Neurological Insights of COVID-19 Pandemic

Subjective and objective effects of radioiodine therapy on the sense of smell

PURPOSE

Evaluating the impact of radioiodine therapy (RIT) on olfactory function in thyroid cancer patients through quantitative and qualitative olfactory tests.

METHOD

In this cohort study, patients with thyroid cancer were included. Demographic, clinical, and laboratory data were collected. To subjectively evaluate the olfactory changes aftter RIT, the Visual Analog Scale (VAS), Self-Reported Mini-Olfactory Questionnaire (self-MOQ), and the University of Washington Quality of Life Questionnaire (UW-QOL) were assessed. Out of UW-QOL questions those related to saliva, taste, and overall health condition were analysed. For objective assessment, patients underwent both the Butanol Threshold Test (BTT) and the a version of Smell Identification Test (SIT). Patients were assessed before, one month, and six months after RIT.

RESULTS

Ninety eight patients were included (Male = 17). A statistically significant decrement was observed in olfaction based on the VAS, between the baseline and one (pvalue = 0.015) and six months (pvalue = 0.031) of follow-up. Additionally, saliva (pvalue = 0.001), taste (pvalue = 0.000), and overall health condition (pvalue = 0.010) significantly decreased one-month after RIT. The measures were not different between the baseline and 6-month follow up and the improvement of index of taste was significant from 1-month to 6-months follow ups (pvalue = 0.000). However, none of the objective tests (the BTT and the SIT) indicated a significant decline in olfaction during the follow up.

CONCLUSION

A subjective RIT related decrease in smell function, taste, and saliva production was documented without any objective olfactory dysfunction.

Role of Inflammation in the Development of COVID-19 to Parkinson's Disease

Background

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) can lead to neurological symptoms such as headaches, confusion, seizures, hearing loss, and loss of smell. The link between COVID-19 and Parkinson's disease (PD) is being investigated, but more research is needed for a definitive connection.

Methods

Datasets GSE22491 and GSE164805 were selected to screen differentially expressed gene (DEG), and immune infiltration and gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) of the DEG were performed. WGCNA analyzed the DEG and selected the intersection genes. Potential biological functions and signaling pathways were determined, and diagnostic genes were further screened using gene expression and receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curves. Screening and molecular docking of ibuprofen as a therapeutic target. The effectiveness of ibuprofen was verified by constructing a PD model in vitro, and constructing "COVID19-PD" signaling pathway, and exploring the role of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) in PD.

Results

A total of 13 DEG were screened from the GSE36980 and GSE5281 datasets. Kyoto encyclopedia of genes and genomes (KEGG) analysis showed that the DEG were mainly associated with the hypoxia-inducible factor (HIF-1), epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) tyrosine kinase inhibitor resistance, etc. After analysis, it is found that ibuprofen alleviates PD symptoms by inhibiting the expression of nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α). Based on signal pathway construction, the importance of ACE2 in COVID-19-induced PD has been identified. ACE2 is found to have widespread distribution in the brain. In the 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-te-trahydropyridine (MPTP)-induced ACE2-null PD mice model, more severe motor and non-motor symptoms, increased NF-κB p65 and α-synuclein (α-syn) expression with significant aggregation, decreased tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), severe neuronal loss, and neurodegenerative disorders.

Conclusion

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection increases the risk of PD through an inflammatory environment and downregulation of ACE2, providing evidence for the molecular mechanism and targeted therapy associated with COVID-19 and PD.

Comparison of the incidence of smell and taste disorders between influenza and COVID-19

OBJECTIVE

Smell and taste disorders among patients with COVID-19 has become increasingly reported in the literature, however the prevalence varies. Post-infectious respiratory dysfunction has also been linked to influenza. In this study, we aimed to compare the rates of smell and taste disorders between COVID-19 and Influenza in unvaccinated patients.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective cohort study.

SETTING

TriNetX research network.

METHODS

Two queries were made on 7/1/2023 to include Influenza without a diagnosis of COVID-19 and a COVID-19 without a diagnosis of Influenza. The queries included patients from January 1 to December 31, 2022 from 102 Healthcare Organizations. The resultant population of patients with ICD-10 codes for COVID-19 and Influenza were matched using demographic characteristics to evaluate the risk of smell disorders.

RESULTS

The overall 3-month incidence of smell and taste disorders was 0.73 % in the COVID-19 population and 0.1 % in the influenza population. The 3-month matched risk ratios were 11.1 [95 % CI (8.8,13.8)]; p < 0.001) times higher for disorders of the smell and taste secondary to COVID-19 compared to influenza.

CONCLUSIONS

Disorders of the smell and taste are more common among patients with COVID-19 compared to patients with Influenza. Beyond smell loss, patients experience additional nasal and sinus-related rhinological symptoms, pointing to COVID-19's and influenza's wider impact on overall rhinological health. We believe that due to the transient nature of these disorders, they might go underreported.

Clinically informative microRNAs for SARS-CoV-2 infection

COVID-19 is a viral respiratory infection induced by the newly discovered coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. miRNA is an example of a strong and direct regulator of a gene's transcriptional activity. The interaction between miRNAs and their target molecules is responsible for homeostasis. Virus-derived and host-derived miRNAs are involved in the activity of hiding from immune system cells, inducing the inflammatory reaction through interplay with associated genes, during SARS-COV-2 infection. Interest in miRNAs has raised the comprehension of the machinery and pathophysiology of SARS-COV-2 infection. In this review, the effects and biological roles of miRNAs on SARS-CoV-2 pathogenicity and life cycle are described. The therapeutic potential of miRNAs against SARS-CoV-2 infection are also mentioned.

Imbalance of Peripheral Temperature, Sympathovagal, and Cytokine Profile in Long COVID

A persistent state of inflammation has been reported during the COVID-19 pandemic. This study aimed to assess short-term heart rate variability (HRV), peripheral body temperature, and serum cytokine levels in patients with long COVID. We evaluated 202 patients with long COVID symptoms categorized them according to the duration of their COVID symptoms (≤120 days, n = 81; >120 days, n = 121), in addition to 95 healthy individuals selected as controls. All HRV variables differed significantly between the control group and patients with long COVID in the ≤120 days group (p < 0.05), and participants in the long COVID ≤120 days group had higher temperatures than those in the long COVID >120 days group in all regions analysed (p < 0.05). Cytokine analysis showed higher levels of interleukin 17 (IL-17) and interleukin 2 (IL-2), and lower levels of interleukin 4 (IL-4) (p < 0.05). Our results suggest a reduction in parasympathetic activation during long COVID and an increase in body temperature due to possible endothelial damage caused by the maintenance of elevated levels of inflammatory mediators. Furthermore, high serum levels of IL-17 and IL-2 and low levels of IL-4 appear to constitute a long-term profile of COVID-19 cytokines, and these markers are potential targets for long COVID-treatment and prevention strategies.

Neurological Manifestations and Clinical Outcomes of Patients with COVID-19 in the Aseer Region, Saudi Arabia

COVID-19 patients also present with rheumatological problems, cardiac problems, and even neurological manifestations. However, the data are still insufficient at present to fill the gaps in our understanding of the neurological presentations of COVID-19. Therefore, the present study was undertaken to reveal the various neurological manifestations of patients with COVID-19 and to find the association between neurological manifestations and the clinical outcome. This cross-sectional study was conducted in Abha, in the Aseer region of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, among COVID-19 patients aged 18 years or older who were admitted with the neurological manifestations of COVID-19 to the Aseer Central Hospital and Heart Center Hospital Abha. Non-probability convenient sampling was used. All the information was gathered by the principal investigator using a questionnaire including sociodemographic information, disease characteristics of COVID-19, neurological manifestations, and other complications. Data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Sciences, version 16.0 (SPSS, Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). A total of 55 patients were included in the present study. About half of the patients were admitted to the ICU, and 18 (62.1%) patients died after 1 month of follow-up. Patients aged over 60 years had a 75% mortality rate. About 66.66% of patients with pre-existing neurological disorders died. Statistically significant associations were found between neurological symptoms such as cranial nerve symptoms and a poor outcome. A statistically significant difference was also found between laboratory parameters such as the absolute neutrophil count (ANC), activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), total cholesterol (TC), creatinine, urea, and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) level and the outcome. A statistically significant difference was also found between the use of medications such as antiplatelets, anticoagulants, and statins at the baseline and after a 1-month follow-up. Neurological symptoms and complications are not uncommon among COVID-19 patients. Most of these patients had poor outcomes. Further studies are required to provide more data and knowledge about this issue, including the possible risk factors and the long-term neurological consequences of COVID-19.

