Core-Cross-Linked Nanoparticles Reduce Neuroinflammation and Improve Outcome in a Mouse Model of Traumatic Brain Injury

Reprograming Clots for In Vivo Chemical Targeting in Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a critical public health concern, yet there are no therapeutics available to improve long-term outcomes. Drug delivery to TBI remains a challenge due to the blood-brain barrier and increased intracranial pressure. In this work, a chemical targeting approach to improve delivery of materials to the injured brain, is developed. It is hypothesized that the provisional fibrin matrix can be harnessed as an injury-specific scaffold that can be targeted by materials via click chemistry. To accomplish this, the brain clot is engineered in situ by delivering fibrinogen modified with strained cyclooctyne (SCO) moieties, which incorporated into the injury lesion and is retained there for days. Improved intra-injury capture and retention of diverse, clickable azide-materials including a small molecule azide-dye, 40 kDa azide-PEG nanomaterial, and a therapeutic azide-protein in multiple dosing regimens is subsequently observed. To demonstrate therapeutic translation of this approach, a reduction in reactive oxygen species levels in the injured brain after delivery of the antioxidant catalase, is achieved. Further, colocalization between azide and SCO-fibrinogen is specific to the brain over off-target organs. Taken together, a chemical targeting strategy leveraging endogenous clot formation is established which can be applied to improve therapeutic delivery after TBI.

Polymeric Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery

The recent emergence of nanomedicine has revolutionized the therapeutic landscape and necessitated the creation of more sophisticated drug delivery systems. Polymeric nanoparticles sit at the forefront of numerous promising drug delivery designs, due to their unmatched control over physiochemical properties such as size, shape, architecture, charge, and surface functionality. Furthermore, polymeric nanoparticles have the ability to navigate various biological barriers to precisely target specific sites within the body, encapsulate a diverse range of therapeutic cargo and efficiently release this cargo in response to internal and external stimuli. However, despite these remarkable advantages, the presence of polymeric nanoparticles in wider clinical application is minimal. This review will provide a comprehensive understanding of polymeric nanoparticles as drug delivery vehicles. The biological barriers affecting drug delivery will be outlined first, followed by a comprehensive description of the various nanoparticle designs and preparation methods, beginning with the polymers on which they are based. The review will meticulously explore the current performance of polymeric nanoparticles against a myriad of diseases including cancer, viral and bacterial infections, before finally evaluating the advantages and crucial challenges that will determine their wider clinical potential in the decades to come.

Nano-Plumber Reshapes Glymphatic-Lymphatic System to Sustain Microenvironment Homeostasis and Improve Long-Term Prognosis after Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of death and disability worldwide. Long-term changes in the microenvironment of the brain contribute to the degeneration of neurological function following TBI. However, current research focuses primarily on short-term modulation during the early phases of TBI, not on the critical significance of long-term homeostasis in the brain microenvironment. Notably, dysfunction of the glymphatic-lymphatic system results in the accumulation of danger/damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) in the brain, which is regarded as the leading cause of long-term microenvironmental disturbances following TBI. Here, a nanostructure, Nano-plumber, that co-encapsulates the microenvironment regulator pro-DHA and the lymphatic-specific growth factor VEGF-C is developed, allowing for a sustainable and orderly regulation of the microenvironment to promote long-term neurological recovery. Nano-plumber reverses the injury microenvironment by suppressing microglia and astrocytes activation and maintaining reduced activation via enhanced glymphatic-lymphatic drainage, and significantly improves the neurological function of rodents with TBI. This study demonstrates that glymphatic-lymphatic system reconstruction is essential for enhancing long-term prognosis following TBI, and that the Nano-plumber developed here may serve as a clinically translatable treatment option for TBI.

Antioxidant theranostic copolymer-mediated reduction in oxidative stress following traumatic brain injury improves outcome in a mouse model

Following a traumatic brain injury (TBI), excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation products (LPOx) are generated and lead to secondary injury beyond the primary insult. A major limitation of current treatments is poor target engagement, which has prevented success in clinical trials. Thus, nanoparticle-based treatments have received recent attention because of their ability to increase accumulation and retention in damaged brain. Theranostic neuroprotective copolymers (NPC3) containing thiol functional groups can neutralize ROS and LPOx. Immediate administration of NPC3 following injury in a controlled cortical impact (CCI) mouse model provides a therapeutic window in reducing ROS levels at 2.08-20.83 mg/kg in males and 5.52-27.62 mg/kg in females. This NPC3-mediated reduction in oxidative stress improves spatial learning and memory in males, while females show minimal improvement. Notably, NPC3-mediated reduction in oxidative stress prevents the bilateral spread of necrosis in male mice, which was not observed in female mice and likely accounts for the sex-based spatial learning and memory differences. Overall, these findings suggest sex-based differences to oxidative stress scavenger nanoparticle treatments, and a possible upper threshold of antioxidant activity that provides therapeutic benefit in injured brain since female mice benefit from NPC3 treatment to a lesser extent than male mice.

Reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenging biomaterials for anti-inflammatory diseases: from mechanism to therapy

Inflammation is a fundamental defensive response to harmful stimuli, but the overactivation of inflammatory responses is associated with most human diseases. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are a class of chemicals that are generated after the incomplete reduction of molecular oxygen. At moderate levels, ROS function as critical signaling molecules in the modulation of various physiological functions, including inflammatory responses. However, at excessive levels, ROS exert toxic effects and directly oxidize biological macromolecules, such as proteins, nucleic acids and lipids, further exacerbating the development of inflammatory responses and causing various inflammatory diseases. Therefore, designing and manufacturing biomaterials that scavenge ROS has emerged an important approach for restoring ROS homeostasis, limiting inflammatory responses and protecting the host against damage. This review systematically outlines the dynamic balance of ROS production and clearance under physiological conditions. We focus on the mechanisms by which ROS regulate cell signaling proteins and how these cell signaling proteins further affect inflammation. Furthermore, we discuss the use of potential and currently available-biomaterials that scavenge ROS, including agents that were engineered to reduce ROS levels by blocking ROS generation, directly chemically reacting with ROS, or catalytically accelerating ROS clearance, in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. Finally, we evaluate the challenges and prospects for the controlled production and material design of ROS scavenging biomaterials.

