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Kim MS, Kim H, Lee G. Precision Medicine in Parkinson's Disease Using Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2303041. [PMID: 38269602 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202303041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2023] [Revised: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the most devastating neurological diseases; however, there is no effective cure yet. The availability of human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) provides unprecedented opportunities to understand the pathogenic mechanism and identification of new therapy for PD. Here a new model system of PD, including 2D human iPSC-derived midbrain dopaminergic (mDA) neurons, 3D iPSC-derived midbrain organoids (MOs) with cellular complexity, and more advanced microphysiological systems (MPS) with 3D organoids, is introduced. It is believed that successful integrations and applications of iPSC, organoid, and MPS technologies can bring new insight on PD's pathogenesis that will lead to more effective treatments for this debilitating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Seong Kim
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Hyesoo Kim
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Gabsang Lee
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
- The Solomon Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
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2
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Yoo C, Seol SK, Pyo J. Visualization of Microcapillary Tips Using Waveguided Light. ACS NANO 2024. [PMID: 39004820 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c06987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
The microcapillary, a glass tube with a nano/micrometer scale aperture, is used for manipulating small objects across diverse disciplines. A primary concern in using the microcapillary involves tip breakage upon contact. Here, we report a method for visualizing the microcapillary tip, enabling precise and instant determination of its contact with other objects. Illumination directed to the back aperture of the microcapillary induces waveguiding through the glass wall, enabling the visualization of the tip through scattering. We demonstrate that the tip scattering is sensitive to contact with an adjacent object owing to the near-field interaction of the waveguided light, providing a clear distinction between the contact and noncontact states. The key advantage of our method encompasses its minimal influence, irrespective of conductivity, and applicability to nanoscale systems. The versatility of our method is shown by the application to a wide range of tip diameters, various substrate and in-filling materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chanbin Yoo
- Smart 3D Printing Research Team, Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute (KERI), Changwon 51543, Korea
- Electric Energy & Materials Engineering, KERI School, University of Science and Technology (UST), Changwon 51543, Korea
| | - Seung Kwon Seol
- Smart 3D Printing Research Team, Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute (KERI), Changwon 51543, Korea
- Electric Energy & Materials Engineering, KERI School, University of Science and Technology (UST), Changwon 51543, Korea
| | - Jaeyeon Pyo
- Smart 3D Printing Research Team, Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute (KERI), Changwon 51543, Korea
- Electric Energy & Materials Engineering, KERI School, University of Science and Technology (UST), Changwon 51543, Korea
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3
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Liu M, Wu A, Liu J, Zhao Y, Dong X, Sun T, Shi Q, Wang H. TPP-Based Microfluidic Chip Design and Fabrication Method for Optimized Nerve Cells Directed Growth. CYBORG AND BIONIC SYSTEMS 2024; 5:0095. [PMID: 38725973 PMCID: PMC11079595 DOI: 10.34133/cbsystems.0095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Microfluidic chips offer high customizability and excellent biocompatibility, holding important promise for the precise control of biological growth at the microscale. However, the microfluidic chips employed in the studies of regulating cell growth are typically fabricated through 2D photolithography. This approach partially restricts the diversity of cell growth platform designs and manufacturing efficiency. This paper presents a method for designing and manufacturing neural cell culture microfluidic chips (NCMC) using two-photon polymerization (TPP), where the discrete and directional cell growth is optimized through studying the associated geometric parameters of on-chip microchannels. This study involves simulations and discussions regarding the effects of different hatching distances on the mold surface topography and printing time in the Describe print preview module, which determines the appropriate printing accuracy corresponding to the desired mold structure. With the assistance of the 3D maskless lithography system, micron-level rapid printing of target molds with different dimensions were achieved. For NCMC with different geometric parameters, COMSOL software was used to simulate the local flow velocity and shear stress characteristics within the microchannels. SH-SY5Y cells were selected for directional differentiation experiments on NCMC with different geometric parameters. The results demonstrate that the TPP-based manufacturing method efficiently constructs neural microfluidic chips with high precision, optimizing the discrete and directional cell growth. We anticipate that our method for designing and manufacturing NCMC will hold great promise in construction and application of microscale 3D drug models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Menghua Liu
- Intelligent Robotics Institute, School of Mechatronical Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Anping Wu
- Intelligent Robotics Institute, School of Mechatronical Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jiaxin Liu
- Intelligent Robotics Institute, School of Mechatronical Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Yanfeng Zhao
- Intelligent Robotics Institute, School of Mechatronical Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xinyi Dong
- Intelligent Robotics Institute, School of Mechatronical Engineering,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Tao Sun
- School of Medical Technology,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Qing Shi
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Intelligent Robots and Systems,
Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Huaping Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, Beijing 100081, China
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Haugg S, Mochalski LF, Hedrich C, González Díaz-Palacio I, Deneke K, Zierold R, Blick RH. Field Emission from Carbon Nanotubes on Titanium Nitride-Coated Planar and 3D-Printed Substrates. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 14:781. [PMID: 38727375 PMCID: PMC11085237 DOI: 10.3390/nano14090781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/08/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are well known for their outstanding field emission (FE) performance, facilitated by their unique combination of electrical, mechanical, and thermal properties. However, if the substrate of choice is a poor conductor, the electron supply towards the CNTs can be limited, restricting the FE current. Furthermore, ineffective heat dissipation can lead to emitter-substrate bond degradation, shortening the field emitters' lifetime. Herein, temperature-stable titanium nitride (TiN) was deposited by plasma-enhanced atomic layer deposition (PEALD) on different substrate types prior to the CNT growth. A turn-on field reduction of up to 59% was found for the emitters that were generated on TiN-coated bulk substrates instead of on pristine ones. This observation was attributed exclusively to the TiN layer as no significant change in the emitter morphology could be identified. The fabrication route and, consequently, improved FE properties were transferred from bulk substrates to free-standing, electrically insulating nanomembranes. Moreover, 3D-printed, polymeric microstructures were overcoated by atomic layer deposition (ALD) employing its high conformality. The results of our approach by combining ALD with CNT growth could assist the future fabrication of highly efficient field emitters on 3D scaffold structures regardless of the substrate material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Haugg
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany; (L.-F.M.); (C.H.); (I.G.D.-P.); (K.D.); (R.Z.); (R.H.B.)
| | - Luis-Felipe Mochalski
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany; (L.-F.M.); (C.H.); (I.G.D.-P.); (K.D.); (R.Z.); (R.H.B.)
| | - Carina Hedrich
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany; (L.-F.M.); (C.H.); (I.G.D.-P.); (K.D.); (R.Z.); (R.H.B.)
| | - Isabel González Díaz-Palacio
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany; (L.-F.M.); (C.H.); (I.G.D.-P.); (K.D.); (R.Z.); (R.H.B.)
| | - Kristian Deneke
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany; (L.-F.M.); (C.H.); (I.G.D.-P.); (K.D.); (R.Z.); (R.H.B.)
| | - Robert Zierold
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany; (L.-F.M.); (C.H.); (I.G.D.-P.); (K.D.); (R.Z.); (R.H.B.)
| | - Robert H. Blick
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, 22761 Hamburg, Germany; (L.-F.M.); (C.H.); (I.G.D.-P.); (K.D.); (R.Z.); (R.H.B.)
- Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron (DESY), 22607 Hamburg, Germany
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De Vitis E, Stanzione A, Romano A, Quattrini A, Gigli G, Moroni L, Gervaso F, Polini A. The Evolution of Technology-Driven In Vitro Models for Neurodegenerative Diseases. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2304989. [PMID: 38366798 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202304989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 01/15/2024] [Indexed: 02/18/2024]
Abstract
The alteration in the neural circuits of both central and peripheral nervous systems is closely related to the onset of neurodegenerative disorders (NDDs). Despite significant research efforts, the knowledge regarding NDD pathological processes, and the development of efficacious drugs are still limited due to the inability to access and reproduce the components of the nervous system and its intricate microenvironment. 2D culture systems are too simplistic to accurately represent the more complex and dynamic situation of cells in vivo and have therefore been surpassed by 3D systems. However, both models suffer from various limitations that can be overcome by employing two innovative technologies: organ-on-chip and 3D printing. In this review, an overview of the advantages and shortcomings of both microfluidic platforms and extracellular matrix-like biomaterials will be given. Then, the combination of microfluidics and hydrogels as a new synergistic approach to study neural disorders by analyzing the latest advances in 3D brain-on-chip for neurodegenerative research will be explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleonora De Vitis
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Campus Ecotekn, via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy
| | - Antonella Stanzione
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Campus Ecotekn, via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy
| | - Alessandro Romano
- IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, Milan, 20132, Italy
| | - Angelo Quattrini
- IRCCS San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Division of Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Neurology, Milan, 20132, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Gigli
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Campus Ecotekn, via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy
- Dipartimento di Medicina Sperimentale, Università Del Salento, Campus Ecotekne, via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Moroni
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Campus Ecotekn, via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy
- Complex Tissue Regeneration, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, Maastricht, 6229 ER, Netherlands
| | - Francesca Gervaso
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Campus Ecotekn, via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy
| | - Alessandro Polini
- CNR NANOTEC-Institute of Nanotechnology, Campus Ecotekn, via Monteroni, Lecce, 73100, Italy
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Park S, Laskow TC, Chen J, Guha P, Dawn B, Kim D. Microphysiological systems for human aging research. Aging Cell 2024; 23:e14070. [PMID: 38180277 PMCID: PMC10928588 DOI: 10.1111/acel.14070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Revised: 11/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 01/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Recent advances in microphysiological systems (MPS), also known as organs-on-a-chip (OoC), enable the recapitulation of more complex organ and tissue functions on a smaller scale in vitro. MPS therefore provide the potential to better understand human diseases and physiology. To date, numerous MPS platforms have been developed for various tissues and organs, including the heart, liver, kidney, blood vessels, muscle, and adipose tissue. However, only a few studies have explored using MPS platforms to unravel the effects of aging on human physiology and the pathogenesis of age-related diseases. Age is one of the risk factors for many diseases, and enormous interest has been devoted to aging research. As such, a human MPS aging model could provide a more predictive tool to understand the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying human aging and age-related diseases. These models can also be used to evaluate preclinical drugs for age-related diseases and translate them into clinical settings. Here, we provide a review on the application of MPS in aging research. First, we offer an overview of the molecular, cellular, and physiological changes with age in several tissues or organs. Next, we discuss previous aging models and the current state of MPS for studying human aging and age-related conditions. Lastly, we address the limitations of current MPS and present future directions on the potential of MPS platforms for human aging research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seungman Park
- Department of Mechanical EngineeringUniversity of Nevada, Las VegasLas VegasNevadaUSA
| | - Thomas C. Laskow
- Department of MedicineJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Jingchun Chen
- Nevada Institute of Personalized MedicineUniversity of Nevada, Las VegasLas VegasNevadaUSA
| | - Prasun Guha
- Nevada Institute of Personalized MedicineUniversity of Nevada, Las VegasLas VegasNevadaUSA
- School of Life SciencesUniversity of Nevada, Las VegasLas VegasNevadaUSA
| | - Buddhadeb Dawn
- Department of Internal Medicine, Kirk Kerkorian School of MedicineUniversity of Nevada, Las VegasLas VegasNevadaUSA
| | - Deok‐Ho Kim
- Department of MedicineJohns Hopkins University School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- Department of Biomedical EngineeringJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreMarylandUSA
- Center for Microphysiological SystemsJohns Hopkins UniversityBaltimoreMarylandUSA
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Yan Y, Li X, Gao Y, Mathivanan S, Kong L, Tao Y, Dong Y, Li X, Bhattacharyya A, Zhao X, Zhang SC. 3D bioprinting of human neural tissues with functional connectivity. Cell Stem Cell 2024; 31:260-274.e7. [PMID: 38306994 PMCID: PMC10883639 DOI: 10.1016/j.stem.2023.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2022] [Revised: 11/01/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/04/2024]
Abstract
Probing how human neural networks operate is hindered by the lack of reliable human neural tissues amenable to the dynamic functional assessment of neural circuits. We developed a 3D bioprinting platform to assemble tissues with defined human neural cell types in a desired dimension using a commercial bioprinter. The printed neuronal progenitors differentiate into neurons and form functional neural circuits within and between tissue layers with specificity within weeks, evidenced by the cortical-to-striatal projection, spontaneous synaptic currents, and synaptic response to neuronal excitation. Printed astrocyte progenitors develop into mature astrocytes with elaborated processes and form functional neuron-astrocyte networks, indicated by calcium flux and glutamate uptake in response to neuronal excitation under physiological and pathological conditions. These designed human neural tissues will likely be useful for understanding the wiring of human neural networks, modeling pathological processes, and serving as platforms for drug testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuanwei Yan
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Xueyan Li
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Yu Gao
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Sakthikumar Mathivanan
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, 20815
| | - Linghai Kong
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Yunlong Tao
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; State Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, School of Life Sciences, Chemistry and Biomedicine Innovation Center (ChemBIC), Nanjing University, Nanjing, China; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, 20815
| | - Yi Dong
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Xiang Li
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Anita Bhattacharyya
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Xinyu Zhao
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Su-Chun Zhang
- Waisman Center, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Neuroscience, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA; Department of Neurology, School of Medicine and Public Health, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA; Program in Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore; GK Goh Centre for Neuroscience, Duke-NUS Medical School, Singapore, Singapore; Aligning Science Across Parkinson's (ASAP) Collaborative Research Network, Chevy Chase, MD, 20815.
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Yan Y, Li X, Gao Y, Mathivanan S, Kong L, Tao Y, Dong Y, Li X, Bhattacharyya A, Zhao X, Zhang SC. 3D Bioprinting of Human Neural Tissues with Functional Connectivity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.01.18.576289. [PMID: 38328181 PMCID: PMC10849546 DOI: 10.1101/2024.01.18.576289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/09/2024]
Abstract
Probing how the human neural networks operate is hindered by the lack of reliable human neural tissues amenable for dynamic functional assessment of neural circuits. We developed a 3D bioprinting platform to assemble tissues with defined human neural cell types in a desired dimension using a commercial bioprinter. The printed neuronal progenitors differentiate to neurons and form functional neural circuits in and between tissue layers with specificity within weeks, evidenced by the cortical-to-striatal projection, spontaneous synaptic currents and synaptic response to neuronal excitation. Printed astrocyte progenitors develop into mature astrocytes with elaborated processes and form functional neuron-astrocyte networks, indicated by calcium flux and glutamate uptake in response to neuronal excitation under physiological and pathological conditions. These designed human neural tissues will likely be useful for understanding the wiring of human neural networks, modeling pathological processes, and serving as platforms for drug testing.
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9
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Wang Z, Zhang Y, Li Z, Wang H, Li N, Deng Y. Microfluidic Brain-on-a-Chip: From Key Technology to System Integration and Application. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2304427. [PMID: 37653590 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202304427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2023] [Revised: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
As an ideal in vitro model, brain-on-chip (BoC) is an important tool to comprehensively elucidate brain characteristics. However, the in vitro model for the definition scope of BoC has not been universally recognized. In this review, BoC is divided into brain cells-on-a- chip, brain slices-on-a-chip, and brain organoids-on-a-chip according to the type of culture on the chip. Although these three microfluidic BoCs are constructed in different ways, they all use microfluidic chips as carrier tools. This method can better meet the needs of maintaining high culture activity on a chip for a long time. Moreover, BoC has successfully integrated cell biology, the biological material platform technology of microenvironment on a chip, manufacturing technology, online detection technology on a chip, and so on, enabling the chip to present structural diversity and high compatibility to meet different experimental needs and expand the scope of applications. Here, the relevant core technologies, challenges, and future development trends of BoC are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaohe Wang
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yongqian Zhang
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Zhe Li
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Hao Wang
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Nuomin Li
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
| | - Yulin Deng
- School of Medical Technology, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing, 100081, China
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10
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Pereira I, Lopez-Martinez MJ, Samitier J. Advances in current in vitro models on neurodegenerative diseases. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2023; 11:1260397. [PMID: 38026882 PMCID: PMC10658011 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2023.1260397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 12/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Many neurodegenerative diseases are identified but their causes and cure are far from being well-known. The problem resides in the complexity of the neural tissue and its location which hinders its easy evaluation. Although necessary in the drug discovery process, in vivo animal models need to be reduced and show relevant differences with the human tissues that guide scientists to inquire about other possible options which lead to in vitro models being explored. From organoids to organ-on-a-chips, 3D models are considered the cutting-edge technology in cell culture. Cell choice is a big parameter to take into consideration when planning an in vitro model and cells capable of mimicking both healthy and diseased tissue, such as induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC), are recognized as good candidates. Hence, we present a critical review of the latest models used to study neurodegenerative disease, how these models have evolved introducing microfluidics platforms, 3D cell cultures, and the use of induced pluripotent cells to better mimic the neural tissue environment in pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Inês Pereira
- Nanobioengineering Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia, Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria J. Lopez-Martinez
- Nanobioengineering Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia, Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red: Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Electronics and Biomedical Engineering, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Josep Samitier
- Nanobioengineering Group, Institute for Bioengineering of Catalonia, Barcelona Institute of Science and Technology, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro Investigación Biomédica en Red: Bioengineering, Biomaterials and Nanomedicine (CIBER-BBN), Instituto de Salud Carlos III (ISCIII), Madrid, Spain
- Department of Electronics and Biomedical Engineering, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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11
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Sun L, Bian F, Xu D, Luo Y, Wang Y, Zhao Y. Tailoring biomaterials for biomimetic organs-on-chips. MATERIALS HORIZONS 2023; 10:4724-4745. [PMID: 37697735 DOI: 10.1039/d3mh00755c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/13/2023]
Abstract
Organs-on-chips are microengineered microfluidic living cell culture devices with continuously perfused chambers penetrating to cells. By mimicking the biological features of the multicellular constructions, interactions among organs, vascular perfusion, physicochemical microenvironments, and so on, these devices are imparted with some key pathophysiological function levels of living organs that are difficult to be achieved in conventional 2D or 3D culture systems. In this technology, biomaterials are extremely important because they affect the microstructures and functionalities of the organ cells and the development of the organs-on-chip functions. Thus, herein, we provide an overview on the advances of biomaterials for the construction of organs-on-chips. After introducing the general components, structures, and fabrication techniques of the biomaterials, we focus on the studies of the functions and applications of these biomaterials in the organs-on-chips systems. Applications of the biomaterial-based organs-on-chips as alternative animal models for pharmaceutical, chemical, and environmental tests are described and highlighted. The prospects for exciting future directions and the challenges of biomaterials for realizing the further functionalization of organs-on-chips are also presented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lingyu Sun
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Feika Bian
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Dongyu Xu
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
| | - Yuan Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing 100850, China.