Decreased Heart Rate Variability in COVID-19

Purpose

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which primarily infects the lower airways and binds to angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) on alveolar epithelial cells. ACE2 is widely expressed not only in the lungs but also in the cardiovascular system. Therefore, SARS-CoV-2 can also damage the myocardium. This report aimed to highlight decreased heart rate variability (HRV) and cardiac injury caused by SARS-CoV-2.

Materials and Methods

We evaluated three COVID-19 patients who died. Patients' data were collected from electronic medical records. We collected patient's information, including baseline information, lab results, body temperature, heart rate (HR), clinical outcome and other related data. We calculated the HRV and the difference between the expected and actual heart rate changes as the body temperature increased.

Results

As of March 14, 2020, 3 (2.2%) of 136 patients with COVID-19 in Tianjin died in the early stage of the COVID-19 epidemic. The immediate cause of death for Case 1, Case 2, and Case 3 was cardiogenic shock, cardiac arrest and cardiac arrest, respectively. The HRV were substantially decreased in the whole course of all three cases. The actual increases in heart rate were 5 beats/min, 13 beats/min, and 4 beats/min, respectively, less than expected as their temperature increased. Troponin I and Creatine Kinase MB isoenzyme (CK-MB) were substantially increased only in Case 3, for whom the diagnosis of virus-related cardiac injury could not be made until day 7. In all three cases, decreased in HRV and HR changes occurred earlier than increases in cardiac biomarkers (e.g., troponin I and CK-MB).

Conclusions

In conclusion, COVID-19 could affect HRV and counteract tachycardia in response to increases in body temperature. The decreases of HRV and HR changes happened earlier than the increases of myocardial markers (troponin I and CK-MB). It suggested the decreases of HRV and HR changes might help predict cardiac injury earlier than myocardial markers in COVID-19, thus its early identification might help improve patient prognosis.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s44231-022-00024-1.

Muscle dysfunction in the long coronavirus disease 2019 syndrome: Pathogenesis and clinical approach

In long coronavirus disease 2019 (long COVID-19), involvement of the musculoskeletal system is characterised by the persistence or appearance of symptoms such as fatigue, muscle weakness, myalgia, and decline in physical and functional performance, even at 4 weeks after the onset of acute symptoms of COVID-19. Muscle injury biomarkers are altered during the acute phase of the disease. The cellular damage and hyperinflammatory state induced by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection may contribute to the persistence of symptoms, hypoxaemia, mitochondrial damage, and dysregulation of the renin-angiotensin system. In addition, the occurrence of cerebrovascular diseases, involvement of the peripheral nervous system, and harmful effects of hospitalisation, such as the use of drugs, immobility, and weakness acquired in the intensive care unit, all aggravate muscle damage. Here, we review the multifactorial mechanisms of muscle tissue injury, aggravating conditions, and associated sequelae in long COVID-19.

COVID-19 neuropsychiatric repercussions: Current evidence on the subject

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection has affected the entire world, causing the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic since it was first discovered in Wuhan, China in December 2019. Among the clinical presentation of the disease, in addition to fever, fatigue, cough, dyspnea, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and abdominal pain, infected patients may also experience neurological and psychiatric repercussions during the course of the disease and as a post-COVID-19 sequelae. Thus, headache, dizziness, olfactory and gustatory dysfunction, cerebrovascular disorders, neuromuscular abnormalities, anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic stress disorder can occur both from the infection itself and from social distancing and quarantine. According to current evidence about this infection, the virus has the ability to infect the central nervous system (CNS) via angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptors on host cells. Several studies have shown the presence of ACE2 in nerve cells and nasal mucosa, as well as transmembrane serine protease 2, key points for interaction with the viral Spike glycoprotein and entry into the CNS, being olfactory tract and blood-brain barrier, through hematogenous dissemination, potential pathways. Thus, the presence of SARS-CoV-2 in the CNS supports the development of neuropsychiatric symptoms. The management of these manifestations seems more complex, given that the dense parenchyma and impermeability of brain tissue, despite protecting the brain from the infectious process, may hinder virus elimination. Still, some alternatives used in non-COVID-19 situations may lead to worse prognosis of acute respiratory syndrome, requiring caution. Therefore, the aim of this review is to bring more current points related to this infection in the CNS, as well as the repercussions of the isolation involved by the pandemic and to present perspectives on interventions in this scenario.

The residual effect of coronovirus disease 2019 on olfactory acuity and mucociliary clearance time: a cross-sectional, controlled study

Objective

This study evaluated the olfactory, sinonasal and mucociliary functions of patients with post-coronavirus disease 2019 long-term persistent olfactory dysfunction.

Method

Three groups of 30 patients each were formed: patients with a history of coronavirus disease 2019 infection with self-reported, persistent, sudden-onset olfactory dysfunction (group 1), patients with a history of coronavirus disease 2019 infection without any self-reported olfactory dysfunction (group 2) and healthy controls with no history of coronavirus disease 2019 infection (group 3). Saccharin time, Sniffin’ Sticks, Turkish Nasal Obstruction Symptom Evaluation and Sino-Nasal Outcome Test 22 scores were compared.

Results

Turkish Nasal Obstruction Symptom Evaluation scores were similar between groups (p = 0.252). Sino-Nasal Outcome Test-22 scores were higher in group 1 than groups 2 and 3 (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively). Saccharin time was significantly longer in group 1 than groups 2 and 3 (p < 0.05 and p < 0.01, respectively). Group 1 had lower olfactory scores than groups 2 and 3 (p < 0.001 and p < 0.001, respectively).

Conclusion

Mucociliary clearance time was significantly prolonged in patients with post-coronavirus disease 2019 persistent olfactory dysfunction. Coronavirus disease 2019 infection was likely to cause asymptomatic olfactory dysfunction.

Experimental Models of SARS-COV-2 Infection in the Central Nervous System

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has raised serious concerns worldwide due to its great impact on human health and forced scientists racing to find effective therapies to control the infection and a vaccine for the virus. To this end, intense research efforts have focused on understanding the viral biology of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), responsible for COVID-19. The ever-expanding list of cases, reporting clinical neurological complications in COVID-19 patients, strongly suggests the possibility of the virus invading the nervous system. The pathophysiological processes responsible for the neurological impact of COVID-19 are not fully understood. Some neurodegenerative disorders sometimes take more than a decade to manifest, so the long-term pathophysiological outcomes of SARS-CoV-2 neurotropism should be regarded as a challenge for researchers in this field. There is no documentation on the long-term impact of SARS-CoV-2 on the human central nervous system (CNS). Most of the data relating to neurological damage during SARS-CoV-2 infection have yet to be established experimentally. The purpose of this review is to describe the knowledge gained, from experimental models, to date, on the mechanisms of neuronal invasion and the effects produced by infection. The hope is that, once the processes are understood, therapies can be implemented to limit the damage produced. Long-term monitoring and the use of appropriate and effective therapies could reduce the severity of symptoms and improve quality of life of the most severely affected patients, with a special focus on those have required hospital care and assisted respiration.

Transcriptional landscape of human neuroblastoma cells in response to SARS-CoV-2

Background

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is highly contagious, and the neurological symptoms of SARS-CoV-2 infection have already been reported. However, the mechanisms underlying the effect of SARS-CoV-2 infection on patients with central nervous system injuries remain unclear.

Methods

The high-throughput RNA sequencing was applied to analyze the transcriptomic changes in SK-N-SH cells after SARS-CoV-2 infection. Gene Ontology and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes analyses were performed to identify the functions of differentially expressed genes and related pathways.