Dual Thermal- and Oxidation-Responsive Polymers Synthesized by a Sequential ROP-to-RAFT Procedure Inherently Temper Neuroinflammation

This study is about multiple responsiveness in biomedical materials. This typically implies "orthogonality" (i.e., one response does not affect the other) or synergy (i.e., one increases efficacy or selectivity of the other), but an antagonist effect between responses may also occur. Here, we describe a family of very well-defined amphiphilic and micelle-forming block copolymers, which show both oxidative and temperature responses. They are produced via successive anionic ring-opening polymerization of episulfides and RAFT polymerization of dialkylacrylamides and differ only in the ratio between inert (N,N-dimethylacrylamide, DMA) and temperature-sensitive (N,N-diethylacrylamide, DEA) units. By scavenging Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS), these polymers are anti-inflammatory; through temperature responsiveness, they can macroscopically aggregate, which may allow them to form depots upon injection. The localization of the anti-inflammatory action is an example of synergy. An extensive evaluation of toxicity and anti-inflammatory effects on in vitro models, including BV2 microglia, C8D30 astrocytes and primary neurons, shows a link between capacity of aggregation and detrimental effects on viability which, albeit mild, can hinder the anti-inflammatory potential (antagonist action). Although limited in breadth (e.g., only in vitro models and only DEA as a temperature-responsive unit), this study suggests that single-responsive controls should be used to allow for a precise assessment of the (synergic or antagonist) potential of double-responsive systems.

Polysulfide nanoparticles inhibit fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition via extracellular ROS scavenging and have potential anti-fibrotic properties

This paper is about the effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) - and of their nanoparticle-mediated extracellular removal - in the TGF-β1-induced differentiation of fibroblasts (human dermal fibroblasts - HDFa) to more contractile myofibroblasts, and in the maintenance of this phenotype. Here, poly(propylene sulfide) (PPS) nanoparticles have been employed on 2D and 3D in vitro models, showing extremely low toxicity and undergoing negligible internalization, thereby ensuring an extracellular-only action. Firstly, PPS nanoparticles abrogated ROS-mediated downstream molecular events such as glutathione oxidation, NF-κB activation, and heme oxidase-1 (HMOX) overexpression. Secondly, PPS nanoparticles were also capable to inhibit, prevent and reverse the TGF-β1-induced upregulation of key biomechanical elements, such as ED-a fibronectin (EF-A FN) and alpha-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), respectively markers of protomyofibroblastic and of myofibroblastic differentiation. We also confirmed that ROS alone are ineffective promoters of the myofibroblastic transition, although their presence contributes to its stabilization. Finally, the particles also countered TGF-β1-induced matrix- and tissue-level phenomena, e.g., the upregulation of collagen type 1, the development of aberrant collagen type 1/3 ratios and the contracture of HDFa 3D-seeded fibrin constructs. In short, experimental data at molecular, cellular and tissue levels show a significant potential in the use of PPS nanoparticles as anti-fibrotic agents.

Colloidal therapeutics in the management of traumatic brain injury: Portray of biomarkers and drug-targets, preclinical and clinical pieces of evidence and future prospects

Complexity associated with the aberrant physiology of traumatic brain injury (TBI) makes its therapeutic targeting vulnerable. The underlying mechanisms of pathophysiology of TBI are yet to be completely illustrated. Primary injury in TBI is associated with contusions and axonal shearing whereas excitotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, free radicals generation, and neuroinflammation are considered under secondary injury. MicroRNAs, proinflammatory cytokines, and Glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) recently emerged as biomarkers in TBI. In addition, several approved therapeutic entities have been explored to target existing and newly identified drug-targets in TBI. However, drug delivery in TBI is hampered due to disruption of blood-brain barrier (BBB) in secondary TBI, as well as inadequate drug-targeting and retention effect. Colloidal therapeutics appeared helpful in providing enhanced drug availability to the brain owing to definite targeting strategies. Moreover, immense efforts have been put together to achieve increased bioavailability of therapeutics to TBI by devising effective targeting strategies. The potential of colloidal therapeutics to efficiently deliver drugs at the site of injury and down-regulate the mediators of TBI are serving as novel policies in the management of TBI. Therefore, in present manuscript, we have illuminated a myriad of molecular-targets currently identified and recognized in TBI. Moreover, particular emphasis is given to frame armamentarium of repurpose drugs which could be utilized to block molecular targets in TBI in addition to drug delivery barriers. The critical role of colloidal therapeutics such as liposomes, nanoparticles, dendrimers, and exosomes in drug delivery to TBI through invasive and non-invasive routes has also been highlighted.

Targeted Nanocarriers Co-Opting Pulmonary Intravascular Leukocytes for Drug Delivery to the Injured Brain

Ex vivo-loaded white blood cells (WBC) can transfer cargo to pathological foci in the central nervous system (CNS). Here we tested affinity ligand driven in vivo loading of WBC in order to bypass the need for ex vivo WBC manipulation. We used a mouse model of acute brain inflammation caused by local injection of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α). We intravenously injected nanoparticles targeted to intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (anti-ICAM/NP). We found that (A) at 2 h, >20% of anti-ICAM/NP were localized to the lungs; (B) of the anti-ICAM/NP in the lungs >90% were associated with leukocytes; (C) at 6 and 22 h, anti-ICAM/NP pulmonary uptake decreased; (D) anti-ICAM/NP uptake in brain increased up to 5-fold in this time interval, concomitantly with migration of WBCs into the injured brain. Intravital microscopy confirmed transport of anti-ICAM/NP beyond the blood-brain barrier and flow cytometry demonstrated complete association of NP with WBC in the brain (98%). Dexamethasone-loaded anti-ICAM/liposomes abrogated brain edema in this model and promoted anti-inflammatory M2 polarization of macrophages in the brain. In vivo targeted loading of WBC in the intravascular pool may provide advantages of coopting WBC predisposed to natural rapid mobilization from the lungs to the brain, connected directly via conduit vessels.

Exploring the Potential of Nanotechnology in Pediatric Healthcare: Advances, Challenges, and Future Directions

The utilization of nanotechnology has brought about notable advancements in the field of pediatric medicine, providing novel approaches for drug delivery, disease diagnosis, and tissue engineering. Nanotechnology involves the manipulation of materials at the nanoscale, resulting in improved drug effectiveness and decreased toxicity. Numerous nanosystems, including nanoparticles, nanocapsules, and nanotubes, have been explored for their therapeutic potential in addressing pediatric diseases such as HIV, leukemia, and neuroblastoma. Nanotechnology has also shown promise in enhancing disease diagnosis accuracy, drug availability, and overcoming the blood-brain barrier obstacle in treating medulloblastoma. It is important to acknowledge that while nanotechnology offers significant opportunities, there are inherent risks and limitations associated with the use of nanoparticles. This review provides a comprehensive summary of the existing literature on nanotechnology in pediatric medicine, highlighting its potential to revolutionize pediatric healthcare while also recognizing the challenges and limitations that need to be addressed.

