HK1 cell line. Both NPC cell lines (NPC/HK1 and C666-1) were insensitive to single agent and combination treatments of the M. speciosa alkaloids. However, mitragynine and speciociliatine sensitized the NPC/HK1 and C666-1 cells to cisplatin at ~4- and >5-fold, respectively in 2D monolayer culture. The combination of mitragynine and cisplatin also significantly inhibited cell migration of the NPC cell lines. Similarly, the combination also of mitragynine and cisplatin inhibited growth and invasion of NPC/HK1 spheroids in a dose-dependent manner. In addition, the spheroids did not rapidly develop resistance to the drug combinations at higher concentrations over 10 days. CONCLUSION Our data indicate that both mitragynine and speciociliatine could be potential chemosensitizers for cisplatin. Further elucidation focusing on the drug mechanistic studies and in vivo studies are necessary to support delineate the therapeutic applicability of M. speciosa alkaloids for NPC treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory Domnic
- School of Biological Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
| | | | | | - Surash Ramanathan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
| | - Kwok-Wai Lo
- Department of Anatomical and Cellular Pathology and State Key Laboratory of Translational Oncology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
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Leong Bin Abdullah MFI, Singh D. The Adverse Cardiovascular Effects and Cardiotoxicity of Kratom ( Mitragyna speciosa Korth.): A Comprehensive Review. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:726003. [PMID: 34646135 PMCID: PMC8504575 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.726003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 08/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Kratom or Mitragyna speciosa (Korth.) has received overwhelming attention recently due to its alleged pain-relieving effects. Despite its potential therapeutic value, kratom use has been linked to many occurrences of multiorgan toxicity and cardiotoxicity. Accordingly, the current narrative review aimed to provide a detailed account of kratom's adverse cardiovascular effects and cardiotoxicity risk, based on in vitro studies, poison center reports, coroner and autopsy reports, clinical case reports, and clinical studies. Methods: An electronic search was conducted to identify all research articles published in English from 1950 to 2021 using the major research databases, such as Google Scholar, Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus, Mendeley, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, and Medline. We then analyzed the literature's discussion of adverse cardiovascular effects, toxicity, and mortality related to kratom use. Results: Our findings revealed that, although in vitro studies have found kratom preparations' most abundant alkaloid-mitragynine-to cause a prolonged QTc interval and an increased risk of torsades de pointes, a clinical study examining humans' regular consumption of kratom did not report such a risk. However, this latter study did show that regular kratom use could induce an increased QTc interval in a dose-dependent manner. A few case reports also highlighted that kratom consumption is associated with ventricular arrhythmia and cardiopulmonary arrest, but this association could have ensued when kratom was co-administered with another substance. Similarly, analyses of national poison data showed that kratom's most common adverse acute cardiovascular effects include tachycardia and hypertension. Meanwhile, coroner and autopsy reports indicated that kratom's cardiovascular sequelae encompass coronary atherosclerosis, myocardial infarction, hypertensive cardiovascular disease, left ventricular hypertrophy, cardiac arrhythmia, cardiomegaly, cardiomyopathy, focal band necrosis in the myocardium, and myocarditis. Given the available data, we deduced that all cardiac eventualities reported in the literature could have been compounded by polysubstance use and unresolved underlying medical illnesses. Conclusion: Although kratom use has been associated with death and cardiotoxicity, especially at higher doses and when associated with other psychoactive drugs, the dearth of data and methodological limitations reported in existing studies do not allow a definitive conclusion, and further studies are still necessary to address this issue.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Gelugor, Malaysia
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León F, Obeng S, Mottinelli M, Chen Y, King TI, Berthold EC, Kamble SH, Restrepo LF, Patel A, Gamez-Jimenez LR, Lopera-Londoño C, Hiranita T, Sharma A, Hampson AJ, Canal CE, McMahon LR, McCurdy CR. Activity of Mitragyna speciosa ("Kratom") Alkaloids at Serotonin Receptors. J Med Chem 2021; 64:13510-13523. [PMID: 34467758 PMCID: PMC9235362 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Kratom alkaloids have mostly been evaluated for their opioid activity but less at other targets that could contribute to their physiological effects. Here, we investigated the in vitro and in vivo activity of kratom alkaloids at serotonin receptors (5-HTRs). Paynantheine and speciogynine exhibited high affinity for 5-HT1ARs and 5-HT2BRs, unlike the principal kratom alkaloid mitragynine. Both alkaloids produced antinociceptive properties in rats via an opioid receptor-independent mechanism, and neither activated 5-HT2BRs in vitro. Paynantheine, speciogynine, and mitragynine induced lower lip retraction and antinociception in rats, effects blocked by a selective 5-HT1AR antagonist. In vitro functional assays revealed that the in vivo 5-HT1AR agonistic effects may be due to the metabolites 9-O-desmethylspeciogynine and 9-O-desmethylpaynantheine and not the parent compounds. Both metabolites did not activate 5-HT2BR, suggesting low inherent risk of causing valvulopathy. The 5-HT1AR agonism by kratom alkaloids may contribute to the mood-enhancing effects associated with kratom use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco León