Results

A total of 820 mRNAs were significantly altered, including 671 upregulated and 149 downregulated mRNAs (showing an increase of ≥ 2-fold or decrease to ≤ 0.5-fold, respectively; p ≤ 0.05). Moreover, we verified the significant induction of cytokines, chemokines, and their receptors, as well as the activation of NF-κB, p38, and Akt signaling pathways, in SK-N-SH by SARS-CoV-2.

Conclusions

To our knowledge, this is the first time the transcriptional profiles of the host mRNAs involved in SARS-CoV-2 infection of SK-N-SH cells have been reported. These findings provide novel insight into the pathogenic mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 and might constitute a new approach for future prevention and treatment of SARS-CoV-2-induced central nervous system infection.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12868-022-00728-6.

A detailed study of ion transport through the SARS-CoV-2 E protein ion channel

The envelope (E) protein encoded in the genome of an RNA virus is crucial for the replication, budding and pathophysiology of the virus. In the light of the ongoing pandemic, we explored similarities/differences between SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2 E protein ion channels in terms of their selectivity. Further, we also examined the impact of variation of the bath concentration and introduction of potential and concentration gradients across the channel on the binding ratios of sodium and chloride ions for the SARS-CoV-2 E protein. Ion transport is described through the fourth-order Poisson-Nernst-Planck-Bikerman (4PNPBik) model which generalizes the traditional model by including ionic interactions between ions and their surrounding medium and non-ionic interactions between particles due to their finite size. Governing equations are solved numerically using the immersed boundary-lattice Boltzmann method (IB-LBM). The mathematical model has been validated by comparing analytical and experimental ion activity. The SARS-CoV-1 E protein ion channel is found to be more permeable to cationic ions, while the SARS-CoV-2 E protein has similar selectivity for both cationic and anionic species. For SARS-CoV-2, an increase in the bath concentration results in an increase in the binding ratio for sodium ions. Furthermore, the chloride binding ratio increases as the concentration gradient increases. A potential gradient has a minimal effect on the binding ratio. The SARS-CoV-2 E protein was found to support higher ionic currents than the SARS-CoV-1 E protein. Furthermore, the ionic current increased with increasing bath concentrations.

Decompressive hemicraniectomy for acute ischemic stroke: A neurosurgical view in a pandemic COVID-19 time highlights of literature

Background and purpose: The novel coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, which was identified after the outbreak in Wuhan, China, in December 2019, has kept the whole world in tenterhooks due to its severe life-threatening nature of the infection. The World Health Organization (WHO) declared coronavirus disease (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 a pandemic in 2020, an unprecedented challenge, having a high contagious life-threatening condition with unprecedented impacts for worldwide societies and health care systems. Neurologic symptoms related to SARS-CoV-2 have been described recently in the literature, and acute cerebrovascular disease is one of the most serious complications. The occurrence of large-vessel occlusion in young patients with COVID-19 infection has been exceedingly rare. In this article, we describe the profile of patients undergoing decompressive craniectomy for the treatment of intracranial hypertension by stroke associated with COVID-19 published so far. A narrative review of the central issue in focus was designed: decompressive craniectomy in a pandemic time.

Communicating Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene under Sustainable Development Goals 3, 4, and 6 as the Panacea for Epidemics and Pandemics Referencing the Succession of COVID-19 Surges

WASH (water, sanitation, and hygiene) has become the most crucial amenity in the past decade for every individual on the planet. In the UN agenda for 2030, which created 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), SDGs 3, 4, and 6 directly correlate with WASH practices and management for creating a good health hygiene environment for all. The dearth of WASH facilities has created barriers for averting the transmission of COVID-19, motivating the concept of WASH as the primary step of precaution and prevention, which includes WASH practices, communication for literacy, and positive behavioral changes primarily in developing and low-income countries. This Review deals with the complex concept of correlation of WASH and SDGs 3, 4, and 6 while defining elaborate WASH practices, including the prominence of clean water, the need for sanitation facilities, and health hygiene for good health and immunity for preparedness for and during epidemics and pandemics. Certain risk factors explain the sectors in which the gaps exist, creating a gap for implementation of WASH practices in epidemics and pandemics across the globe. Further, COVID-19 surge succession is presented along with data of different variants that have occurred. The need of WASH understanding is required using different tools (audio-visual, social media, print media, and mass media) and strategies (communication, advocacy, and positive behavioral changes) for every individual as an act to counter consequences during and after the COVID-19 pandemic and as a routine practice for future preparedness. This Review gives a detailed concept of WASH understanding for every sector from community to government agencies and research professionals to act immediately for the sustainable future of humanity.

Multisensory mental representation in covid-19 patients and the possibility of long-lasting gustatory and olfactory dysfunction in the CNS

Gustatory (GD) and olfactory (OD) dysfunctions are the most frequent neurological manifestations of COVID-19. We used mental imagery as an experimental psychological paradigm to access olfactory and gustatory brain representations in 80 Italian COVID-19 adult patients (68.75% reported both OD and GD). COVID-19 patients with OD + GD have a significantly and selectively decreased vividness of odor and taste imagery, indicating that COVID-19 has an effect on their chemosensory mental representations. OD + GD length and type influenced the status of mental chemosensory representations. OD + GD were become all COVID-19 negative at the time of testing. Data suggest that patients are not explicitly aware of long-term altered chemosensory processing. However, differences emerge when their chemosensory function is implicitly assessed using self-ratings. Among patients developing OD + GD, self-ratings of chemosensory function (taste, flavor) were significantly lower as compared to those who did not. At the level of mental representation, such differences can be further detected, in terms of a reduced ability to mentally activate an odor or taste mental image. Our study shows that COVID-19 infection not only frequently causes hyposmia and dysgeusia, but that may also alter the mental representations responsible for olfactory and gustatory perception.

The prevalence of olfactory and gustatory dysfunction in covid-19 - A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Loss of smell or taste are early symptoms of COVID-19. Given the high asymptomatic rate of COVID-19, as well as unreliable temperature checking and contact history taking, it is important to understand the role of olfactory and gustatory dysfunction (OGD) in the diagnosis of COVID-19. The aim of this study is to determine how initial symptoms of OGD can be used to screen patients for COVID-19 laboratory testing.

METHODS

We followed recommendations from the Preferred Reporting Items for Systemic Reviews and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) statement to conduct this systematic review study. We used OGD-related key words to search for literature published between January 1, 2020 and September 30, 2020 on Pubmed, Ovid Medline databases. We estimated the prevalence of OGD and compared it with that of other OGD-related symptoms. The weighted summary proportion under the fixed and random effects model was assessed using MedCalc statistical software. Whenever there was heterogeneity, a random effects model was selected. Publication bias was assessed by funnel plot asymmetry and Egger's regression test.

RESULTS

A total of 25 articles (evidence level III:5; IV:20) were identified and reviewed. Data synthesis of 19 articles revealed that the pooled prevalence of olfactory dysfunction in COVID-19 is 53.56% (range 5.6-100%, 95% CI 40.25-66.61%). The pooled prevalence of gustatory dysfunction in COVID-19 is 43.93% (range 1.5-85.18%, 95% CI 28.72-59.74%), just behind fever (62.22%, range 18.18-95.83%, 95% CI 54.82-69.33%), cough (64.74%, range 38.89-87.5%, 95% CI 57.97-71.22%), and fatigue (56.74%, range 6.25-93.62%, 95% CI 32.53-79.35%). The prevalence of gustatory dysfunction in subgroup with objective evaluation is lower than those without (9.91% vs. 49.21%, relive risk 2.82, p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Our updated systematic review attests that OGD is an important early symptom of COVID-19 infection. Screening for OGD should be further emphasized to prioritize patients for laboratory test.