Polymeric core-crosslinked particles prepared via a nanoemulsion-mediated process: from particle design and structural characterization to in vivo behavior in chemotherapy

Various polymeric nanoparticles have been used as drug carriers in drug delivery systems (DDSs). Most of them were constructed from dynamic self-assembly systems formed via hydrophobic interactions and from structures that are unstable in an in vivo environment owing to their relatively weak formation forces. As a solution to this issue, physically stabilized core-crosslinked particles (CP) with chemically crosslinked cores have received attention as alternatives to the dynamic nanoparticles. This focused review summarizes recent advances in the construction, structural characterization, and in vivo behavior of polymeric CPs. First, we introduce a nanoemulsion-mediated method to create polyethylene glycol (PEG)-bearing CPs and their structural characterization. The relationship between the PEG chain conformations in the particle shell and the in vivo fate of the CPs is also discussed. After that, the development and advantages of zwitterionic amino acid-based polymer (ZAP)-bearing CPs are presented to address the poor penetration and the internalization of PEG-based CPs into tumor tissues and cells, respectively. Finally, we conclude and discuss prospects for application of polymeric CPs in the DDS field.

An updated Barnes maze protocol for assessing the outcome of controlled cortical impact mouse models of traumatic brain injury

BACKGROUND

The Barnes Maze (BM) is a common method of testing cognitive deficits in rodents. Adapting BM protocols for specific neurological disorders could potentially aid in more effective testing, reduce research time, and help decrease variability between studies.

NEW METHOD

We tested differences an updated, shortened BM consisting of 6 days, 3 trials per day, only covering the equivalent of the spatial acquisition week BM protocol and a probe trial day consisting of one trial (7 total days).

RESULTS

Kaplan-Meier plots of escape percentage as a function of total latency showed a significant difference between control and CCI mice in the updated protocol on days 3 through 6. Additionally, probe trial data showed significant differences in primary latency, primary errors, and returns to goal.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS

We tested differences between a traditional 5 days per week, 2 trials per day, spatial acquisition and reversal weeks BM protocol (12 total days with probe trials) with an updated 6-day BM protocol (7 total days with probe trial). In the probe trial, the updated protocol control mice showed an over 5-fold decrease in primary latency and primary errors and a 4.6-fold increase in returns to goal compared to the traditional protocol. Additionally, mice in both protocols performed similarly on a trial-by-trial basis suggesting that the changes made for the updated protocol increased learning and memory and was not simply an easier task.

CONCLUSION

The updated BM protocol showed an improved ability to distinguish between control and CCI mice and promoted improved and more consistent learning for both the control and CCI groups.

Research progress of physical transdermal enhancement techniques in tumor therapy

The advancement and popularity of transdermal drug delivery (TDD) based on the physical transdermal enhancement technique (PTET) has opened a new paradigm for local tumor treatment. The drug can be directly delivered to the tumor site through the skin, thus avoiding the toxic side effects caused by the first-pass effect and achieving high patient compliance. Further development of PTETs has provided many options for antitumor drugs and laid the foundation for future applications of wearable closed-loop targeting drug delivery systems. In this highlight, the different types of PTETs and related mechanisms, and applications of PTET-related tumor detection and therapy are highlighted. According to their type and characteristics, PTETs are categorized as follows: (1) iontophoresis, (2) electroporation, (3) ultrasound, (4) thermal ablation, and (5) microneedles. PTET-related applications in the local treatment of tumors are categorized as follows: (1) melanoma, (2) breast tumor, (3) squamous cell carcinoma, (4) cervical tumor, and (5) others. The challenges and future prospects of existing PTETs are also discussed. This highlight will provide guidance for the design of PTET-based wearable closed-loop targeting drug delivery systems and personalized therapy for tumors.

Sex-based differences of antioxidant enzyme nanoparticle effects following traumatic brain injury

Following traumatic brain injury (TBI), reactive oxygen species (ROS) are released in excess, causing oxidative stress, carbonyl stress, and cell death, which induce the additional release of ROS. The limited accumulation and retention of small molecule antioxidants commonly used in clinical trials likely limit the target engagement and therapeutic effect in reducing secondary injury. Small molecule drugs also need to be administered every several hours to maintain bioavailability in the brain. Therefore, there is a need for a burst and sustained release system with high accumulation and retention in the injured brain. Here, we utilized Pro-NP™ with a size of 200 nm, which was designed to have a burst and sustained release of encapsulated antioxidants, Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) and catalase (CAT), to scavenge ROS for >24 h post-injection. Here, we utilized a controlled cortical impact (CCI) mouse model of TBI and found the accumulation of Pro-NP™ in the brain lesion was highest when injected immediately after injury, with a reduction in the accumulation with delayed administration of 1 h or more post-injury. Pro-NP™ treatment with 9000 U/kg SOD1 and 9800 U/kg CAT gave the highest reduction in ROS in both male and female mice. We found that Pro-NP™ treatment was effective in reducing carbonyl stress and necrosis at 1 d post-injury in the contralateral hemisphere in male mice, which showed a similar trend to untreated female mice. Although we found that male and female mice similarly benefit from Pro-NP™ treatment in reducing ROS levels 4 h post-injury, Pro-NP™ treatment did not significantly affect markers of post-traumatic oxidative stress in female CCI mice as compared to male CCI mice. These findings of protection by Pro-NP™ in male mice did not extend to 7 d post-injury, which suggests subsequent treatments with Pro-NP™ may be needed to afford protection into the chronic phase of injury. Overall, these different treatment effects of Pro-NP™ between male and female mice suggest important sex-based differences in response to antioxidant nanoparticle delivery and that there may exist a maximal benefit from local antioxidant activity in injured brain.

Recent Advances in Biomaterials-Based Therapies for Alleviation and Regeneration of Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI), a major public health problem accompanied with numerous complications, usually leads to serve disability and huge financial burden. The adverse and unfavorable pathological environment triggers a series of secondary injuries, resulting in serious loss of nerve function and huge obstacle of endogenous nerve regeneration. With the advances in adaptive tissue regeneration biomaterials, regulation of detrimental microenvironment to reduce the secondary injury and to promote the neurogenesis becomes possible. The adaptive biomaterials could respond and regulate biochemical, cellular, and physiological events in the secondary injury, including excitotoxicity, oxidative stress, and neuroinflammation, to rebuild circumstances suitable for regeneration. In this review, the development of pathology after TBI is discussed, followed by the introduction of adaptive biomaterials based on various pathological characteristics. The adaptive biomaterials carried with neurotrophic factors and stem cells for TBI treatment are then summarized. Finally, the current drawbacks and future perspective of biomaterials for TBI treatment are suggested.