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Department of Drug Discovery and Biomedical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, University of South Carolina, Columbia, South Carolina 29208, United States
| | - Samuel Obeng
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Marco Mottinelli
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Yiming Chen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, United States
| | - Tamara I King
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Erin C Berthold
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Shyam H Kamble
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Luis F Restrepo
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Avi Patel
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Lea R Gamez-Jimenez
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Carolina Lopera-Londoño
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Abhisheak Sharma
- Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Aidan J Hampson
- Division of Therapeutics and Medical Consequences, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20892, United States
| | - Clinton E Canal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Mercer University, Atlanta, Georgia 30341, United States
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
- Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32610, United States
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42
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Damodaran T, Chear NJY, Murugaiyah V, Mordi MN, Ramanathan S. Comparative Toxicity Assessment of Kratom Decoction, Mitragynine and Speciociliatine Versus Morphine on Zebrafish ( Danio rerio) Embryos. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:714918. [PMID: 34489704 PMCID: PMC8417521 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.714918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Accepted: 08/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa Korth), a popular opioid-like plant holds its therapeutic potential in pain management and opioid dependence. However, there are growing concerns about the safety or potential toxicity risk of kratom after prolonged use. Aim of the study: The study aimed to assess the possible toxic effects of kratom decoction and its major alkaloids, mitragynine, and speciociliatine in comparison to morphine in an embryonic zebrafish model. Methods: The zebrafish embryos were exposed to kratom decoction (1,000–62.5 μg/ml), mitragynine, speciociliatine, and morphine (100–3.125 μg/ml) for 96 h post-fertilization (hpf). The toxicity parameters, namely mortality, hatching rate, heart rate, and morphological malformations were examined at 24, 48, 72, and 96 hpf, respectively. Results: Kratom decoction at a concentration range of ≥500 μg/ml caused 100% mortality of zebrafish embryos and decreased the hatching rate in a concentration-dependent manner. Meanwhile, mitragynine and speciociliatine exposure resulted in 100% mortality of zebrafish embryos at 100 μg/ml. Both alkaloids caused significant alterations in the morphological development of zebrafish embryos including hatching inhibition and spinal curvature (scoliosis) at the highest concentration. While exposure to morphine induced significant morphological malformations such as pericardial oedema, spinal curvature (lordosis), and yolk edema in zebrafish embryos. Conclusion: Our findings provide evidence for embryonic developmental toxicity of kratom decoction and its alkaloids both mitragynine and speciociliatine at the highest concentration, hence suggesting that kratom consumption may have potential teratogenicity risk during pregnancy and thereby warrants further investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thenmoly Damodaran
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Malaysia
| | | | - Vikneswaran Murugaiyah
- Discipline of Pharmacology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Malaysia
| | - Mohd Nizam Mordi
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Malaysia
| | - Surash Ramanathan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, George Town, Malaysia
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Chakraborty S, Uprety R, Daibani AE, Rouzic VL, Hunkele A, Appourchaux K, Eans SO, Nuthikattu N, Jilakara R, Thammavong L, Pasternak GW, Pan YX, McLaughlin JP, Che T, Majumdar S. Kratom Alkaloids as Probes for Opioid Receptor Function: Pharmacological Characterization of Minor Indole and Oxindole Alkaloids from Kratom. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:2661-2678. [PMID: 34213886 PMCID: PMC8328003 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dry leaves of kratom (mitragyna speciosa) are anecdotally consumed as pain relievers and antidotes against opioid withdrawal and alcohol use disorders. There are at least 54 alkaloids in kratom; however, investigations to date have focused around mitragynine, 7-hydroxy mitragynine (7OH), and mitragynine pseudoindoxyl (MP). Herein, we probe a few minor indole and oxindole based alkaloids, reporting the receptor affinity, G-protein activity, and βarrestin-2 signaling of corynantheidine, corynoxine, corynoxine B, mitraciliatine, and isopaynantheine at mouse and human opioid receptors. We identify corynantheidine as a mu opioid receptor (MOR) partial agonist, whereas its oxindole derivative corynoxine was an MOR full agonist. Similarly, another alkaloid mitraciliatine was found to be an MOR partial agonist, while isopaynantheine was a KOR agonist which showed reduced βarrestin-2 recruitment. Corynantheidine, corynoxine, and mitraciliatine showed MOR dependent antinociception in mice, but mitraciliatine and corynoxine displayed attenuated respiratory depression and hyperlocomotion compared to the prototypic MOR agonist morphine in vivo when administered supraspinally. Isopaynantheine on the other hand was identified as the first kratom derived KOR agonist in vivo. While these minor alkaloids are unlikely to play the majority role in the biological actions of kratom, they represent excellent starting points for further diversification as well as distinct efficacy and signaling profiles with which to probe opioid actions in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Soumen Chakraborty
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Rajendra Uprety
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, United States
| | - Amal E Daibani
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Valerie L Rouzic
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, United States
| | - Amanda Hunkele
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, United States
| | - Kevin Appourchaux
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Shainnel O Eans
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 032610, United States
| | - Nitin Nuthikattu
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Rahul Jilakara
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Lisa Thammavong
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
| | - Gavril W Pasternak
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, United States
| | - Ying-Xian Pan
- Department of Neurology, Memorial Sloan Kettering Cancer Center, New York, New York 10065, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Newark, New Jersey 07103, United States
| | - Jay P McLaughlin
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 032610, United States
| | - Tao Che
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Department of Pharmacology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, United States
| | - Susruta Majumdar
- Center for Clinical Pharmacology, University of Health Sciences & Pharmacy at St. Louis and Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
- Department of Anesthesiology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63110, United States
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Crowley ML, Restrepo LF, Gamez-Jimenez LR, Patel A, Braun T, Pallares VLC, Ho NP, Reeves ME, McCurdy CR, McMahon LR, Hiranita T. The use of hypercapnic conditions to assess opioid-induced respiratory depression in rats. J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods 2021; 111:107101. [PMID: 34242797 DOI: 10.1016/j.vascn.2021.107101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 06/04/2021] [Accepted: 07/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Whole-body plethysmography (WBP) in unrestrained, non-anesthetized rodents is a preclinical method to assess the respiratory depressant effects of opioids, the leading cause of opioid overdose death in humans. However, low baseline respiration rates under normocapnic conditions (i.e., "floor" effect) can render the measurement of respiratory decreases challenging. We assessed hypercapnia-induced increases in respiration as a strategy to assess opioid-induced decreases in respiration in rats. METHODS WBP was used to assess respiration frequency, tidal volume and minute volume in the presence of normocapnic and hypercapnic (8% CO2) conditions in rats during the rat diurnal period of the light cycle. The mu-opioid receptor agonist fentanyl was administered intravenously, and the hot plate test was used to assess acute antinociception. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Hypercapnia-induced increases in respiratory parameters (frequency, minute volume, and tidal volume) were decreased by fentanyl at doses that did not decrease the same parameters under the normocapnic conditions. These findings show that hypercapnia increases sensitivity to respiratory depressant effects of fentanyl, as compared with assessments during the rat diurnal period when activity and breathing rate are generally low, i.e., there is a floor effect. The current approach is highly sensitive to opioid-induced respiratory depression, and therefore provides a useful method for assessment in a pre-clinical setting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Morgan L Crowley
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Luis F Restrepo
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lea R Gamez-Jimenez
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Avi Patel
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Tobias Braun
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Victoria L C Pallares
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Nicholas P Ho
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Morgan E Reeves
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Christopher R McCurdy
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Department of Pharmaceutics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA; Translational Drug Development Core, Clinical and Translational Sciences Institute, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lance R McMahon
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Takato Hiranita
- Department of Pharmacodynamics, College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA.
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