COVCOG 2: Cognitive and Memory Deficits in Long COVID: A Second Publication From the COVID and Cognition Study

COVID-19, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has been often characterized as a respiratory disease. However, it is increasingly being understood as an infection that impacts multiple systems, and many patients report neurological symptoms. Indeed, there is accumulating evidence for neural damage in some individuals, with recent studies suggesting loss of gray matter in multiple regions, particularly in the left hemisphere. There are several mechanisms by which the COVID-19 infection may lead to neurological symptoms and structural and functional changes in the brain, and cognitive problems are one of the most commonly reported symptoms in those experiencing Long COVID - the chronic illness following the COVID-19 infection that affects between 10 and 25% of patients. However, there is yet little research testing cognition in Long COVID. The COVID and Cognition Study is a cross-sectional/longitudinal study aiming to understand cognitive problems in Long COVID. The first paper from the study explored the characteristics of our sample of 181 individuals who had experienced the COVID-19 infection, and 185 who had not, and the factors that predicted ongoing symptoms and self-reported cognitive deficits. In this second paper from the study, we assess this sample on tests of memory, language, and executive function. We hypothesize that performance on "objective" cognitive tests will reflect self-reported cognitive symptoms. We further hypothesize that some symptom profiles may be more predictive of cognitive performance than others, perhaps giving some information about the mechanism. We found a consistent pattern of memory deficits in those that had experienced the COVID-19 infection, with deficits increasing with the severity of self-reported ongoing symptoms. Fatigue/Mixed symptoms during the initial illness and ongoing neurological symptoms were predictive of cognitive performance.

COVCOG 1: Factors Predicting Physical, Neurological and Cognitive Symptoms in Long COVID in a Community Sample. A First Publication From the COVID and Cognition Study

Since its first emergence in December 2019, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has evolved into a global pandemic. Whilst often considered a respiratory disease, a large proportion of COVID-19 patients report neurological symptoms, and there is accumulating evidence for neural damage in some individuals, with recent studies suggesting loss of gray matter in multiple regions, particularly in the left hemisphere. There are a number of mechanisms by which COVID-19 infection may lead to neurological symptoms and structural and functional changes in the brain, and it is reasonable to expect that many of these may translate into cognitive problems. Indeed, cognitive problems are one of the most commonly reported symptoms in those experiencing "Long COVID"-the chronic illness following COVID-19 infection that affects between 10 and 25% of patients. The COVID and Cognition Study is a part cross-sectional, part longitudinal, study documenting and aiming to understand the cognitive problems in Long COVID. In this first paper from the study, we document the characteristics of our sample of 181 individuals who had experienced COVID-19 infection, and 185 who had not. We explore which factors may be predictive of ongoing symptoms and their severity, as well as conducting an in-depth analysis of symptom profiles. Finally, we explore which factors predict the presence and severity of cognitive symptoms, both throughout the ongoing illness and at the time of testing. The main finding from this first analysis is that that severity of initial illness is a significant predictor of the presence and severity of ongoing symptoms, and that some symptoms during the initial illness-particularly limb weakness-may be more common in those that have more severe ongoing symptoms. Symptom profiles can be well described in terms of 5 or 6 factors, reflecting the variety of this highly heterogenous condition experienced by the individual. Specifically, we found that neurological/psychiatric and fatigue/mixed symptoms during the initial illness, and that neurological, gastrointestinal, and cardiopulmonary/fatigue symptoms during the ongoing illness, predicted experience of cognitive symptoms.

Epidemiological features and dynamic changes in blood biochemical indices for COVID-19 patients in Hebi

BACKGROUND

Millions of people have died of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) due to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, and retrospective studies of the disease in local regions are necessary.

AIM

To characterize the epidemiological features and dynamic changes in blood biochemical indices for SARS-CoV-2-infected patients in Hebi, a representative city with a large floating population in North China.

METHODS

From January 25 to February 10, 2020, the clinical data of patients who tested positive for SARS-CoV-2 by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction in Hebi city (China) were evaluated at admission, and laboratory data for hematologic parameters, inflammatory indices, coagulation function indices, liver function indices, blood lipid indices, renal function indices, myocardial enzyme activities and five blood biochemical markers of immunity were evaluated at admission, upon hospitalization and before discharge.

RESULTS

Sixteen confirmed COVID-19 patients developed pneumonia but were cured after adequate treatment. Fever and fatigue were the common symptoms. The most common laboratory abnormalities of patients at admission were leukopenia, eosinopenia, decreased percentage of eosinophils, elevated high sensitivity C-reactive protein and fibrinogen levels, hypoalbuminemia, mildly increased aspartate transferase activity and levels of bilirubin, and increased levels of β2-microglobulin. Importantly, aggravated liver dysfunction was detected in most patients, which may be partially attributed to virus infection as well as medicinal treatment.

CONCLUSION

This study provides several potential diagnostic markers and dynamic biochemical indices of disease progression to better prevent, diagnose and treat COVID-19 infection.

Insight into prognostics, diagnostics, and management strategies for SARS CoV-2

The foremost challenge in countering infectious diseases is the shortage of effective therapeutics. The emergence of coronavirus disease (COVID-19) outbreak has posed a great menace to the public health system globally, prompting unprecedented endeavors to contain the virus. Many countries have organized research programs for therapeutics and management development. However, the longstanding process has forced authorities to implement widespread infrastructures for detailed prognostic and diagnostics study of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS CoV-2). This review discussed nearly all the globally developed diagnostic methodologies reported for SARS CoV-2 detection. We have highlighted in detail the approaches for evaluating COVID-19 biomarkers along with the most employed nucleic acid- and protein-based detection methodologies and the causes of their severe downfall and rejection. As the variable variants of SARS CoV-2 came into the picture, we captured the breadth of newly integrated digital sensing prototypes comprised of plasmonic and field-effect transistor-based sensors along with commercially available food and drug administration (FDA) approved detection kits. However, more efforts are required to exploit the available resources to manufacture cheap and robust diagnostic methodologies. Likewise, the visualization and characterization tools along with the current challenges associated with waste-water surveillance, food security, contact tracing, and their role during this intense period of the pandemic have also been discussed. We expect that the integrated data will be supportive and aid in the evaluation of sensing technologies not only in current but also future pandemics.

Olfactory and Taste Disorders in Patients Suffering from Covid-19, a Review of Literature

Corona virus epidemic has caused a widespread disaster around the world. In studies, there are pieces of evidence of olfactory and taste dysfunction in patients with Covid-19. These symptoms occur independently or can be associated with other symptoms such as dry cough. The mechanism of the above-mentioned disorders and their clinical features in patients are not yet known. The rate of incidence of olfactory dysfunction in patients has been varied from 29.64% to 75.23% and the rate of incidence of taste dysfunction among the people can be different from 20.46% to 68.95%. Therefore, clinicians including ENT specialists and dentists should pay attention to the symptoms of anosmia and ageusia in these patients to prevent delayed diagnosis and inappropriate treatments. In this review article, data have been collected by searching the available articles in the domestic and foreign journals using databases such as PubMed, PubMed Central, Medline, EBSCO, Google Scholar, and Embase with key words of Anosmia, Ageusia, Dysgeusia, Covid-19, and Coronavirus from 2019 to 2020. Among the relevant references, 38 authoritative articles were chosen. The data showed that it seems olfactory and taste function disorders are the obvious symptoms of Covid-19, which can occur independently or with other symptoms, but the pathogenesis is not well specified yet. Therefore, further studies are required to achieve a reliable result in this area.

The securitization of the Covid-19 pandemic in Greece: a just or unjust securitization?

The purpose of this article is to assess the justness or unjustness of the securitization of Covid-19 in the Greek case. To do so, the Just Securitization Theory, is used as articulated by Rita Floyd to examine the following research question: Was there a just initiation and just conduct in the case of the securitization of Covid-19 in Greece? To answer this question, the methodology employed is a mix of methods proposed by Rita Floyd, such as the recourse to natural sciences to establish the actuality of the threat in combination with discourse analysis in political and scientific actors' speech acts and qualitative analysis of legal policy documents. In total, 85 statements and legal documents were examined for the period 26/02/2020 to 15/06/2020 which is considered to be the first "phase" of the pandemic. Overall, the analysis shows that the securitization of the Covid-19 pandemic in Greece was just. More specifically, there was indeed an existential threat, the securitizing actors were sincere in their intentions to securitize Covid-19, whereas the good gained from this securitization (physical survival and protection of public health) was greater than the harm inflicted (suspension of liberties). In addition, the results show that the securitization of Covid-19 in Greece did not cause more insecurity than it aimed to solve and that the overall response from the Greek Government was proportionate to the threat and respectful of the human rights of the people secured by the threat.