Recombinant High-Density Lipoprotein Boosts the Therapeutic Efficacy of Mild Hypothermia in Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to neuropsychiatric symptoms and increased risk of neurodegenerative disorders. Mild hypothermia is commonly used in patients suffering from severe TBI. However, its effect for long-term protection is limited, mostly because of its insufficient anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective efficacy and restricted treatment duration. Recombinant high-density lipoprotein (rHDL), which possesses anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity and blood-brain barrier (BBB) permeability, was expected to potentially strengthen the therapeutic effect of mild hypothermia in TBI treatment. To test this hypothesis and optimize the regimen for combination therapy, the efficacy of mild hypothermia plus concurrent or sequential rHDL on oxidative stress, inflammatory reaction, and cell survival in the damaged brain cells was evaluated. It was found that the effect of combining mild hypothermia with concurrent rHDL was modest, as mild hypothermia inhibited the cellular uptake and lesion-site-targeting delivery of rHDL. In contrast, the combination of mild hypothermia with sequential rHDL more powerfully improved the anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, promoted nerve cell survival and BBB restoration, and ameliorated neurologic changes, which thus remarkably restored the spatial learning and memory ability of TBI mice. Collectively, these findings suggest that rHDL may serve as a novel nanomedicine for adjunctive therapy of TBI and highlight the importance of timing of combination therapy for optimal treatment outcome.

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery for the treatment of traumatic brain injury

INTRODUCTION

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) impact the breadth of society and remain without any approved pharmacological treatments. Despite successful Phase II clinical trials, the failure of many Phase III clinical trials may be explained by insufficient drug targeting and retention, preventing the proper attainment of an observable dosage threshold. To address this challenge, nanoparticles can be functionalized to protect pharmacological payloads, improve targeted drug delivery to sites of injury, and can be combined with supportive scaffolding to improve secondary outcomes.

AREAS COVERED

This review briefly covers the pathophysiology of TBIs and their subtypes, the current pre-clinical and clinical management strategies, explores the common models of focal, diffuse, and mixed traumatic brain injury employed in experimental animals, and surveys the existing literature on nanoparticles developed to treat TBIs.

EXPERT OPINION

Nanoparticles are well suited to improve secondary outcomes as their multifunctionality and customizability enhance their potential for efficient targeted delivery, payload protection, increased brain penetration, low off-target toxicity, and biocompatibility in both acute and chronic timescales.

Self-Propelled Nanomotors with an Alloyed Engine for Emergency Rescue of Traumatic Brain Injury

In severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI), acute oxidative stress and inflammatory cascades rapidly spread to cause irreversible brain damage and low survival rate within minutes. Therefore, developing a feasible solution for the quick-treatment of life-threatening emergency is urgently demanded to earn time for hospital treatment. Herein, Janus catalysis-driven nanomotors (JCNs) are carefully constructed via plasma-induced alloying technology and sputtering-caused half-coating strategy. The theoretical calculation and experiment results indicate that the heteroatom-doping alloyed engine endows JCNs with much higher catalytic activity for removing reactive oxygen species and reactive nitrogen species than common Pt-based engines. When JCNs are dropped to the surface of the ruptured skull, they can effectively catalyze endogenous hydrogen peroxide, which induces movement as fuels to promote JCNs to deep brain lesions for further nanocatalyst-mediated cascade-blocking therapy. The results demonstrate that the JCNs successfully block the inflammatory cascades, thereby reversing multiple behavioral defects and dramatically declining the mortality of sTBI mice. This work provides a revolutionary nanomotor-based strategy to sense brain injury and scavenge oxidative stress. Meanwhile, the JCNs provide a feasible strategy to adapt various first-aid scenarios due to their self-propelled movement combined with highly multienzyme-like catalytic activity, exhibiting tremendous therapeutic potential to help people for emergency pretreatment.

Progress in Stimuli-Responsive Biomaterials for Treating Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular and cerebrovascular diseases (CCVDs) describe abnormal vascular system conditions affecting the brain and heart. Among these, ischemic heart disease and ischemic stroke are the leading causes of death worldwide, resulting in 16% and 11% of deaths globally. Although several therapeutic approaches are presented over the years, the continuously increasing mortality rates suggest the need for more advanced strategies for their treatment. One of these strategies lies in the use of stimuli-responsive biomaterials. These "smart" biomaterials can specifically target the diseased tissue, and after "reading" the altered environmental cues, they can respond by altering their physicochemical properties and/or their morphology. In this review, the progress in the field of stimuli-responsive biomaterials for CCVDs in the last five years, aiming at highlighting their potential as early-stage therapeutics in the preclinical scenery, is described.

Reactive Oxygen Species Scavenging Functional Hydrogel Delivers Procyanidins for the Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury in Mice

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is accompanied by the overload of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can result in secondary brain injury. Although procyanidins (PCs) have a powerful free radical scavenging capability and have been widely studied in the treatment of TBI, conventional systemic drug therapy cannot make the drug reach the targeted area in the early stage of TBI and will cause systemic side effects because of the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). To address this tissue, we designed and fabricated a ROS-scavenging functional hydrogel loaded PC (GelMA-PPS/PC) to deliver the drug by responding to the traumatic microenvironment. In situ injection of the GelMA-PPS/PC hydrogel effectively avoided the BBB and was directly applied to the surface of brain tissue to target the traumatic area. Hydrophobic poly(propylene sulfide)60 (PPS60), an ROS quencher and H2O2-responsive substance, was covalently bound to GelMA and exposed in response to the trauma microenvironment. At the same time, the H2O2 response of PPS60 further caused the structure of the hydrogel to degrade and release the encapsulated PC. Then PC could regulate the oxidative stress response in the cells and synergistically deplete ROS to play a neurotrophic protective role. This work suggests a novel method for the treatment of secondary brain injury by inhibiting the oxidative stress response after TBI.

A Novel Targeted Nanoparticle for Traumatic Brain Injury Treatment: Combined Effect of ROS Depletion and Calcium Overload Inhibition

Survival after severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) depends on minimizing or avoiding secondary insults to the brain. Overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and Ca²⁺ influx at the damaged site are the key factors that cause secondary injury upon TBI. Herein, a TBI-targeted lipid covered radical scavenger nanoparticle is developed to deliver nimodipine (Np) (CL-PPS/Np), in order to inhibit Ca²⁺ influx in neurons by Np and to scavenge ROS in the brain trauma microenvironment by poly(propylene sulfide)₆₀ (PPS₆₀ ) and thus prevent TBI-associated secondary injury. In post-TBI models, CL-PPS/Np effectively accumulates into the wound cavity and prolongs the time of systemic circulation of Np. CL-PPS/Np can markedly protect the integrity of blood-brain barrier, prevent brain edema, reduce cell death and inflammatory responses, and promote functional recovery after TBI. These findings may provide a new therapy for TBI to prevent the spread of the secondary injury.