| | - Yongan Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing 100850, China.
| | - Yuanjin Zhao
- Department of Rheumatology and Immunology, Nanjing Drum Tower Hospital, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Southeast University, Nanjing 210096, China.
- Southeast University Shenzhen Research Institute, Shenzhen 518071, China
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12
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Buchmann S, Enrico A, Holzreuter MA, Reid M, Zeglio E, Niklaus F, Stemme G, Herland A. Probabilistic cell seeding and non-autofluorescent 3D-printed structures as scalable approach for multi-level co-culture modeling. Mater Today Bio 2023; 21:100706. [PMID: 37435551 PMCID: PMC10331311 DOI: 10.1016/j.mtbio.2023.100706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Revised: 06/13/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 07/13/2023] Open
Abstract
To model complex biological tissue in vitro, a specific layout for the position and numbers of each cell type is necessary. Establishing such a layout requires manual cell placement in three dimensions (3D) with micrometric precision, which is complicated and time-consuming. Moreover, 3D printed materials used in compartmentalized microfluidic models are opaque or autofluorescent, hindering parallel optical readout and forcing serial characterization methods, such as patch-clamp probing. To address these limitations, we introduce a multi-level co-culture model realized using a parallel cell seeding strategy of human neurons and astrocytes on 3D structures printed with a commercially available non-autofluorescent resin at micrometer resolution. Using a two-step strategy based on probabilistic cell seeding, we demonstrate a human neuronal monoculture that forms networks on the 3D printed structure and can establish cell-projection contacts with an astrocytic-neuronal co-culture seeded on the glass substrate. The transparent and non-autofluorescent printed platform allows fluorescence-based immunocytochemistry and calcium imaging. This approach provides facile multi-level compartmentalization of different cell types and routes for pre-designed cell projection contacts, instrumental in studying complex tissue, such as the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Buchmann
- Division of Nanobiotechnology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Tomtebodavägen 23a, 171 65, Solna, Sweden
- AIMES – Center for the Advancement of Integrated Medical and Engineering Sciences, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Alessandro Enrico
- Division of Micro and Nanosystems, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Malvinas väg 10, 100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
- Synthetic Physiology lab, Department of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Pavia, Via Ferrata 3, 27100, Pavia, Italy
| | - Muriel Alexandra Holzreuter
- AIMES – Center for the Advancement of Integrated Medical and Engineering Sciences, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden
- Division of Micro and Nanosystems, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Malvinas väg 10, 100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Michael Reid
- Department of Fiber and Polymer Technology, Wallenberg Wood Science Centre, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Teknikringen 56-58, 100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Erica Zeglio
- Division of Nanobiotechnology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Tomtebodavägen 23a, 171 65, Solna, Sweden
- AIMES – Center for the Advancement of Integrated Medical and Engineering Sciences, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Frank Niklaus
- Division of Micro and Nanosystems, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Malvinas väg 10, 100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Göran Stemme
- Division of Micro and Nanosystems, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Malvinas väg 10, 100 44, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Anna Herland
- Division of Nanobiotechnology, KTH Royal Institute of Technology, Tomtebodavägen 23a, 171 65, Solna, Sweden
- AIMES – Center for the Advancement of Integrated Medical and Engineering Sciences, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, 17177, Stockholm, Sweden
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13
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Akcay G, Luttge R. Microenvironments Matter: Advances in Brain-on-Chip. BIOSENSORS 2023; 13:551. [PMID: 37232912 PMCID: PMC10216565 DOI: 10.3390/bios13050551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2023] [Revised: 05/04/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
To highlight the particular needs with respect to modeling the unique and complex organization of the human brain structure, we reviewed the state-of-the-art in devising brain models with engineered instructive microenvironments. To acquire a better perspective on the brain's working mechanisms, we first summarize the importance of regional stiffness gradients in brain tissue, varying per layer and the cellular diversities of the layers. Through this, one can acquire an understanding of the essential parameters in emulating the brain in vitro. In addition to the brain's organizational architecture, we addressed also how the mechanical properties have an impact on neuronal cell responses. In this respect, advanced in vitro platforms emerged and profoundly changed the methods of brain modeling efforts from the past, mainly focusing on animal or cell line research. The main challenges in imitating features of the brain in a dish are with regard to composition and functionality. In neurobiological research, there are now methods that aim to cope with such challenges by the self-assembly of human-derived pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs), i.e., brainoids. Alternatively, these brainoids can be used stand-alone or in conjunction with Brain-on-Chip (BoC) platform technology, 3D-printed gels, and other types of engineered guidance features. Currently, advanced in vitro methods have made a giant leap forward regarding cost-effectiveness, ease-of-use, and availability. We bring these recent developments together into one review. We believe our conclusions will give a novel perspective towards advancing instructive microenvironments for BoCs and the understanding of the brain's cellular functions either in modeling healthy or diseased states of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gulden Akcay
- Neuro-Nanoscale Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering/Microsystems, Institute of Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands;
| | - Regina Luttge
- Neuro-Nanoscale Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering/Microsystems, Institute of Complex Molecular Systems, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands;
- Eindhoven Artificial Intelligence Systems Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
- Eindhoven Hendrik Casimir Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology, 5600 MB Eindhoven, The Netherlands
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14
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Mu X, Gerhard-Herman MD, Zhang YS. Building Blood Vessel Chips with Enhanced Physiological Relevance. ADVANCED MATERIALS TECHNOLOGIES 2023; 8:2201778. [PMID: 37693798 PMCID: PMC10489284 DOI: 10.1002/admt.202201778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 09/12/2023]
Abstract
Blood vessel chips are bioengineered microdevices, consisting of biomaterials, human cells, and microstructures, which recapitulate essential vascular structure and physiology and allow a well-controlled microenvironment and spatial-temporal readouts. Blood vessel chips afford promising opportunities to understand molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying a range of vascular diseases. The physiological relevance is key to these blood vessel chips that rely on bioinspired strategies and bioengineering approaches to translate vascular physiology into artificial units. Here, we discuss several critical aspects of vascular physiology, including morphology, material composition, mechanical properties, flow dynamics, and mass transport, which provide essential guidelines and a valuable source of bioinspiration for the rational design of blood vessel chips. We also review state-of-art blood vessel chips that exhibit important physiological features of the vessel and reveal crucial insights into the biological processes and disease pathogenesis, including rare diseases, with notable implications for drug screening and clinical trials. We envision that the advances in biomaterials, biofabrication, and stem cells improve the physiological relevance of blood vessel chips, which, along with the close collaborations between clinicians and bioengineers, enable their widespread utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xuan Mu
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Roy J. Carver Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Marie Denise Gerhard-Herman
- Division of Cardiovascular Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Yu Shrike Zhang
- Division of Engineering in Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA
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15
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Biosensor integrated brain-on-a-chip platforms: Progress and prospects in clinical translation. Biosens Bioelectron 2023; 225:115100. [PMID: 36709589 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2023.115100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2022] [Revised: 01/07/2023] [Accepted: 01/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Because of the brain's complexity, developing effective treatments for neurological disorders is a formidable challenge. Research efforts to this end are advancing as in vitro systems have reached the point that they can imitate critical components of the brain's structure and function. Brain-on-a-chip (BoC) was first used for microfluidics-based systems with small synthetic tissues but has expanded recently to include in vitro simulation of the central nervous system (CNS). Defining the system's qualifying parameters may improve the BoC for the next generation of in vitro platforms. These parameters show how well a given platform solves the problems unique to in vitro CNS modeling (like recreating the brain's microenvironment and including essential parts like the blood-brain barrier (BBB)) and how much more value it offers than traditional cell culture systems. This review provides an overview of the practical concerns of creating and deploying BoC systems and elaborates on how these technologies might be used. Not only how advanced biosensing technologies could be integrated with BoC system but also how novel approaches will automate assays and improve point-of-care (PoC) diagnostics and accurate quantitative analyses are discussed. Key challenges providing opportunities for clinical translation of BoC in neurodegenerative disorders are also addressed.