Immune Response Is Key to Genetic Mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2 Infection With Psychiatric Disorders Based on Differential Gene Expression Pattern Analysis

Existing evidence demonstrates that coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) leads to psychiatric illness, despite its main clinical manifestations affecting the respiratory system. People with mental disorders are more susceptible to COVID-19 than individuals without coexisting mental health disorders, with significantly higher rates of severe illness and mortality in this population. The incidence of new psychiatric diagnoses after infection with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is also remarkably high. SARS-CoV-2 has been reported to use angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) as a receptor for infecting susceptible cells and is expressed in various tissues, including brain tissue. Thus, there is an urgent need to investigate the mechanism linking psychiatric disorders to COVID-19. Using a data set of peripheral blood cells from patients with COVID-19, we compared this to data sets of whole blood collected from patients with psychiatric disorders and used bioinformatics and systems biology approaches to identify genetic links. We found a large number of overlapping immune-related genes between patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 and differentially expressed genes of bipolar disorder (BD), schizophrenia (SZ), and late-onset major depressive disorder (LOD). Many pathways closely related to inflammatory responses, such as MAPK, PPAR, and TGF-β signaling pathways, were observed by enrichment analysis of common differentially expressed genes (DEGs). We also performed a comprehensive analysis of protein-protein interaction network and gene regulation networks. Chemical-protein interaction networks and drug prediction were used to screen potential pharmacologic therapies. We hope that by elucidating the relationship between the pathogenetic processes and genetic mechanisms of infection with SARS-CoV-2 with psychiatric disorders, it will lead to innovative strategies for future research and treatment of psychiatric disorders linked to COVID-19.

Dificultad respiratoria y COVID-19: Un llamado a la investigación

La dificultad respiratoria, también conocida como disnea, es un síntoma frecuente que causa debilidad. Varios reportes han destacado la ausencia de disnea en un subgrupo de pacientes que padecen COVID-19, en la llamada hipoxemia «silenciosa» o «feliz». Los reportes también han mencionado la falta de una relación clara entre la gravedad clínica de la enfermedad y los niveles de disnea referidos por los pacientes. Se ha demostrado en gran medida que entre las complicaciones cerebrales del COVID-19 hay alta prevalencia de encefalopatía aguda, que podría afectar el procesamiento de las señales aferentes o bien la modulación descendente de las señales de disnea. En esta revisión pretendemos destacar los mecanismos implicados en la disnea y resumir la fisiopatología del COVID-19 y sus efectos en la interacción cerebro-pulmón. Posteriormente, presentamos hipótesis sobre la alteración de la percepción de la disnea en pacientes con COVID-19 y sugerimos formas de investigar más a fondo este fenómeno.

Regulation of acute reflectory hyperinflammation in viral and other diseases by means of stellate ganglion block. A conceptual view with a focus on Covid-19

Whereas the autonomic nervous system (ANS) and the immune system used to be assigned separate functions, it has now become clear that the ANS and the immune system (and thereby inflammatory cascades) work closely together. During an acute immune response (e. g., in viral infection like Covid-19) the ANS and the immune system establish a fast interaction resulting in "physiological" inflammation. Based on our knowledge of the modulation of inflammation by the ANS we propose that a reflectory malfunction of the ANS with hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) may be involved in the generation of acute hyperinflammation. We believe that sympathetic hyperactivity triggers a hyperresponsiveness of the immune system ("cytokine storm") with consecutive tissue damage. These reflectory neuroimmunological and inflammatory cascades constitute a general reaction principle of the organism under the leadership of the ANS and does not only occur in viral infections, although Covid-19 is a typical current example therefore. Within the overreaction several interdependent pathological positive feedback loops can be detected in which the SNS plays an important part. Consequently, there is a chance to regulate the hyperinflammation by influencing the SNS. This can be achieved by a stellate ganglion block (SGB) with local anesthetics, temporarily disrupting the pathological positive feedback loops. Thereafter, the complex neuroimmune system has the chance to reorganize itself. Previous clinical and experimental data have confirmed a favorable outcome in hyperinflammation (including pneumonia) after SGB (measurable e. g. by a reduction in proinflammatory cytokines).

In Search of a Neurotologic Profile in COVID-19 - A Study in Health Care Workers

Introduction COVID-19 is an emerging disease and the neurotologic symptoms are still not well understood. Furthermore, the development of a neurotological profile and its associated factors can help the clinician in the diagnosis and treatment of this disease. The objective is to determine the neurotologic manifestations experienced by COVID-19 positive health care workers and their associated factors. Methods A symptoms survey was administered to health care workers who were positive to COVID-19 from September to October 2020. An informed consent form was digitally signed and Google Forms software was used for the survey. Frequencies and percentages were used for categorical variables, and associated clinical features were reported with odds ratios. Results We included 209 COVID-19 positive health care workers, 55.5% (n = 116) were women, and 44.5% (n = 93) were men. Fifty-three percent of patients were 20 to 30 years old and 56.4% had at least one comorbidity. The prevalence of neurotological manifestations was 18.6% (n = 39/209), the most frequent symptoms were vertigo (61.5%, n = 24/39), tinnitus (43.5%, n = 17/39), imbalance (43.5%, n = 17/39), and one case of facial paralysis (2.5%, n = 1/39). Neurotological manifestations were associated predominantly with asthenia (p = 0.021), loss of smell (p = 0.002) and taste dysfunction (p = 0.002). Conclusion The most common neurotological manifestations were vertigo, tinnitus and imbalance. Clinical features associated with a neurotologic profile were asthenia, hyposmia and dysgeusia.

Atemnot und COVID-19: Ein Aufruf zu mehr Forschung

Atemnot, auch als Dyspnoe bezeichnet, ist ein häufiges und lähmendes Symptom. In mehreren Berichten wurde die Abwesenheit von Atemnot bei einer Untergruppe von Patienten mit COVID-19 hervorgehoben, die manchmal als «stille» oder «glückliche Hypoxie» bezeichnet wird. Ebenfalls wurde in Berichten erwähnt, dass es an einem klaren Zusammenhang zwischen dem klinischen Schweregrad der Erkrankung und der von den Patienten berichteten Schwere der Atemnot fehlt. Die zerebralen Komplikationen von COVID-19 sind weitgehend nachgewiesen, mit einer hohen Prävalenz akuter Enzephalopathien, die möglicherweise die Verarbeitung afferenter Signale oder die absteigende Modulation von Atemnotsignalen beeinträchtigen könnte. In dieser Übersichtsarbeit möchten wir die an der Atemnot beteiligten Mechanismen hervorheben und die Pathophysiologie von COVID-19 und den bekannten Auswirkungen der Erkrankung auf die Interaktion von Gehirn und Lunge zusammenfassen. Anschließend stellen wir Hypothesen für die Veränderung der Wahrnehmung von Atemnot bei COVID-19-Patienten auf und schlagen Möglichkeiten vor, mit denen dieses Phänomen weiter erforscht werden könnte.

Update on neurological symptoms in patients infected with severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2

Novel coronavirus 19 (COVID-19) is the latest and most intense epidemic, which is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). In addition to causing respiratory symptoms, SARS-CoV-2 can have severe effects on the nervous system. Clinically, COVID-19 patients have been reported ranging from mild hypogeusia and hyposmia to severe neurological disorders, such as encephalopathy, encephalitis, strokes, and seizures syndrome. However, the pathological mechanisms of this SARS-CoV-2 neuro aggressiveness remain unclear, so it is of great significance to explore the neurological effects of SARS-CoV-2 infection. To facilitate clinicians to timely recognize the manifestations of COVID-19 patients with neurological injury and timely treatment, the author hereby reviews the latest research progress in the possible pathways, clinical manifestations, and pathogenesis of COVID-19 patients with nerve injury.