Size-Selective Transfer of Lipid Nanoparticle-Based Drug Carriers Across the Blood Brain Barrier Via Vascular Occlusions Following Traumatic Brain Injury

The current lack of understanding about how nanocarriers cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in the healthy and injured brain is hindering the clinical translation of nanoscale brain-targeted drug-delivery systems. Here, the bio-distribution of lipid nano-emulsion droplets (LNDs) of two sizes (30 and 80 nm) in the mouse brain after traumatic brain injury (TBI) is investigated. The highly fluorescent LNDs are prepared by loading them with octadecyl rhodamine B and a bulky hydrophobic counter-ion, tetraphenylborate. Using in vivo two-photon and confocal imaging, the circulation kinetics and bio-distribution of LNDs in the healthy and injured mouse brain are studied. It is found that after TBI, LNDs of both sizes accumulate at vascular occlusions, where specifically 30 nm LNDs extravasate into the brain parenchyma and reach neurons. The vascular occlusions are not associated with bleedings, but instead are surrounded by processes of activated microglia, suggesting a specific opening of the BBB. Finally, correlative light-electron microscopy reveals 30 nm LNDs in endothelial vesicles, while 80 nm particles remain in the vessel lumen, indicating size-selective vesicular transport across the BBB via vascular occlusions. The data suggest that microvascular occlusions serve as "gates" for the transport of nanocarriers across the BBB.

Theranostic Copolymers Neutralize Reactive Oxygen Species and Lipid Peroxidation Products for the Combined Treatment of Traumatic Brain Injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) results in the generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and lipid peroxidation product (LPOx), including acrolein and 4-hydroxynonenal (4HNE). The presence of these biochemical derangements results in neurodegeneration during the secondary phase of the injury. The ability to rapidly neutralize multiple species could significantly improve outcomes for TBI patients. However, the difficulty in creating therapies that target multiple biochemical derangements simultaneously has greatly limited therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, our goal was to design a material that could rapidly bind and neutralize both ROS and LPOx following TBI. To do this, a series of thiol-functionalized biocompatible copolymers based on lipoic acid methacrylate and polyethylene glycol monomethyl ether methacrylate (FW ∼ 950 Da) (O950) were prepared. A polymerizable gadolinium-DOTA methacrylate monomer (Gd-MA) was also synthesized starting from cyclen to facilitate direct magnetic resonance imaging and in vivo tracking of accumulation. These neuroprotective copolymers (NPCs) were shown to rapidly and effectively neutralize both ROS and LPOx. Horseradish peroxidase absorbance assays showed that the NPCs efficiently neutralized H₂O₂, while R-phycoerythrin protection assays demonstrated their ability to protect the fluorescent protein from oxidative damage. ¹H NMR studies indicated that the thiol-functional NPCs rapidly form covalent bonds with acrolein, efficiently removing it from solution. In vitro cell studies with SH-SY5Y-differentiated neurons showed that NPCs provide unique protection against toxic concentrations of both H₂O₂ and acrolein. NPCs rapidly accumulate and are retained in the injured brain in controlled cortical impact mice and reduce post-traumatic oxidative stress. Therefore, these materials show promise for improved target engagement of multiple biochemical derangements in hopes of improving TBI therapeutic outcomes.

Star Polymers with Designed Reactive Oxygen Species Scavenging and Agent Delivery Functionality Promote Plant Stress Tolerance

Plant abiotic stress induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) accumulation in leaves that can decrease photosynthetic performance and crop yield. Materials that scavenge ROS and simultaneously provide nutrients in vivo are needed to manage this stress. Here, we incorporated both ROS scavenging and ROS triggered agent release functionality into an ∼20 nm ROS responsive star polymer (RSP) poly(acrylic acid)-block-poly((2-(methylsulfinyl)ethyl acrylate)-co-(2-(methylthio)ethyl acrylate)) (PAA-b-P(MSEA-co-MTEA)) that alleviated plant stress by simultaneous ROS scavenging and nutrient agent release. Hyperspectral imaging indicates that all of the RSP penetrates through the tomato leaf epidermis, and 32.7% of the applied RSP associates with chloroplasts in mesophyll. RSP scavenged up to 10 μmol mg^-1 ROS in vitro and suppressed ROS in vivo in stressed tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) leaves. Reaction of the RSP with H₂O₂in vitro enhanced the release of nutrient agent (Mg²⁺) from star polymers. Foliar applied RSP increased photosynthesis in plants under heat and light stress compared to untreated controls, enhancing the carbon assimilation, quantum yield of CO₂ assimilation, Rubisco carboxylation rate, and photosystem II quantum yield. Mg loaded RSP improved photosynthesis in Mg deficient plants, mainly by promoting Rubisco activity. These results indicate the potential of ROS scavenging nanocarriers like RSP to alleviate abiotic stress in crop plants, allowing crop plants to be more resilient to heat stress, and potentially other climate change induced abiotic stressors.

Claudin-1-Targeted Nanoparticles for Delivery to Aging-Induced Alterations in the Blood-Brain Barrier

Aging-induced alterations to the blood-brain barrier (BBB) are increasingly being seen as a primary event in chronic progressive neurological disorders that lead to cognitive decline. With the goal of increasing delivery into the brain in hopes of effectively treating these diseases, a large focus has been placed on developing BBB permeable materials. However, these strategies have suffered from a lack of specificity toward regions of disease progression. Here, we report on the development of a nanoparticle (C1C2-NP) that targets regions of increased claudin-1 expression that reduces BBB integrity. Using dynamic contrast enhanced magnetic resonance imaging, we find that C1C2-NP accumulation and retention is significantly increased in brains from 12 month-old mice as compared to nontargeted NPs and brains from 2 month-old mice. Furthermore, we find C1C2-NP accumulation in brain endothelial cells with high claudin-1 expression, suggesting target-specific binding of the NPs, which was validated through fluorescence imaging, in vitro testing, and biophysical analyses. Our results further suggest a role of claudin-1 in reducing BBB integrity during aging and show altered expression of claudin-1 can be actively targeted with NPs. These findings could help develop strategies for longitudinal monitoring of tight junction protein expression changes during aging as well as be used as a delivery strategy for site-specific delivery of therapeutics at these early stages of disease development.

An oligomeric semiconducting nanozyme with ultrafast electron transfers alleviates acute brain injury

Artificial enzymes have attracted wide interest in disease diagnosis and biotechnology due to high stability, easy synthesis, and cost effectiveness. Unfortunately, their catalytic rate is limited to surface electron transfer, affecting the catalytic and biological activity. Here, we report an oligomeric nanozyme (O-NZ) with ultrafast electron transfer, achieving ultrahigh catalytic activity. O-NZ shows electron transfer of 1.8 nanoseconds in internal cores and 1.2 picoseconds between core and ligand molecule, leading to ultrahigh superoxidase dismutase–like and glutathione peroxidase–like activity (comparable with natural enzyme, Michaelis constant = 0.87 millimolars). Excitingly, O-NZ can improve the 1-month survival rate of mice with acute brain trauma from 50 to 90% and promote the recovery of long-term neurocognition. Biochemical experiments show that O-NZ can decrease harmful peroxide and superoxide via in vivo catalytic chain reaction and reduce acute neuroinflammation via nuclear factor erythroid-2 related factor 2–mediated up-regulation of heme oxygenase-1 expression.