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16
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O'Halloran S, Pandit A, Heise A, Kellett A. Two-Photon Polymerization: Fundamentals, Materials, and Chemical Modification Strategies. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2204072. [PMID: 36585380 PMCID: PMC9982557 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202204072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2022] [Revised: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Two-photon polymerization (TPP) has become a premier state-of-the-art method for microscale fabrication of bespoke polymeric devices and surfaces. With applications ranging from the production of optical, drug delivery, tissue engineering, and microfluidic devices, TPP has grown immensely in the past two decades. Significantly, the field has expanded from standard acrylate- and epoxy-based photoresists to custom formulated monomers designed to change the hydrophilicity, surface chemistry, mechanical properties, and more of the resulting structures. This review explains the essentials of TPP, from its initial conception through to standard operating principles and advanced chemical modification strategies for TPP materials. At the outset, the fundamental chemistries of radical and cationic polymerization are described, along with strategies used to tailor mechanical and functional properties. This review then describes TPP systems and introduces an array of commonly used photoresists including hard polyacrylic resins, soft hydrogel acrylic esters, epoxides, and organic/inorganic hybrid materials. Specific examples of each class-including chemically modified photoresists-are described to inform the understanding of their applications to the fields of tissue-engineering scaffolds, micromedical, optical, and drug delivery devices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seán O'Halloran
- CÚRAMthe SFI Research Centre for Medical DevicesSchool of Chemical SciencesDublin City UniversityGlasnevinDublin 9Ireland
| | - Abhay Pandit
- CÚRAMthe SFI Research Centre for Medical DevicesUniversity of GalwayGalwayH91 W2TYIreland
| | - Andreas Heise
- RCSIUniversity of Medicine and Health SciencesDepartment of Chemistry123 St. Stephens GreenDublinDublin 2Ireland
- Advanced Materials and Bioengineering Research Centre (AMBER)RCSI University of Medicine and Health Sciences and Trinity College DublinDublinDublin 2Ireland
- CÚRAMthe SFI Research Centre for Medical DevicesRCSI University of Medicine and Health SciencesDublin and National University of Ireland GalwayGalwayH91 W2TYIreland
| | - Andrew Kellett
- CÚRAMthe SFI Research Centre for Medical DevicesSchool of Chemical SciencesDublin City UniversityGlasnevinDublin 9Ireland
- SSPCthe SFI Research Centre for PharmaceuticalsDublin City UniversityGlasnevinDublinDublin 9Ireland
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17
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Wang Y, Gao Y, Pan Y, Zhou D, Liu Y, Yin Y, Yang J, Wang Y, Song Y. Emerging trends in organ-on-a-chip systems for drug screening. Acta Pharm Sin B 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.apsb.2023.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
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18
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Hrynevich A, Li Y, Cedillo-Servin G, Malda J, Castilho M. (Bio)fabrication of microfluidic devices and organs-on-a-chip. 3D Print Med 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-323-89831-7.00001-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
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19
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Castillo Ransanz L, Van Altena PFJ, Heine VM, Accardo A. Engineered cell culture microenvironments for mechanobiology studies of brain neural cells. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:1096054. [PMID: 36588937 PMCID: PMC9794772 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1096054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2022] [Accepted: 11/29/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The biomechanical properties of the brain microenvironment, which is composed of different neural cell types, the extracellular matrix, and blood vessels, are critical for normal brain development and neural functioning. Stiffness, viscoelasticity and spatial organization of brain tissue modulate proliferation, migration, differentiation, and cell function. However, the mechanical aspects of the neural microenvironment are largely ignored in current cell culture systems. Considering the high promises of human induced pluripotent stem cell- (iPSC-) based models for disease modelling and new treatment development, and in light of the physiological relevance of neuromechanobiological features, applications of in vitro engineered neuronal microenvironments should be explored thoroughly to develop more representative in vitro brain models. In this context, recently developed biomaterials in combination with micro- and nanofabrication techniques 1) allow investigating how mechanical properties affect neural cell development and functioning; 2) enable optimal cell microenvironment engineering strategies to advance neural cell models; and 3) provide a quantitative tool to assess changes in the neuromechanobiological properties of the brain microenvironment induced by pathology. In this review, we discuss the biological and engineering aspects involved in studying neuromechanobiology within scaffold-free and scaffold-based 2D and 3D iPSC-based brain models and approaches employing primary lineages (neural/glial), cell lines and other stem cells. Finally, we discuss future experimental directions of engineered microenvironments in neuroscience.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucía Castillo Ransanz
- Department of Child and Adolescence Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Pieter F. J. Van Altena
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
| | - Vivi M. Heine
- Department of Child and Adolescence Psychiatry, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Emma Children’s Hospital, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
- Center for Neurogenomics and Cognitive Research, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam Neuroscience, Department of Complex Trait Genetics, Amsterdam UMC Location Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Angelo Accardo
- Department of Precision and Microsystems Engineering, Delft University of Technology, Delft, Netherlands
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20
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Barberio C, Saez J, Withers A, Nair M, Tamagnini F, Owens RM. Conducting Polymer-ECM Scaffolds for Human Neuronal Cell Differentiation. Adv Healthc Mater 2022; 11:e2200941. [PMID: 35904257 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202200941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 07/23/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
3D cell culture formats more closely resemble tissue architecture complexity than 2D systems, which are lacking most of the cell-cell and cell-microenvironment interactions of the in vivo milieu. Scaffold-based systems integrating natural biomaterials are extensively employed in tissue engineering to improve cell survival and outgrowth, by providing the chemical and physical cues of the natural extracellular matrix (ECM). Using the freeze-drying technique, porous 3D composite scaffolds consisting of poly(3,4-ethylene-dioxythiophene) doped with polystyrene sulfonate (PEDOT:PSS), containing ECM components (i.e., collagen, hyaluronic acid, and laminin) are engineered for hosting neuronal cells. The resulting scaffolds exhibit a highly porous microstructure and good conductivity, determined by scanning electron microscopy and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy, respectively. These supports boast excellent mechanical stability and water uptake capacity, making them ideal candidates for cell infiltration. SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells show enhanced cell survival and proliferation in the presence of ECM compared to PEDOT:PSS alone. Whole-cell patch-clamp recordings acquired from differentiated SHSY5Y cells in the scaffolds demonstrate that ECM constituents promote neuronal differentiation in situ. These findings reinforce the usability of 3D conducting supports as engineered highly biomimetic and functional in vitro tissue-like platforms for drug or disease modeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Barberio
- Bioelectronic Systems and Technology group, Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge, CB3 0AS, UK
| | - Janire Saez
- Microfluidics Cluster UPV/EHU, BIOMICs Microfluidics Group, Lascaray Research Center, University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Vitoria-Gasteiz, 01006, Spain.,Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, E-48011, Spain
| | - Aimee Withers
- Bioelectronic Systems and Technology group, Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge, CB3 0AS, UK
| | - Malavika Nair
- Cambridge Centre for Medical Materials, Department of Materials Science and Metallurgy, University of Cambridge, 27 Charles Babbage Road, Cambridge, CB3 0FS, UK
| | - Francesco Tamagnini
- University of Reading, School of Pharmacy, Hopkins Building, Reading, RG6 6LA, UK
| | - Roisin M Owens
- Bioelectronic Systems and Technology group, Department of Chemical Engineering and Biotechnology, Philippa Fawcett Drive, Cambridge, CB3 0AS, UK
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21
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Peng B, Hao S, Tong Z, Bai H, Pan S, Lim KL, Li L, Voelcker NH, Huang W. Blood-brain barrier (BBB)-on-a-chip: a promising breakthrough in brain disease research. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:3579-3602. [PMID: 36004771 DOI: 10.1039/d2lc00305h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) represents a key challenge in developing brain-penetrating therapeutic molecules. BBB dysfunction is also associated with the onset and progression of various brain diseases. The BBB-on-a-chip (μBBB), an organ-on-chip technology, has emerged as a powerful in vitro platform that closely mimics the human BBB microenvironments. While the μBBB technology has seen wide application in the study of brain cancer, its utility in other brain disease models ("μBBB+") is less appreciated. Based on the advances of the μBBB technology and the evolution of in vitro models for brain diseases over the last decade, we propose the concept of a "μBBB+" system and summarize its major promising applications in pathological studies, personalized medical research, drug development, and multi-organ-on-chip approaches. We believe that such a sophisticated "μBBB+" system is a highly tunable and promising in vitro platform for further advancement of the understanding of brain diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bo Peng
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
| | - Shiping Hao
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
| | - Ziqiu Tong
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
| | - Hua Bai
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
| | - Sijun Pan
- The Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE, Future Technologies), Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, Fujian, China
| | - Kah-Leong Lim
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University, 11 Mandalay Road, 308232, Singapore
| | - Lin Li
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech), Nanjing 211800, China
- The Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE, Future Technologies), Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, Fujian, China
| | - Nicolas H Voelcker
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
- Drug Delivery, Disposition and Dynamics, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria 3052, Australia.