Spike protein multiorgan tropism suppressed by antibodies targeting SARS-CoV-2

While there is SARS-CoV-2 multiorgan tropism in severely infected COVID-19 patients, it's unclear if this occurs in healthy young individuals. In addition, for antibodies that target the spike protein (SP), it's unclear if these reduce SARS-CoV-2/SP multiorgan tropism equally. We used fluorescently labeled SP-NIRF to study viral behavior, using an in vivo dynamic imaging system and ex in vivo tissue analysis, in young mice. We found a SP body-wide biodistribution followed by a slow regional elimination, except for the liver, which showed an accumulation. SP uptake was highest for the lungs, and this was followed by kidney, heart and liver, but, unlike the choroid plexus, it was not detected in the brain parenchyma or CSF. Thus, the brain vascular barriers were effective in restricting the entry of SP into brain parenchyma in young healthy mice. While both anti-ACE2 and anti-SP antibodies suppressed SP biodistribution and organ uptake, anti-SP antibody was more effective. By extension, our data support the efficacy of these antibodies on SARS-CoV-2 multiorgan tropism, which could determine COVID-19 organ-specific outcomes.

Post-Acute COVID-19 Syndrome for Anesthesiologists: A Narrative Review and a Pragmatic Approach to Clinical Care

Post-acute coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) syndrome is a novel, poorly understood clinical entity with life-impacting ramifications. Patients with this syndrome, also known as "COVID-19 long-haulers," often present with nonspecific ailments involving more than one body system. The most common complaints include dyspnea, fatigue, brain fog, and chest pain. There currently is no single agreed-upon definition for post-acute COVID-19 syndrome, but most agree that criterion for this syndrome is the persistence of mental and physical health consequences after initial infection. Given the millions of acute infections in the United States over the course of the pandemic, perioperative providers will encounter these patients in clinical practice in growing numbers. Symptoms of the COVID-19 long-haulers should not be minimized, as these patients are at higher risk for postoperative respiratory complications and perioperative mortality for up to seven weeks after initial illness. Instead, a cautious multidisciplinary preoperative evaluation should be performed. Perioperative care should be viewed through the prism of best practices already in use, such as avoidance of benzodiazepines in patients with cognitive impairment and use of lung-protective ventilation. Recommendations especially relevant to the COVID-19 long-haulers include assessment of critical care myopathies and neuropathies to determine suitable neuromuscular blocking agents and reversal, preoperative workup of insidious cardiac or pulmonary pathologies in previously healthy patients, and, thorough medication review, particularly of anticoagulation regimens and chronic steroid use. In this article, the authors define the syndrome, synthesize the available scientific evidence, and make pragmatic suggestions regarding the perioperative clinical care of COVID-19 long-haulers.

What can the neurological manifestations of COVID-19 tell us: a meta-analysis

Background

Covid-19 became a global pandemic in 2019. Studies have shown that coronavirus can cause neurological symptoms, but clinical studies on its neurological symptoms are limited. In this meta-analysis, we aimed to summarize the various neurological manifestations that occurred in COVID-19 patients and calculate the incidence of various neurological manifestations. At the same time, we further explored the mechanism of nervous system injury and prognosis in COVID-19 patients in combination with their nervous system manifestations. This study provides a reference for early clinical identification of COVID-19 nervous system injury in the future, so as to achieve early treatment and reduce neurological sequelae.

Methods

We systematically searched all published English literature related to the neurological manifestations of COVID-19 from January 1, 2020, to April 30, 2021, in Pubmed, Embase, and Cochrane Library. The keywords used were COVID-19 and terminology related to the nervous system performance. All included studies were selected by two independent reviewers using EndNote and NoteExpress software, any disagreement was resolved by consensus or by a third reviewer, and the selected data were then collected for meta-analysis using a random-effects model.

Results

A total of 168 articles (n = 292,693) were included in the study, and the meta-analysis showed that the most common neurological manifestations of COVID-19 were myalgia(33%; 95%CI 0.30–0.37; I² = 99.17%), smell impairment(33%; 95%CI 0.28–0.38; I² = 99.40%), taste dysfunction(33%; 95%CI 0.27–0.39; I² = 99.09%), altered mental status(32%; 95%CI 0.22–0.43; I² = 99.06%), headache(29%; 95%CI 0.25–0.33; I² = 99.42%), encephalopathy(26%; 95%CI 0.16–0.38; I² = 99.31%), alteration of consciousness(13%; 95%CI 0.08–0.19; I² = 98.10%), stroke(12%; 95%CI 0.08–0.16; I² = 98.95%), dizziness(10%; 95%CI 0.08–0.13; I² = 96.45%), vision impairment(6%; 95%CI 0.03–0.09; I² = 86.82%), intracerebral haemorrhage(5%; 95%CI 0.03–0.09; I² = 95.60%), seizure(4%; 95%CI 0.02 -0.05; I² = 98.15%), encephalitis(2%; 95%CI 0.01–0.03; I² = 90.36%), Guillan-Barré Syndrome (GBS) (1%; 95%CI 0.00–0.03; I² = 89.48%).

Conclusions

Neurological symptoms are common and varied in Covid-19 infections, and a growing number of reports suggest that the prevalence of neurological symptoms may be increasing. In the future, the role of COVID-19 neurological symptoms in the progression of COVID-19 should be further studied, and its pathogenesis and assessment methods should be explored, to detect and treat early neurological complications of COVID-19 and reduce mortality.

MicroRNA‑28‑3p inhibits angiotensin‑converting enzyme 2 ectodomain shedding in 293T cells treated with the spike protein of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 by targeting A disintegrin and metalloproteinase 17

Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the SARS-CoV binding site and is ubiquitously expressed in endothelial cells of several organs, with the highest levels in the cardiovascular system, kidney and lungs. A disintegrin and metalloproteinase 17 (ADAM17) is involved in ectodomain shedding of ACE2. In the present study, reverse-transcription-quantitative PCR, transfection, TUNNEL assay, dual-luciferase activity assay and western blotting were conducted to investigate the effects of microRNA (miR)-28-3p on ADAM17-dependent shedding of the ACE2 ectodomain following treatment with the spike protein (S-protein) of SARS-CoV-2. It was found that miR-28-3p was significantly downregulated in 293T cells treated with 100 ng/ml of S-protein for 24 h at 37°C, which led to upregulation of ADAM17. In addition, the expression of ADAM17 and miR-28-3p were negatively correlated based on Pearson's correlation test in 293T cells treated with S-protein for 24 h. Overexpression of miR-28-3p and inhibition of ADAM17 regulated 293T cell viability, apoptosis and ACE2 ectodomain shedding. It was also demonstrated that ADAM17 was the target gene of miR-28-3p and that miR-28-3p negatively regulated ADAM17 expression. Notably, the inhibition of ADAM17 expression blocked the effects of miR-28-3p inhibitor on proliferation, apoptosis and ACE2 ectodomain shedding in 293T cells treated with S-protein. The findings of the present study suggested that miR-28-3p inhibits ADAM17-dependent ACE2 ectodomain shedding in 293T cells treated with the S-protein of SARS-CoV-2, which suggested the potential therapeutic role of miR-28-3p mimic in the prevention and treatment of patients with SARS-CoV-2.

Long Noncoding RNAs as Emerging Regulators of COVID-19

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which has high incidence rates with rapid rate of transmission, is a pandemic that spread across the world, resulting in more than 3,000,000 deaths globally. Currently, several drugs have been used for the clinical treatment of COVID-19, such as antivirals (radecivir, baritinib), monoclonal antibodies (tocilizumab), and glucocorticoids (dexamethasone). Accumulating evidence indicates that long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are essential regulators of virus infections and antiviral immune responses including biological processes that are involved in the regulation of COVID-19 and subsequent disease states. Upon viral infections, cellular lncRNAs directly regulate viral genes and influence viral replication and pathology through virus-mediated changes in the host transcriptome. Additionally, several host lncRNAs could help the occurrence of viral immune escape by inhibiting type I interferons (IFN-1), while others could up-regulate IFN-1 production to play an antiviral role. Consequently, understanding the expression and function of lncRNAs during severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection will provide insights into the development of lncRNA-based methods. In this review, we summarized the current findings of lncRNAs in the regulation of the strong inflammatory response, immune dysfunction and thrombosis induced by SARS-CoV-2 infection, discussed the underlying mechanisms, and highlighted the therapeutic challenges of COVID-19 treatment and its future research directions.