Effect of erythropoietin administration on expression of mRNA brain-derived Neutrophic factor, levels of stromal cell-derived Factor-1, and neuron specific enolase in brain injury model Sprague Dawley

Background

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a complicated condition that is the primary cause of death and disability in children and young adults in developed countries. Various kinds of therapy have been carried out in the management of brain injury, one of which is the administration of erythropoietin (EPO). There are not many studies in Indonesia have proven that EPO administration is effective on parameters such as stromal cell-derived factor 1 (SDF-1), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF mRNA), and neuron-specific enolase (NSE) in brain injury patients. The purpose of this study was to see how EPO affected BDNF mRNA expression, SDF-1 serum levels, and NSE levels in experimental rats with TBI.

Methods

This study was conducted using a rat head injury model. Fifteen rats were randomly assigned to one of three groups: A, B, or C. EPO was administered subcutis with a dose of 30.000 U/kg. Blood samples were taken after brain injury (H0), 12 h (H12), and 24 h (H24) after brain injury. Serum level of SDF-1 and NSE were measured using mRNA BDNF gene expression was measured with Real-Time-PCR, and ELISA.

Results

This study found EPO increase BDNF mRNA expression in group C at H-12 (7,92 ± 0.51 vs 6.45 ± 0.33) compared to group B, and at H-24 (9.20 ± 0.56 vs 7.22 ± 0.19); increase SDF-1 levels in group C at H-12 (7,56 ± 0,54) vs 4,62 ± 0,58) compared to group B, and at H-24 (11,32 ± 4,55 vs 2,55 ± 0,70); decrease serum NSE levels in group C at H-12 (17,25 ± 2,02 vs 29,65 ± 2,33) compare to group B and at H-24 (12,14 ± 2,61 vs 37,31 ± 2,76); the values are significantly different with p < 0,05.

Conclusion

EPO may have neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties in TBI by increasing mRNA BDNF expression and serum SDF-1 levels, and decrease serum NSE levels.

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Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a major cause of death and lifelong disability.

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Erythropoietin (EPO) increasing mRNA BDNF expression and serum SDF-1 levels.

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EPO decrease serum NSE levels.

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Erythropoietin may have neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory properties.

Stimuli-responsive transdermal microneedle patches

Microneedle (MN) patches consisting of miniature needles have emerged as a promising tool to perforate the stratum corneum and translocate biomolecules into the dermis in a minimally invasive manner. Stimuli-responsive MN patches represent emerging drug delivery systems that release cargos on-demand as a response to internal or external triggers. In this review, a variety of stimuli-responsive MN patches for controlled drug release are introduced, covering the mechanisms of action toward different indications. Future opportunities and challenges with respect to clinical translation are also discussed.

Nanoparticles: A Hope for the Treatment of Inflammation in CNS

Neuroinflammation, an inflammatory response within the central nervous system (CNS), is a main hallmark of common neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), among others. The over-activated microglia release pro-inflammatory cytokines, which induces neuronal death and accelerates neurodegeneration. Therefore, inhibition of microglia over-activation and microglia-mediated neuroinflammation has been a promising strategy for the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases. Many drugs have shown promising therapeutic effects on microglia and inflammation. However, the blood–brain barrier (BBB)—a natural barrier preventing brain tissue from contact with harmful plasma components—seriously hinders drug delivery to the microglial cells in CNS. As an emerging useful therapeutic tool in CNS-related diseases, nanoparticles (NPs) have been widely applied in biomedical fields for use in diagnosis, biosensing and drug delivery. Recently, many NPs have been reported to be useful vehicles for anti-inflammatory drugs across the BBB to inhibit the over-activation of microglia and neuroinflammation. Therefore, NPs with good biodegradability and biocompatibility have the potential to be developed as an effective and minimally invasive carrier to help other drugs cross the BBB or as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of neuroinflammation-mediated neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we summarized various nanoparticles applied in CNS, and their mechanisms and effects in the modulation of inflammation responses in neurodegenerative diseases, providing insights and suggestions for the use of NPs in the treatment of neuroinflammation-related neurodegenerative diseases.

Preclinical studies conducted on nanozyme antioxidants: shortcomings and challenges based on US FDA regulations

The wide prevalence of oxidative stress-induced diseases has led to a growing demand for antioxidant therapeutics worldwide. Nanozyme antioxidants are drawing enormous attention as practical alternatives for conventional antioxidants. The considerable body of research over the last decade and the promising results achieved signify the potential of nanozyme antioxidants to secure a place in the expanding market of antioxidant therapeutics. Nonetheless, there is no report on clinical trials for their further evaluation. Through analyzing in-depth selected papers which have conducted in vivo studies on nanozyme antioxidants, this review aims to pinpoint and discuss possible reasons impeding development of research toward clinical studies and to offer some practical solutions for future studies to bridge the gap between preclinical and clinical stages.

Designing responsive dressings for inflammatory skin disorders; encapsulating antioxidant nanoparticles into biocompatible electrospun fibres

Inflammatory skin disorders are highly prevalent and current treatments are marred by side-effects. Here, we have designed anti-inflammatory fibrous sheets with the potential to treat low exudate inflammatory skin disorders such as psoriasis or atopic dermatitis. Antioxidant and anti-inflammatory nanoparticles composed of crosslinked poly(propylene sulfide) (PPS) were encapsulated in poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO) fibres via electrospinning from an aqueous suspension. The loading of nanoparticles did not adversely effect the homogenous nature of the electrospun fibres; furthermore, nanoparticles retained their morphology, size and anti-inflammatory character after electrospinning. The PPS-nanoparticle-loaded nanofibres were found to be highly cytocompatible when tested on human dermal fibroblasts. These findings suggest they have significant potential to topically treat inflamed tissues that are characterized by high reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels.

Atomic Engineering of Clusterzyme for Relieving Acute Neuroinflammation through Lattice Expansion

Natural enzymes are efficient and versatile biocatalysts but suffer in their environmental tolerance and catalytic stability. As artificial enzymes, nanozymes can improve the catalytic stability, but it is still a challenge to achieve high catalytic activity. Here, we employed atomic engineering to build the artificial enzyme named Au₂₄Ag₁ clusterzyme that hosts an ultrahigh catalytic activity as well as strong physiological stability via atom manipulation. The designed Au₂₄Ag₁ clusterzyme activates the Ag-S active site via lattice expansion in the oligomer atom layer, showing an antioxidant property 72 times higher than that of natural antioxidant Trolox. Enzyme-mimicked studies find that Au₂₄Ag₁ clusterzyme exhibits high catalase-like (CAT-like) and glutathione peroxidase-like (GPx-like) activity with a maximum reaction rate of 68.9 and 17.8 μM/min, respectively. Meanwhile, the unique catalytic landscape exhibits distinctive reactions against inflammation by inhibiting the cytokines at an early stage in the brain. Atomic engineering of clusterzymes provides a powerful and attractive platform with satisfactory atomic dispersion for tailoring biocatalysts freely at the atomic level.