| | - Wei Huang
- Frontiers Science Center for Flexible Electronics, Xi'an Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE) and Xi'an Institute of Biomedical Materials & Engineering, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an 710072, China.
- Key Laboratory of Flexible Electronics (KLOFE) & Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), Nanjing Tech University (NanjingTech), Nanjing 211800, China
- The Institute of Flexible Electronics (IFE, Future Technologies), Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, Fujian, China
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22
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Mariano A, Bovio CL, Criscuolo V, Santoro F. Bioinspired micro- and nano-structured neural interfaces. NANOTECHNOLOGY 2022; 33:492501. [PMID: 35947922 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6528/ac8881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The development of a functional nervous system requires neurons to interact with and promptly respond to a wealth of biochemical, mechanical and topographical cues found in the neural extracellular matrix (ECM). Among these, ECM topographical cues have been found to strongly influence neuronal function and behavior. Here, we discuss how the blueprint of the architectural organization of the brain ECM has been tremendously useful as a source of inspiration to design biomimetic substrates to enhance neural interfaces and dictate neuronal behavior at the cell-material interface. In particular, we focus on different strategies to recapitulate cell-ECM and cell-cell interactions. In order to mimic cell-ECM interactions, we introduce roughness as a first approach to provide informative topographical biomimetic cues to neurons. We then examine 3D scaffolds and hydrogels, as softer 3D platforms for neural interfaces. Moreover, we will discuss how anisotropic features such as grooves and fibers, recapitulating both ECM fibrils and axonal tracts, may provide recognizable paths and tracks that neuron can follow as they develop and establish functional connections. Finally, we show how isotropic topographical cues, recapitulating shapes, and geometries of filopodia- and mushroom-like dendritic spines, have been instrumental to better reproduce neuron-neuron interactions for applications in bioelectronics and neural repair strategies. The high complexity of the brain architecture makes the quest for the fabrication of create more biologically relevant biomimetic architectures in continuous and fast development. Here, we discuss how recent advancements in two-photon polymerization and remotely reconfigurable dynamic interfaces are paving the way towards to a new class of smart biointerfaces forin vitroapplications spanning from neural tissue engineering as well as neural repair strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Mariano
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, I-80125 Naples, Italy
| | - Claudia Latte Bovio
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, I-80125 Naples, Italy
- Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Produzione Industriale, Università di Napoli Federico II, I-80125, Naples, Italy
| | - Valeria Criscuolo
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and IT, RWTH Aachen, D-52074, Germany
| | - Francesca Santoro
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, I-80125 Naples, Italy
- Faculty of Electrical Engineering and IT, RWTH Aachen, D-52074, Germany
- Institute for Biological Information Processing-Bioelectronics, Forschungszentrum Juelich, D-52428, Germany
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23
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Juste-Dolz A, Delgado-Pinar M, Avella-Oliver M, Fernández E, Cruz JL, Andrés MV, Maquieira Á. Denaturing for Nanoarchitectonics: Local and Periodic UV-Laser Photodeactivation of Protein Biolayers to Create Functional Patterns for Biosensing. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2022; 14:41640-41648. [PMID: 36047566 PMCID: PMC9940103 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.2c12808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 05/02/2023]
Abstract
The nanostructuration of biolayers has become a paradigm for exploiting nanoscopic light-matter phenomena for biosensing, among other biomedical purposes. In this work, we present a photopatterning method to create periodic structures of biomacromolecules based on a local and periodic mild denaturation of protein biolayers mediated by UV-laser irradiation. These nanostructures are constituted by a periodic modulation of the protein activity, so they are free of topographic and compositional changes along the pattern. Herein, we introduce the approach, explore the patterning parameters, characterize the resulting structures, and assess their overall homogeneity. This UV-based patterning principle has proven to be an easy, cost-effective, and fast way to fabricate large areas of homogeneous one-dimensional protein patterns (2 min, 15 × 1.2 mm, relative standard deviation ≃ 16%). This work also investigates the implementation of these protein patterns as transducers for diffractive biosensing. Using a model immunoassay, these patterns have demonstrated negligible signal contributions from non-specific bindings and comparable experimental limits of detection in buffer media and in human serum (53 and 36 ng·mL-1 of unlabeled IgG, respectively).
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Affiliation(s)
- Augusto Juste-Dolz
- Instituto
Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular
y Desarrollo Tecnológico (IDM), Universitat
Politècnica de València, Universitat de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Martina Delgado-Pinar
- Department
of Applied Physics and Electromagnetism-ICMUV, Universitat de València, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Miquel Avella-Oliver
- Instituto
Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular
y Desarrollo Tecnológico (IDM), Universitat
Politècnica de València, Universitat de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain
- Departamento
de Química, Universitat Politècnica
de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Estrella Fernández
- Instituto
Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular
y Desarrollo Tecnológico (IDM), Universitat
Politècnica de València, Universitat de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain
| | - Jose Luís Cruz
- Department
of Applied Physics and Electromagnetism-ICMUV, Universitat de València, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Miguel V. Andrés
- Department
of Applied Physics and Electromagnetism-ICMUV, Universitat de València, 46100 Burjassot, Spain
| | - Ángel Maquieira
- Instituto
Interuniversitario de Investigación de Reconocimiento Molecular
y Desarrollo Tecnológico (IDM), Universitat
Politècnica de València, Universitat de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain
- Departamento
de Química, Universitat Politècnica
de València, 46022 Valencia, Spain
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24
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Ruggiero A, Criscuolo V, Grasselli S, Bruno U, Ausilio C, Bovio CL, Bettucci O, Santoro F. Two-photon polymerization lithography enabling the fabrication of PEDOT:PSS 3D structures for bioelectronic applications. Chem Commun (Camb) 2022; 58:9790-9793. [PMID: 35971788 DOI: 10.1039/d2cc03152c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Conductive 3D platforms have gained increasing attention in bioelectronics thanks to the improvement in the cell-chip coupling. PEDOT:PSS is nowadays widely employed in bioelectronic applications thanks to its electrical and mechanical properties. In this work, an innovative fabrication method for the realization of PEDOT:PSS-based conductive micropillars and 3D cage-like structures is presented, combining two-photon lithography and electrodeposition techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amedeo Ruggiero
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 80125 Naples, Italy. .,Faculty of Electrical Engineering and IT, RWTH Aachen, 52074, Germany.,Institute for Biological Information Processing-Bioelectronics, Forschungszentrum Juelich, 52428, Germany.
| | - Valeria Criscuolo
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 80125 Naples, Italy.
| | - Sara Grasselli
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 80125 Naples, Italy.
| | - Ugo Bruno
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 80125 Naples, Italy. .,Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Produzione Industriale, Università di Napoli Federico II, 80125 Naples, Italy
| | - Chiara Ausilio
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 80125 Naples, Italy.
| | - Claudia Latte Bovio
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 80125 Naples, Italy. .,Dipartimento di Chimica, Materiali e Produzione Industriale, Università di Napoli Federico II, 80125 Naples, Italy
| | - Ottavia Bettucci
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 80125 Naples, Italy.
| | - Francesca Santoro
- Tissue Electronics, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, 80125 Naples, Italy. .,Faculty of Electrical Engineering and IT, RWTH Aachen, 52074, Germany.,Institute for Biological Information Processing-Bioelectronics, Forschungszentrum Juelich, 52428, Germany.