Cell therapy strategies for COVID-19: Current approaches and potential applications

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) continues to burden society worldwide. Despite most patients having a mild course, severe presentations have limited treatment options. COVID-19 manifestations extend beyond the lungs and may affect the cardiovascular, nervous, and other organ systems. Current treatments are nonspecific and do not address potential long-term consequences such as pulmonary fibrosis, demyelination, and ischemic organ damage. Cell therapies offer great potential in treating severe COVID-19 presentations due to their customizability and regenerative function. This review summarizes COVID-19 pathogenesis, respective areas where cell therapies have potential, and the ongoing 89 cell therapy trials in COVID-19 as of 1 January 2021.

COVID-19: a new emerging respiratory disease from the neurological perspective

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) has become a challenging public health catastrophe worldwide. The newly emerged disease spread in almost all countries and infected 100 million persons worldwide. The infection is not limited to the respiratory system but involves various body systems and may lead to multiple organ failure. Tissue degenerative changes result from direct viral invasion, indirect consequences, or through an uncontrolled immune response. Severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) spreads to the brain via hematogenous and neural routes accompanied with dysfunction of the blood-brain barrier. The involvement of the central nervous system is now suspected to be among the main causes of death. The present review discusses the historical background of coronaviruses, their role in previous and ongoing pandemics, the way they escape the immune system, why they are able to spread despite all undertaken measures, in addition to the neurological manifestations, long-term consequences of the disease, and various routes of viral introduction to the CNS.

Breathlessness and COVID-19: A Call for Research

Breathlessness, also known as dyspnoea, is a debilitating and frequent symptom. Several reports have highlighted the lack of dyspnoea in a subgroup of patients suffering from COVID-19, sometimes referred to as “silent” or “happy hyp­oxaemia.” Reports have also mentioned the absence of a clear relationship between the clinical severity of the disease and levels of breathlessness reported by patients. The cerebral complications of COVID-19 have been largely demonstrated with a high prevalence of an acute encephalopathy that could possibly affect the processing of afferent signals or top-down modulation of breathlessness signals. In this review, we aim to highlight the mechanisms involved in breathlessness and summarize the pathophysiology of COVID-19 and its known effects on the brain-lung interaction. We then offer hypotheses for the alteration of breathlessness perception in COVID-19 patients and suggest ways of further researching this phenomenon.

Vertebral Pain in Acute COVID-19—Cases Report

Pain is one of the most common complaints among patients infected by SARS-CoV-2. While headache and chest pain are reported widely among COVID-19 presentations, there are only scarce reports about vertebral pain. This study aims to describe cases of four healthy and physically active adults, in whom the new onset of back pain was the early or only sign of COVID-19 and the reason for seeking medical outpatient care. The vertebral pain showed great variability and changed dramatically during the course of disease. Pseudoradicular symptoms were present inconstantly and variably; in some patients they varied through the day from left to right side and irradiated from various sensory root segments. Clinical symptoms did not correspond with minor morphological changes presented on MRI scans. Our experience indicates that new onset of vertebral algic syndrome should be considered as an initial indicator of novel coronavirus infection in healthy and physically active adults. There is a pressing need for attention to be paid in the examination of patients with new vertebral pain onset in the coronavirus pandemic.

SARS-CoV-2: is there neuroinvasion?

BACKGROUND

SARS-CoV-2, a coronavirus (CoV), is known to cause acute respiratory distress syndrome, and a number of non-respiratory complications, particularly in older male patients with prior health conditions, such as obesity, diabetes and hypertension. These prior health conditions are associated with vascular dysfunction, and the CoV disease 2019 (COVID-19) complications include multiorgan failure and neurological problems. While the main route of entry into the body is inhalation, this virus has been found in many tissues, including the choroid plexus and meningeal vessels, and in neurons and CSF.

MAIN BODY

We reviewed SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19, ACE2 distribution and beneficial effects, the CNS vascular barriers, possible mechanisms by which the virus enters the brain, outlined prior health conditions (obesity, hypertension and diabetes), neurological COVID-19 manifestation and the aging cerebrovascualture. The overall aim is to provide the general reader with a breadth of information on this type of virus and the wide distribution of its main receptor so as to better understand the significance of neurological complications, uniqueness of the brain, and the pre-existing medical conditions that affect brain. The main issue is that there is no sound evidence for large flux of SARS-CoV-2 into brain, at present, compared to its invasion of the inhalation pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

While SARS-CoV-2 is detected in brains from severely infected patients, it is unclear on how it gets there. There is no sound evidence of SARS-CoV-2 flux into brain to significantly contribute to the overall outcomes once the respiratory system is invaded by the virus. The consensus, based on the normal route of infection and presence of SARS-CoV-2 in severely infected patients, is that the olfactory mucosa is a possible route into brain. Studies are needed to demonstrate flux of SARS-CoV-2 into brain, and its replication in the parenchyma to demonstrate neuroinvasion. It is possible that the neurological manifestations of COVID-19 are a consequence of mainly cardio-respiratory distress and multiorgan failure. Understanding potential SARS-CoV-2 neuroinvasion pathways could help to better define the non-respiratory neurological manifestation of COVID-19.

A comprehensive review of imaging findings in COVID-19 - status in early 2021

Medical imaging methods are assuming a greater role in the workup of patients with COVID-19, mainly in relation to the primary manifestation of pulmonary disease and the tissue distribution of the angiotensin-converting-enzyme 2 (ACE 2) receptor. However, the field is so new that no consensus view has emerged guiding clinical decisions to employ imaging procedures such as radiography, computer tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), and magnetic resonance imaging, and in what measure the risk of exposure of staff to possible infection could be justified by the knowledge gained. The insensitivity of current RT-PCR methods for positive diagnosis is part of the rationale for resorting to imaging procedures. While CT is more sensitive than genetic testing in hospitalized patients, positive findings of ground glass opacities depend on the disease stage. There is sparse reporting on PET/CT with [18F]-FDG in COVID-19, but available results are congruent with the earlier literature on viral pneumonias. There is a high incidence of cerebral findings in COVID-19, and likewise evidence of gastrointestinal involvement. Artificial intelligence, notably machine learning is emerging as an effective method for diagnostic image analysis, with performance in the discriminative diagnosis of diagnosis of COVID-19 pneumonia comparable to that of human practitioners.

Nervous System Involvement in COVID-19: a Review of the Current Knowledge

The current pandemic of the new human coronavirus (CoV), i.e., severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has created an urgent global condition. The disease, termed coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is primarily known as a respiratory tract infection. Although SARS-CoV-2 directly invades the lungs, COVID-19 is a complex multi-system disease with varying degrees of severity and affects several human systems including the cardiovascular, respiratory, gastrointestinal, neurological, hematopoietic, and immune systems. From the existing data, most COVID-19 cases develop a mild disease typically presented with fever and respiratory illness. However, in some patients, clinical evidence suggests that COVID-19 might progress to acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), multi-organ dysfunction, and septic shock resulting in a critical condition. Likewise, specific organ dysfunction seems to be related to the disease complication, worsens the condition, and increases the lethality of COVID-19. The neurological manifestations in association with disease severity and mortality have been reported in COVID-19 patients. Despite the continuously increasing reports of the neurological symptoms of SARS-CoV-2, our knowledge about the possible routes of nervous system involvement associated with COVID-19 is limited. Herein, we will primarily describe the critical aspects and clinical features of SARS-CoV-2 related to nervous system impairment and then discuss possible routes of SARS-CoV-2 nervous system involvement based on the current evidence.

Risk of contracting SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) from hospital admission and the impact of protection efforts on acute stroke treatment

Background

It is unclear how interventions designed to restrict community and in-hospital exposure to the SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19) virus influenced stroke care for patients seeking acute treatment. Therefore, we aimed to determine how these COVID-19 interventions impacted acute stroke treatment times and to assess the risk of contracting COVID-19 due to their stay in our medical center.