Antioxidant thioether core-crosslinked nanoparticles prevent the bilateral spread of secondary injury to protect spatial learning and memory in a controlled cortical impact mouse model of traumatic brain injury

The secondary phase of traumatic brain injury (TBI) is partly caused by the release of excess reactive oxygen species (ROS) from the primary injury. However, there are currently no therapies that have been shown to reduce the secondary spread of injury beyond the primary insult. Nanoparticles offer the ability to rapidly accumulate and be retained in injured brain for improved target engagement. Here, we utilized systemically administered antioxidant thioether core-cross-linked nanoparticles (NP1) that scavenge and inactivate ROS to reduce this secondary spread of injury in a mild controlled cortical impact (CCI) mouse model of TBI. We found that NP1 treatment protected CCI mice from injury induced learning and memory deficits observed in the Morris water maze (MWM) test at 1-month post-CCI. This protection was likely a result of NP1-mediated reduction in oxidative stress in the ipsilateral hemisphere as determined by immunofluorescence imaging of markers of oxidative stress and the spread of neuroinflammation into the contralateral hippocampus as determined by immunofluorescence imaging of activated microglia and neuron-astrocyte-microglia triad formation. These data suggest NP1-mediated reduction in post-traumatic oxidative stress correlates with the reduction in the spread of injury to the contralateral hippocampus to protect spatial memory and learning in CCI mice. Therefore, these materials may offer an improved treatment strategy to reduce the secondary spread of TBI.

The Application of Nanotechnology for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Brain Diseases and Disorders

Brain is by far the most complex organ in the body. It is involved in the regulation of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional activities. The organ is also a target for many diseases and disorders ranging from injuries to cancers and neurodegenerative diseases. Brain diseases are the main causes of disability and one of the leading causes of deaths. Several drugs that have shown potential in improving brain structure and functioning in animal models face many challenges including the delivery, specificity, and toxicity. For many years, researchers have been facing challenge of developing drugs that can cross the physical (blood–brain barrier), electrical, and chemical barriers of the brain and target the desired region with few adverse events. In recent years, nanotechnology emerged as an important technique for modifying and manipulating different objects at the molecular level to obtain desired features. The technique has proven to be useful in diagnosis as well as treatments of brain diseases and disorders by facilitating the delivery of drugs and improving their efficacy. As the subject is still hot, and new research findings are emerging, it is clear that nanotechnology could upgrade health care systems by providing easy and highly efficient diagnostic and treatment methods. In this review, we will focus on the application of nanotechnology in the diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases and disorders by illuminating the potential of nanoparticles.

Rational Design of Nanomaterials for Various Radiation-Induced Diseases Prevention and Treatment

Radiation treatments often unfavorably damage neighboring healthy organs and cause a series of radiation sequelae, such as radiation-induced hematopoietic system diseases, radiation-induced gastrointestinal diseases, radiation-induced lung diseases, and radiation-induced skin diseases. Recently, emerging nanomaterials have exhibited good superiority for these radiation-induced disease treatments. Given this background, the rational design principle of nanomaterials, which helps to optimize the therapeutic efficiency, has been an increasing need. Consequently, it is of great significance to perform a systematic summarization of the advances in this field, which can trigger the development of new high-performance nanoradioprotectors with drug efficiency maximization. Herein, this review highlights the advances and perspectives in the rational design of nanomaterials for preventing and treating various common radiation-induced diseases. Furthermore, the sources, clinical symptoms, and pathogenesis/injury mechanisms of these radiation-induced diseases will also be introduced. Furthermore, current challenges and directions for future efforts in this field are also discussed.

ROS-Responsive Nanoparticle as a Berberine Carrier for OHC-Targeted Therapy of Noise-Induced Hearing Loss

Overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and inflammation are two key pathogeneses of noise-induced hearing loss (NIHL), which leads to outer hair cell (OHC) damage and hearing loss. In this work, we successfully developed ROS-responsive nanoparticles as berberine (BBR) carriers (PL-PPS/BBR) for OHC-targeted therapy of NIHL: Prestin-targeting peptide 2 (PrTP2)-modified nanoparticles (PL-PPS/BBR), which effectively accumulated in OHC areas, and poly(propylene sulfide)₁₂₀ (PPS₁₂₀), which scavenged ROS and converted to poly(propylene sulfoxide)₁₂₀ in a ROS environment to disintegrate and provoke the rapid release of BBR with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. In this study, satisfactory anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects of PL-PPS/BBR were confirmed. Immunofluorescence and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images showed that PL-PPS/BBR effectively accumulated in OHCs and protected the morphological integrity of OHCs. The auditory brainstem response (ABR) results demonstrated that PL-PPS/BBR significantly improved hearing in NIHL guinea pigs after noise exposure. This work suggested that PL-PPS/BBR may be a new potential treatment for noise-associated injury with clinical application.

Catalytic Nanozyme for Radiation Protection

Radiotherapy has been widely used in clinical cancer treatment. However, the ionizing radiation required to kill the tumor will inevitably cause damage to the surrounding normal tissues. To minimize the radiation damage and side effects, small molecular radioprotective agents have been used as clinical adjuvants for radiation protection of healthy tissues. However, the shortcomings of small molecules such as short circulation time and rapid kidney clearance from the body greatly hinder their biomedical applications. In recent years, nanozymes have attracted much attention because of their potential to treat a variety of diseases. Nanozymes exhibit catalytic properties and antioxidant capabilities to provide a potential solution for the development of high-efficiency radioprotective agents in radiotherapy and nuclear radiation accidents. Therefore, in this review, we systematically summarize the catalytic nanozymes used for radiation protection of healthy tissues and discuss the challenges and future prospects of nanomaterials in the field of radiation protection.

In Situ implantable, post-trauma microenvironment-responsive, ROS Depletion Hydrogels for the treatment of Traumatic brain injury

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) generates excess reactive oxygen species (ROS), which can exacerbate secondary injury and result in disability and death. Secondary injury cascades can trigger the release of uncontrolled ROS into the surrounding normal brain tissue, forming an extended pool of ROS, which leads to massive neuronal death. Here, we developed an injectable, post-trauma microenvironment-responsive, ROS depletion hydrogel embedded curcumin (Cur) (TM/PC) for reducing ROS levels in damaged brain tissue to promote the regeneration and recovery of neurons. Hydrogel was composed of three parts: (1) Hydrophobic poly (propylene sulfide)120 (PPS120) was synthesized, with a ROS quencher and H2O2-responsive abilities, to embed Cur. (2) Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-responsive triglycerol monostearate (TM) was used to cover the PPS120 to form a TM/P hydrogel. (3) Cur could further eradicate the ROS, promoting the regeneration and recovery of neurons. In two postoperative TBI models, TM/PC hydrogel effectively responded the TBI surgical environment and released drug. TM/PC hydrogel significantly depleted ROS and reduced brain edema. In addition, reactive astrocytes and activated microglia were decreased, growth-associated protein 43 (GAP43) and doublecortin (DCX) were increased, suggested that TM/PC hydrogel had the strongest anti-inflammatory effect and effectively promoted nerve regeneration after TBI. This study provides new information for the management of TBI to prevent the secondary spread of damage.