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25
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Huang B, He Y, Rofaani E, Liang F, Huang X, Shi J, Wang L, Yamada A, Peng J, Chen Y. Automatic differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells toward synchronous neural networks on an arrayed monolayer of nanofiber membrane. Acta Biomater 2022; 150:168-180. [PMID: 35907558 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2022.07.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 07/01/2022] [Accepted: 07/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2022]
Abstract
Automatic differentiation of human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) facilitates the generation of cortical neural networks and studies of brain functions. Here, we present a method of directed differentiation of hiPSCs with a substrate made of a honeycomb microframe and a monolayer of crosslinked gelatin nanofibers in the form of an array of nanofiber membranes. Neural precursor cells (NPCs) were firstly derived from hiPSCs and then placed on the nanofiber membranes for automatically controlled neural differentiation over a long period. Due to the strong modulation of the substrate stiffness and permeability, most cells were found in the center area of the honeycomb compartments, giving rise to regular and inter-connected cortical neural clusters. More importantly, the neural activities of the clusters were synchronized proving the reliability of the method. Our results showed that the self-organization, as well as the neural activities of differentiating neural cells, were more efficient in the nanofiber membrane compared to the types of the substrate such as glass and nanofiber-covered glass. In addition to the inherent advantages such as manpower saving and fewer risks of contamination and human error, automatic differentiation avoided undesired shaking which might have critical effects on the formation of synchronous neural clusters. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: : Synchronization of cortical neural activities is essential for information processing and human cognition. By automated differentiation of human induced pluripotent stem cells on arrayed monolayer of nanofiber membrane, synchronous neural clusters could be formed. Such an approach would allow creating a variety of neural networks with regular and interconnected clusters for systematic studies of human cortical functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boxin Huang
- PASTEUR, Département de chimie, École normale supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Yong He
- PASTEUR, Département de chimie, École normale supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Elrade Rofaani
- PASTEUR, Département de chimie, École normale supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Feng Liang
- PASTEUR, Département de chimie, École normale supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Xiaochen Huang
- PASTEUR, Département de chimie, École normale supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Jian Shi
- MesoBioTech, 231 Rue Saint-Honoré, 75001, Paris, France
| | - Li Wang
- MesoBioTech, 231 Rue Saint-Honoré, 75001, Paris, France
| | - Ayako Yamada
- PASTEUR, Département de chimie, École normale supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France
| | - Juan Peng
- PASTEUR, Département de chimie, École normale supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France.
| | - Yong Chen
- PASTEUR, Département de chimie, École normale supérieure, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, CNRS, 75005 Paris, France.
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26
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Mateus JC, Weaver S, van Swaay D, Renz AF, Hengsteler J, Aguiar P, Vörös J. Nanoscale Patterning of In Vitro Neuronal Circuits. ACS NANO 2022; 16:5731-5742. [PMID: 35404570 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.1c10750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Methods for patterning neurons in vitro have gradually improved and are used to investigate questions that are difficult to address in or ex vivo. Though these techniques guide axons between groups of neurons, multiscale control of neuronal connectivity, from circuits to synapses, is yet to be achieved in vitro. As studying neuronal circuits with synaptic resolution in vivo poses significant challenges, we present an in vitro alternative to validate biophysical and computational models. In this work we use a combination of electron beam lithography and photolithography to create polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) structures with features ranging from 150 nm to a few millimeters. Leveraging the difference between average axon and dendritic spine diameters, we restrict axon growth while allowing spines to pass through nanochannels to guide synapse formation between small groups of neurons (i.e., nodes). We show this technique can be used to generate large numbers of isolated feed-forward circuits where connections between nodes are restricted to regions connected by nanochannels. Using a genetically encoded calcium indicator in combination with fluorescently tagged postsynaptic protein, PSD-95, we demonstrate functional synapses can form in this region.
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Affiliation(s)
- José C Mateus
- Neuroengineering and Computational Neuroscience Laboratory, i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - Sean Weaver
- Laboratory for Biosensors and Bioelectronics, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Aline F Renz
- Laboratory for Biosensors and Bioelectronics, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Julian Hengsteler
- Laboratory for Biosensors and Bioelectronics, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Paulo Aguiar
- Neuroengineering and Computational Neuroscience Laboratory, i3S - Instituto de Investigação e Inovação em Saúde, Universidade do Porto, 4200-135 Porto, Portugal
| | - János Vörös
- Laboratory for Biosensors and Bioelectronics, ETH Zürich, 8092 Zürich, Switzerland
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27
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Wei Z, Sun T, Shimoda S, Chen Z, Chen X, Wang H, Huang Q, Fukuda T, Shi Q. Bio-inspired engineering of a perfusion culture platform for guided three-dimensional nerve cell growth and differentiation. LAB ON A CHIP 2022; 22:1006-1017. [PMID: 35147637 DOI: 10.1039/d1lc01149a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Collagen provides a promising environment for 3D nerve cell culture; however, the function of perfusion culture and cell-growth guidance is difficult to integrate into such an environment to promote cell growth. In this paper, we develop a bio-inspired design method for constructing a perfusion culture platform for guided nerve cell growth and differentiation in collagen. Based on the anatomical structure of peripheral neural tissue, a biomimetic porous structure (BPS) is fabricated by two-photon polymerization of IP-Visio. The micro-capillary effect is then utilized to facilitate the self-assembly of cell encapsulated collagen into the BPS. 3D perfusion culture can be rapidly implemented by inserting the cell-filled BPS into a pipette tip connected with syringe pumps. Furthermore, we investigate the nerve cell behavior in the BPS. 7-channel aligned cellular structures surrounded with a Schwann cell layer can be stably formed after a long-time perfusion culture. Differentiation of PC12 cells and mouse neural stem cells shows 3D neurite outgrowth alignment and elongation in collagen. The calcium activities of differentiated PC12 cells are visualized for confirming the preliminary formation of cell function. These results demonstrate that the proposed bio-inspired 3D cell culture platform with the advantages of miniaturization, structure complexity and perfusion has great potential for future application in the study of nerve regeneration and drug screening.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zihou Wei
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, 100081, People's Republic of China.
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Tao Sun
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, 100081, People's Republic of China.
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Shingo Shimoda
- Center of Brain Science (CBS), CBS-TOYOTA Collaboration Center (BTCC), Intelligent Behaviour Control Unit, Riken, Nagoya 463-0003, Japan
| | - Zhe Chen
- Institute of Engineering Medicine, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Xie Chen
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, 100081, People's Republic of China.
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Huaping Wang
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, 100081, People's Republic of China.
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Qiang Huang
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, 100081, People's Republic of China.
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
| | - Toshio Fukuda
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, 100081, People's Republic of China.
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Engineering Medicine, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Qing Shi
- Key Laboratory of Biomimetic Robots and Systems (Beijing Institute of Technology), Ministry of Education, 100081, People's Republic of China.