Methods

Retrospective, single center, two-phase study evaluating hospital and community trends from 12/2019 – 04/2020 compared to the previous year and pre/post (n = 156/93) intervention implementation. Phase I assessed stroke treatment times, delay to hospital arrival, and witnessed stroke volume. Phase II, a post-implementation telephone survey, assessed risk of developing symptoms or testing positive for COVID-19.

Results

Stroke volume declined by 29% (p < .05) from April to March compared to the previous year. However, no significant delays in seeking medical care (pre Mdn=112, post Mdn=95, p = .34) was observed. Witnessed stroke volume decreased 11% (p < .001) compared to the pre-implementation group, but no significant delay in IV alteplase (pre Mdn=22 mins; post Mdn=26 mins, p = .08) nor endovascular treatment (pre Mdn=60 mins; post Mdn=80 mins, p = .45) was observed. In Phase II, 63 patients participated, two tested (3%) COVID-19 positive during admission and four (6%) within two weeks of discharge. COVID-19 contraction risk during and after hospitalization remained similar to the general population (RR=1.75, 95%CI: 0.79–3.63). Overall results indicated a marked decrease in stroke volume, no significant delays to either seek or provide acute stroke care were evident, and COVID-19 contraction risk was low.

Conclusions

Seeking acute stroke medical care outweighs the risk of COVID-19 exposure.

COVID-19 and central nervous system interplay: A big picture beyond clinical manifestation

The coronavirus disease (COVID-19) caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has been declared a pandemic. Global research updates confirm that the infected patients manifest a range of clinical symptoms and sometimes remain entirely asymptomatic, posing a greater threat to the people coming in contact. Despite several case reports coming up every day, our knowledge about the neurotropic mechanism of the SARS-CoV-2, immunological responses, and the mode of disease progression and mechanism of cross-talk between the central nervous system (CNS), heart, lungs, and other major organs is not complete. Report of anosmia, ataxia, dysgeusia, and altered psychological status of the infected COVID-19 patients offers some clue to the possible route of viral entry and multiplication. In this review, we have critically assessed the involvement of CNS dysregulation in COVID-19 patients. The probable mechanism of immunological responses, the impairment of the coagulation pathway, the onset of cytokine storm, its interplay with the HPA axis, and hypoxia are discussed in detail here. Based on the latest research findings and some case reports of hospitalized COVID-19 patients, it is evident that the CNS involvement in disease progression is alarming. Accurate and timely detection of viral load in CNS is necessary to allow prompt and effective treatment modalities.

Possible entry sites of SARS-CoV-2 to the central nervous system of human being and the downstream manifestations.

The chronic neuropsychiatric sequelae of COVID-19: The need for a prospective study of viral impact on brain functioning

INTRODUCTION

The increasing evidence of SARS-CoV-2 impact on the central nervous system (CNS) raises key questions on its impact for risk of later life cognitive decline, Alzheimer's disease (AD), and other dementia.

METHODS

The Alzheimer's Association and representatives from more than 30 countries-with technical guidance from the World Health Organization-have formed an international consortium to study the short-and long-term consequences of SARS-CoV-2 on the CNS-including the underlying biology that may contribute to AD and other dementias. This consortium will link teams from around the world covering more than 22 million COVID-19 cases to enroll two groups of individuals including people with disease, to be evaluated for follow-up evaluations at 6, 9, and 18 months, and people who are already enrolled in existing international research studies to add additional measures and markers of their underlying biology.

CONCLUSIONS

The increasing evidence and understanding of SARS-CoV-2's impact on the CNS raises key questions on the impact for risk of later life cognitive decline, AD, and other dementia. This program of studies aims to better understand the long-term consequences that may impact the brain, cognition, and functioning-including the underlying biology that may contribute to AD and other dementias.

SARS-CoV-2 Infection and Guillain-Barré Syndrome: A Review on Potential Pathogenic Mechanisms

Since December 2019, the world has been facing an outbreak of a new disease called coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The COVID-19 pandemic is caused by a novel beta-coronavirus named severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The SARS-CoV-2 infection mainly affects the respiratory system. Recently, there have been some reports of extra-respiratory symptoms such as neurological manifestations in COVID-19. According to the increasing reports of Guillain-Barré syndrome following COVID-19, we mainly focused on SARS-CoV-2 infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome in this review. We tried to explain the possibility of a relationship between SARS-CoV-2 infection and Guillain-Barré syndrome and potential pathogenic mechanisms based on current and past knowledge.

Pathophysiological relationship between COVID-19 and olfactory dysfunction: A systematic review

Introduction

SARS-CoV-2 is the pathogen of COVID-19. The virus is composed of the spike, membrane and envelope. On physiological smell, odoriferous substances bind to proteins secreted by sustentacular cells in order to be processed by olfactory receptor neurons. Olfactory disorder is one of the main manifestations of COVID-19, however, research is still required to clarify the mechanism involved in SARS-CoV-2 induced anosmia.

Objective

This article aims to analyze current scientific evidence intended to elucidate the pathophysiological relationship between COVID-19 and the cause of olfactory disorders.

Methods

Pubmed, Embase, Scopus and ScienceDirect were used to compose this article. The research was conducted on November 24th, 2020. Original articles with experimental studies in human, animal and in vitro, short communications, viewpoint, published in the English language and between 2019 and 2020 were included, all related to the pathophysiological relationship between olfactory disorders and COVID-19 infection.

Results

Both human cell receptors ACE2 and TMPRSS2 are essential for the SARS-CoV-2 entrance. These receptors are mostly present in the olfactory epithelium cells, therefore, the main hypothesis is that anosmia is caused due to damage to non-neuronal cells which, thereafter, affects the normal olfactory metabolism. Furthermore, magnetic resonance imaging studies exhibit a relationship between a reduction on the neuronal epithelium and the olfactory bulb atrophy. Damage to non-neuronal cells explains the average recovery lasting a few weeks. This injury can be exacerbated by an aggressive immune response, which leads to damage to neuronal cells and stem cells inducing a persistent anosmia. Conductive anosmia is not sufficient to explain most cases of COVID-19 induced anosmia.

Conclusion

Olfactory disorders such as anosmia and hyposmia can be caused by COVID-19, the main mechanism is associated with olfactory epithelium damage, targeting predominantly non-neuronal cells. However, neuronal cells can also be affected, worsening the condition of olfactory loss.

Kinetics and Mechanisms of Virus Inactivation by Chlorine Dioxide in Water Treatment: A Review

Chlorine dioxide (ClO₂), an alternative disinfectant to chlorine, has been widely applied in water and wastewater disinfection. This paper aims at presenting an overview of the inactivation kinetics and mechanisms of ClO₂ with viruses. The inactivation efficiencies vary greatly among different virus species. The inactivation rates for different serotypes within a family of viruses can differ by over 284%. Generally, to achieve a 4-log removal, the exposure doses, also being referred to as Ct values (mutiplying the concentration of ClO₂ and contact time) vary in the range of 0.06-10 mg L^-1 min. Inactivation kinetics of viruses show two phases: an initial rapid inactivation phase followed by a tailing phase. Inactivation rates of viruses increase as pH or temperature increases, but show different trends with increasing concentrations of dissolved organic matter (DOM). Both damages in viral proteins and in the 5' noncoding region within the genome contribute to virus inactivation upon ClO₂ disinfection.

Current opinion in neurological manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection

Neurological symptoms occur in approximately one-third of hospitalized patients with coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). Among these symptoms, hypoxic encephalopathy develops in one-fifth of severe cases, while ischemic strokes due to thrombotic complications are common in one-third of COVID-19 intensive care patients. Brain involvement of severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) is eventuated by several routes, including hematogenous spread, transsynaptic entry through infected neurons, olfactory nerve, ocular epithelium, vascular endothelium, and impaired blood–brain barrier. Besides the high angiotensin-converting enzyme-2 (ACE2) binding affinity, and FURIN preactivation, SARS-CoV-2 maintains efficient neuronal entry while evading immune surveillance by using basigin and neuropilin-1 receptors. However, the neurological manifestations and their pathogenic mechanisms are still debated in COVID-19 patients.