Nanomedicine for Acute Brain Injuries: Insight from Decades of Cancer Nanomedicine

Acute brain injuries such as traumatic brain injury and stroke affect 85 million people a year worldwide, and many survivors suffer from long-term physical, cognitive, or psychosocial impairments. There are few FDA-approved therapies that are effective at preventing, halting, or ameliorating the state of disease in the brain after acute brain injury. To address this unmet need, one potential strategy is to leverage the unique physical and biological properties of nanomaterials. Decades of cancer nanomedicine research can serve as a blueprint for innovation in brain injury nanomedicines, both to emulate the successes and also to avoid potential pitfalls. In this review, we discuss how shared disease physiology between cancer and acute brain injuries can inform the design of novel nanomedicines for acute brain injuries. These disease hallmarks include dysregulated vasculature, an altered microenvironment, and changes in the immune system. We discuss several nanomaterial strategies that can be engineered to exploit these disease hallmarks, for example, passive accumulation, active targeting of disease-associated signals, bioresponsive designs that are "smart", and immune interactions.

BBB pathophysiology-independent delivery of siRNA in traumatic brain injury

Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based therapeutics can mitigate the long-term sequelae of traumatic brain injury (TBI) but suffer from poor permeability across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). One approach to overcoming this challenge involves treatment administration while BBB is transiently breached after injury. However, it offers a limited window for therapeutic intervention and is applicable to only a subset of injuries with substantially breached BBB. We report a nanoparticle platform for BBB pathophysiology-independent delivery of siRNA in TBI. We achieved this by combined modulation of surface chemistry and coating density on nanoparticles, which maximized their active transport across BBB. Engineered nanoparticles injected within or outside the window of breached BBB in TBI mice showed threefold higher brain accumulation compared to nonengineered PEGylated nanoparticles and 50% gene silencing. Together, our data suggest that this nanoparticle platform is a promising next-generation drug delivery approach for the treatment of TBI.

BBB pathophysiology-independent delivery of siRNA in traumatic brain injury

Small interfering RNA (siRNA)-based therapeutics can mitigate the long-term sequelae of traumatic brain injury (TBI) but suffer from poor permeability across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). One approach to overcoming this challenge involves treatment administration while BBB is transiently breached after injury. However, it offers a limited window for therapeutic intervention and is applicable to only a subset of injuries with substantially breached BBB. We report a nanoparticle platform for BBB pathophysiology-independent delivery of siRNA in TBI. We achieved this by combined modulation of surface chemistry and coating density on nanoparticles, which maximized their active transport across BBB. Engineered nanoparticles injected within or outside the window of breached BBB in TBI mice showed threefold higher brain accumulation compared to nonengineered PEGylated nanoparticles and 50% gene silencing. Together, our data suggest that this nanoparticle platform is a promising next-generation drug delivery approach for the treatment of TBI.

Catalytic patch with redox Cr/CeO2 nanozyme of noninvasive intervention for brain trauma

Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a sudden injury to the brain, accompanied by the production of large amounts of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS) and acute neuroinflammation responses. Although traditional pharmacotherapy can effectively decrease the immune response of neuron cells via scavenging free radicals, it always involves in short reaction time as well as rigorous clinical trial. Therefore, a noninvasive topical treatment method that effectively eliminates free radicals still needs further investigation. Methods: In this study, a type of catalytic patch based on nanozymes with the excellent multienzyme-like activity is designed for noninvasive treatment of TBI. The enzyme-like activity, free radical scavenging ability and therapeutic efficacy of the designed catalytic patch were assessed in vitro and in vivo. The structural composition was characterized by the X-ray diffraction, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and high-resolution transmission electron microscopy technology. Results: Herein, the prepared Cr-doped CeO2 (Cr/CeO2) nanozyme increases the reduced Ce3+ states, resulting in its enzyme-like activity 3-5 times higher than undoped CeO2. Furthermore, Cr/CeO2 nanozyme can improve the survival rate of LPS induced neuron cells via decreasing excessive RONS. The in vivo experiments show the Cr/CeO2 nanozyme can promote wound healing and reduce neuroinflammation of mice following brain trauma. The catalytic patch based on nanozyme provides a noninvasive topical treatment route for TBI as well as other traumas diseases. Conclusions: The catalytic patch based on nanozyme provides a noninvasive topical treatment route for TBI as well as other traumas diseases.

Chemo-physical Strategies to Advance the in Vivo Functionality of Targeted Nanomedicine: The Next Generation

The past few decades have witnessed an evolution of nanomedicine from biologically inert entities to more smart systems, aimed at advancing in vivo functionality. However, we should recognize that most systems still rely on reasonable explanation-including some over-explanation-rather than definitive evidence, which is a watershed radically determining the speed and extent of advancing nanomedicine. Probing nano-bio interactions and desirable functionality at the tissue, cellular, and molecular levels is most frequently overlooked. Progress toward answering these questions will provide instructive insight guiding more effective chemo-physical strategies. Thus, in the next generation, we argue that much effort should be made to provide definitive evidence for proof-of-mechanism, in lieu of creating many new and complicated systems for similar proof-of-concept.

Chitosan nanocarrier for FTY720 enhanced delivery retards Parkinson's disease via PP2A-EzH2 signaling in vitro and ex vivo

Parkinson's disease (PD) develops due to oxidative stress, mitochondrial aberrations, posttranslational modification, and α-Synuclein (α-Syn) aggregation. The α-synucleinopathy is attributed to phosphorylation and aggregation of α-Syn. A strategy to degrade or reduce phosphorylated protein paves the way to develop PD therapy. Hence, the neuroprotective efficiency of PP2A (Protein phosphatase 2) activator FTY720, loaded chitosan nanoformulation has been evaluated in vitro and ex vivo experimental PD models. Bio-compatible chitosan-based nanocarriers have been utilized to enhance the bio-availability and neuroprotective effect of FTY720. The neuroprotective effect of characterized nanoformulation was determined by the downregulation of PD hallmark phospho-serine 129 (pSer129) α-Syn, with anti-oxidative and anti-inflammatory potentials. The neuroprotective mechanism uncovered novel physical interaction of PP2A and polycomb group of protein Enhancer of zeste homolog 2 to mediate ubiquitination and degradation of agglomerated pSer129 α-Syn. Indeed, this study establishes the neuroprotective potential of chitosan based FTY720 nanoformulations by PP2A mediated epigenetic regulation for PD prevention.