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, People's Republic of China
- Institute of Engineering Medicine, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
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28
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Wan J, Zhou S, Mea HJ, Guo Y, Ku H, Urbina BM. Emerging Roles of Microfluidics in Brain Research: From Cerebral Fluids Manipulation to Brain-on-a-Chip and Neuroelectronic Devices Engineering. Chem Rev 2022; 122:7142-7181. [PMID: 35080375 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Remarkable progress made in the past few decades in brain research enables the manipulation of neuronal activity in single neurons and neural circuits and thus allows the decipherment of relations between nervous systems and behavior. The discovery of glymphatic and lymphatic systems in the brain and the recently unveiled tight relations between the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the central nervous system (CNS) further revolutionize our understanding of brain structures and functions. Fundamental questions about how neurons conduct two-way communications with the gut to establish the gut-brain axis (GBA) and interact with essential brain components such as glial cells and blood vessels to regulate cerebral blood flow (CBF) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in health and disease, however, remain. Microfluidics with unparalleled advantages in the control of fluids at microscale has emerged recently as an effective approach to address these critical questions in brain research. The dynamics of cerebral fluids (i.e., blood and CSF) and novel in vitro brain-on-a-chip models and microfluidic-integrated multifunctional neuroelectronic devices, for example, have been investigated. This review starts with a critical discussion of the current understanding of several key topics in brain research such as neurovascular coupling (NVC), glymphatic pathway, and GBA and then interrogates a wide range of microfluidic-based approaches that have been developed or can be improved to advance our fundamental understanding of brain functions. Last, emerging technologies for structuring microfluidic devices and their implications and future directions in brain research are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiandi Wan
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Sitong Zhou
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Hing Jii Mea
- Department of Chemical Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Yaojun Guo
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Hansol Ku
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
| | - Brianna M Urbina
- Biochemistry, Molecular, Cellular and Developmental Biology Program, University of California, Davis, California 95616, United States
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29
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Fanizza F, Campanile M, Forloni G, Giordano C, Albani D. Induced pluripotent stem cell-based organ-on-a-chip as personalized drug screening tools: A focus on neurodegenerative disorders. J Tissue Eng 2022; 13:20417314221095339. [PMID: 35570845 PMCID: PMC9092580 DOI: 10.1177/20417314221095339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/04/2022] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
The Organ-on-a-Chip (OoC) technology shows great potential to revolutionize the drugs development pipeline by mimicking the physiological environment and functions of human organs. The translational value of OoC is further enhanced when combined with patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) to develop more realistic disease models, paving the way for the development of a new generation of patient-on-a-chip devices. iPSCs differentiation capacity leads to invaluable improvements in personalized medicine. Moreover, the connection of single-OoC into multi-OoC or body-on-a-chip allows to investigate drug pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetics through the study of multi-organs cross-talks. The need of a breakthrough thanks to this technology is particularly relevant within the field of neurodegenerative diseases, where the number of patients is increasing and the successful rate in drug discovery is worryingly low. In this review we discuss current iPSC-based OoC as drug screening models and their implication in development of new therapies for neurodegenerative disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Fanizza
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and
Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta,” Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Marzia Campanile
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and
Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta,” Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Gianluigi Forloni
- Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di
Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
| | - Carmen Giordano
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and
Chemical Engineering “Giulio Natta,” Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Diego Albani
- Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di
Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri IRCCS, Milan, Italy
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30
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Feiyue L, Yang L, Zhao J, Yu Q. An evaluation of the inhibition effects of cell migration of Aspirin soaking 360°square-edge intraocular lens in an in vitro lens capsule model. Curr Eye Res 2021; 47:565-572. [PMID: 34935556 DOI: 10.1080/02713683.2021.2012201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study performs to evaluate the Hydrophobic and Hydrosmart 360°square-edge intraocular lens drug delivery of Aspirin using an in vitro lens capsular model. METHODS Cell counting kit-8 assay was used to calculate 50% inhibiting concentration values in both SRA01/04 and HLE-B3 cells. Hoechst staining and transwell assay were used to detect cell proliferation and cell migration. The in vitro lens capsule model was established mainly with a special transwell-col and cell climbing sheet, in which an intraocular lens and the TGF-β2 were added. The ultraviolet spectrophotometer was used to measure the drug concentrations released in vitro. Cell-exclusion zone assay was used to detect the cell migration in the in vitro capsular model. RESULTS It shows that cell morphology and distribution of SRA01/04 in the in vitro lens capsular model were closer to those in vivo. The results revealed that there could be significant inhibiting effects on cell migration of the hydrosmart intraocular lens with a sustained drug release in vitro in 7 days, while the hydrophobic intraocular lens drug delivery of Aspirin was mainly performed only from day 1 to day 3. CONCLUSIONS Results showed the developed hydrosmart intraocular lens could release Aspirin continuously in vitro to inhibit the cell migration of lens epithelial cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lian Feiyue
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Li Yang
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jiangyue Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Qin Yu
- Department of Ophthalmology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
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31
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Harberts J, Bours K, Siegmund M, Hedrich C, Glatza M, Schöler HR, Haferkamp U, Pless O, Zierold R, Blick RH. Culturing human iPSC-derived neural progenitor cells on nanowire arrays: mapping the impact of nanowire length and array pitch on proliferation, viability, and membrane deformation. NANOSCALE 2021; 13:20052-20066. [PMID: 34842880 DOI: 10.1039/d1nr04352h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Nanowire arrays used as cell culture substrates build a potent tool for advanced biological applications such as cargo delivery and biosensing. The unique topography of nanowire arrays, however, renders them a challenging growth environment for cells and explains why only basic cell lines have been employed in existing studies. Here, we present the culturing of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neural progenitor cells on rectangularly arranged nanowire arrays: In detail, we mapped the impact on proliferation, viability, and topography-induced membrane deformation across a multitude of array pitches (1, 3, 5, 10 μm) and nanowire lengths (1.5, 3, 5 μm). Against the intuitive expectation, a reduced proliferation was found on the arrays with the smallest array pitch of 1 μm and long NWs. Typically, cells settle in a fakir-like state on such densely-spaced nanowires and thus experience no substantial stress caused by nanowires indenting the cell membrane. However, imaging of F-actin showed a distinct reorganization of the cytoskeleton along the nanowire tips in the case of small array pitches interfering with regular proliferation. For larger pitches, the cell numbers depend on the NW lengths but proliferation generally continued although heavy deformations of the cell membrane were observed caused by the encapsulation of the nanowires. Moreover, we noticed a strong interaction of the nanowires with the nucleus in terms of squeezing and indenting. Remarkably, the cell viability is maintained at about 85% despite the massive deformation of the cells. Considering the enormous potential of human induced stem cells to study neurodegenerative diseases and the high cellular viability combined with a strong interaction with nanowire arrays, we believe that our results pave the way to apply nanowire arrays to human stem cells for future applications in stem cell research and regenerative medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jann Harberts
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Katja Bours
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Malte Siegmund
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Carina Hedrich
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Michael Glatza
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Röntgenstraße 20, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Hans R Schöler
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, Max Planck Institute for Molecular Biomedicine, Röntgenstraße 20, 48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Undine Haferkamp
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (ITMP), ScreeningPort, Schnackenburgallee 114, 22525 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ole Pless
- Fraunhofer Institute for Translational Medicine and Pharmacology (ITMP), ScreeningPort, Schnackenburgallee 114, 22525 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Robert Zierold
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Robert H Blick
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures (CHyN), Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761 Hamburg, Germany.
- Material Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53706, USA
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32
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Hurd MD, Goel I, Sakai Y, Teramura Y. Current status of ischemic stroke treatment: From thrombolysis to potential regenerative medicine. Regen Ther 2021; 18:408-417. [PMID: 34722837 PMCID: PMC8517544 DOI: 10.1016/j.reth.2021.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2021] [Revised: 09/16/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Ischemic stroke is a major cause of death and disability worldwide and is expected to increase in the future with the aging population. Currently, there are no clinically available treatments for damage sustained during an ischemic stroke, but much research is being conducted in this area. In this review, we will introduce current ischemic stroke treatments along with their limitations, as well as research on potential short and long-term future treatments. There are advantages and disadvantages in these potential treatments, but our understanding of these methods and their effectiveness in clinical trials are improving. We are confident that some future treatments introduced in this review will become commonly used in clinical settings in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mason Daniel Hurd
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Isha Goel
- Department of Bioengineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Yasuyuki Sakai
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Yuji Teramura
- Cellular and Molecular Biotechnology Research Institute (CMB), National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Tsukuba Central fifth, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8565, Japan
- Department of Immunology, Genetics and Pathology (IGP), Uppsala University, Dag Hammarskjölds väg 20, SE-751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
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33
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Hussain N, Jan Nazami M, Ma C, Hirtz M. High-precision tabletop microplotter for flexible on-demand material deposition in printed electronics and device functionalization. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2021; 92:125104. [PMID: 34972400 DOI: 10.1063/5.0061331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 10/19/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Microstructuring, in particular, the additive functionalization of surfaces with, e.g., conductive or bioactive materials plays a crucial role in many applications in sensing or printed electronics. Mostly, the lithography steps are made prior to assembling functionalized surfaces into the desired places of use within a bigger device as a microfluidic channel or an electronic casing. However, when this is not possible, most lithography techniques struggle with access to recessed or inclined/vertical surfaces for geometrical reasons. In particular, for "on-the-fly" printing aiming to add microstructures to already existing devices on demand and maybe even for one-time trials, e.g., in prototyping, a flexible "micropencil" allowing for direct write under direct manual control and on arbitrarily positioned surfaces would be highly desirable. Here, we present a highly flexible, micromanipulator-based setup for capillary printing of conductive and biomaterial ink formulations that can address a wide range of geometries as exemplified on vertical, recessed surfaces and stacked 3D scaffolds as models for hard to access surfaces. A wide range of feature sizes from tens to hundreds of micrometer can be obtained by the choice of capillary sizes and the on-demand in situ writing capabilities are demonstrated with completion of a circuit structure by gold line interconnects deposited with the setup.
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Affiliation(s)
- Navid Hussain
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT) and Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMF), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Mohammad Jan Nazami
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT) and Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMF), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Chunyan Ma
- College of Electrical and Power Engineering, Taiyuan University of Technology, Taiyuan 030024, China
| | - Michael Hirtz
- Institute of Nanotechnology (INT) and Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility (KNMF), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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34
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Micro-scaffolds as synthetic cell niches: recent advances and challenges. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2021; 73:290-299. [PMID: 34619481 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2021.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Micro-fabrication and nano-fabrication provide useful approaches to address fundamental biological questions by mimicking the physiological microenvironment in which cells carry out their functions. In particular, 2D patterns and 3D scaffolds obtained via lithography, direct laser writing, and other techniques allow for shaping hydrogels, synthetic polymers and biologically derived materials to create structures for (single) cell culture. Applications of micro-scaffolds mimicking cell niches include stem cell self-renewal, differentiation, and lineage specification. This review moves from technological aspects of scaffold microfabrication for cell biological applications to a broad overview of advances in (stem) cell research: achievements for embryonic, induced pluripotent, mesenchymal, and neural stem cells are treated in detail, while a particular section is dedicated to micro-scaffolds used to study single cells in basic cell biology.
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35
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Harberts J, Siegmund M, Schnelle M, Zhang T, Lei Y, Yu L, Zierold R, Blick RH. Robust neuronal differentiation of human iPSC-derived neural progenitor cells cultured on densely-spaced spiky silicon nanowire arrays. Sci Rep 2021; 11:18819. [PMID: 34552130 PMCID: PMC8458299 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-97820-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Nanostructured cell culture substrates featuring nanowire (NW) arrays have been applied to a variety of basic cell lines and rodent neurons to investigate cellular behavior or to stimulate cell responses. However, patient-derived human neurons-a prerequisite for studying e.g. neurodegenerative diseases efficiently-are rarely employed due to sensitive cell culture protocols and usually long culturing periods. Here, we present human patient induced pluripotent stem cell-derived neurons cultured on densely-spaced spiky silicon NW arrays (600 NWs/ 100 µm[Formula: see text] with NW lengths of 1 µm) which show mature electrophysiological characteristics after only 20 days of culturing. Exemplary neuronal growth and network formation on the NW arrays are demonstrated using scanning electron microscopy and immunofluorescence microscopy. The cells and neurites rest in a fakir-like settling state on the NWs only in contact with the very NW tips shown by cross-sectional imaging of the cell/NW interface using focused ion beam milling and confocal laser scanning microscopy. Furthermore, the NW arrays promote the cell culture by slightly increasing the share of differentiated neurons determined by the quantification of immunofluorescence microscopy images. The electrophysiological functionality of the neurons is confirmed with patch-clamp recordings showing the excellent capability to fire action potentials. We believe that the short culturing time to obtain functional human neurons generated from patient-derived neural progenitor cells and the robustness of this differentiation protocol to produce these neurons on densely-spaced spiky nanowire arrays open up new pathways for stem cell characterization and neurodegenerative disease studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jann Harberts
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Malte Siegmund
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Matteo Schnelle
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ting Zhang
- School of Electronics Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Yakui Lei
- School of Electronics Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Linwei Yu
- School of Electronics Science and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210093, China
| | - Robert Zierold
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Robert H Blick
- Center for Hybrid Nanostructures, Universität Hamburg, Luruper Chaussee 149, 22761, Hamburg, Germany
- Material Science and Engineering, College of Engineering, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
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Vunjak-Novakovic G, Ronaldson-Bouchard K, Radisic M. Organs-on-a-chip models for biological research. Cell 2021; 184:4597-4611. [PMID: 34478657 PMCID: PMC8417425 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2021.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We explore the utility of bioengineered human tissues-individually or connected into physiological units-for biological research. While much smaller and simpler than their native counterparts, these tissues are complex enough to approximate distinct tissue phenotypes: molecular, structural, and functional. Unlike organoids, which form spontaneously and recapitulate development, "organs-on-a-chip" are engineered to display some specific functions of whole organs. Looking back, we discuss the key developments of this emerging technology. Thinking forward, we focus on the challenges faced to fully establish, validate, and utilize the fidelity of these models for biological research.
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Cacabelos R, Carrera I, Martínez-Iglesias O, Cacabelos N, Naidoo V. What is the gold standard model for Alzheimer's disease drug discovery and development? Expert Opin Drug Discov 2021; 16:1415-1440. [PMID: 34330186 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2021.1960502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Introduction: Alzheimer's disease models (ADMs) are currently used for drug development (DD). More than 20,000 molecules were screened for AD treatment over decades, with only one drug (Aducanumab)FDA-approved over the past 18 years. A revision of pathogenic concepts and ADMs are needed.Areas covered: The authors discuss herein preclinical models including: (i) in vitro models (cell lines, primary neuron cell cultures, iPSC-derived brain cells), (ii) ex vivo models, and (iii) in vivo models (artificial, transgenic, non-transgenic and induced).Expert opinion: The following types of ADMs have been reported: Mouse models (45.08%), Rat models (15.04%), Non-human Primate models (0.76%), Rabbit models (0.46%), Cat models (0.53%), Pig models (0.30%), Guinea pig models (0.15%), Octodon degu models (0.02%), Dog models (0.54%), Drosophila melanogaster models (1.79%), Zebrafish models (0.50%), Caenorhabditis elegans (1.21%), Cell culture models (3.31%), Cholinergic models (8.26%), Neurotoxic models (6.79%), Neuroinflammation models (6.92%), Neurovascular models (7.88%), and Microbiome models (0.45%).No single ADM faithfully reproduces all the pathogenic events in the human AD phenotype spectrum. ADMs should be different for (i) pathogenic studies vs basic DD, and (ii) preventive interventions vs symptomatic treatments. There cannot be an ideal ADM for DD, because AD is a spectrum of syndromes. DD can integrate pathogenic, mechanistic, metabolic, transporter and pleiotropic genes in a multisystem model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ramón Cacabelos
- Departments of Genomic Medicine, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
| | - Iván Carrera
- Health Biotechnology, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
| | - Olaia Martínez-Iglesias
- Medical Epigenetics, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
| | - Natalia Cacabelos
- Medical Documentation, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
| | - Vinogran Naidoo
- Basic Neuroscience, International Center of Neuroscience and Genomic Medicine, EuroEspes Biomedical Research Center, Bergondo, Spain
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Bang S, Lee S, Choi N, Kim HN. Emerging Brain-Pathophysiology-Mimetic Platforms for Studying Neurodegenerative Diseases: Brain Organoids and Brains-on-a-Chip. Adv Healthc Mater 2021; 10:e2002119. [PMID: 34028201 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202002119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases are a group of disorders characterized by progressive degeneration of the structural and functional integrity of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Millions of people suffer from degenerative brain diseases worldwide, and the mortality continues to increase every year, causing a growing demand for knowledge of the underlying mechanisms and development of therapeutic targets. Conventional 2D-based cell culture platforms and animal models cannot fully recapitulate the pathophysiology, and this has limited the capability for estimating drug efficacy. Recently, engineered platforms, including brain organoids and brain-on-a-chip, have emerged. They mimic the physiology of brain tissue and reflect the fundamental pathophysiological signatures of neurodegenerative diseases, such as the accumulation of neurotoxic proteins, structural abnormalities, and functional loss. In this paper, recent advances in brain-mimetic platforms and their potential for modeling features of neurodegenerative diseases in vitro are reviewed. The development of a physiologically relevant model should help overcome unresolved neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Seokyoung Bang
- Brain Science Institute Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) Seoul 02792 Republic of Korea
| | - Songhyun Lee
- Department of Medical Engineering Yonsei University College of Medicine Seoul 03722 Republic of Korea
| | - Nakwon Choi
- Brain Science Institute Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) Seoul 02792 Republic of Korea
- KU‐KIST Graduate School of Converging Science and Technology Korea University Seoul 02841 Republic of Korea
| | - Hong Nam Kim
- Brain Science Institute Korea Institute of Science and Technology (KIST) Seoul 02792 Republic of Korea
- Division of Bio‐Medical Science & Technology KIST School Korea University of Science and Technology (UST) Seoul 02792 Republic of Korea
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