Miniaturization of NMR systems: desktop spectrometers, microcoil spectroscopy, and "NMR on a chip" for chemistry, biochemistry, and industry

Slice through the water-Exploring the fundamental challenge of water suppression for benchtop NMR systems

Benchtop NMR provides improved accessibility in terms of cost, space, and technical expertise. In turn, this encourages new users into the field of NMR spectroscopy. Unfortunately, many interesting samples in education and research, from beer to whole blood, contain significant amounts of water that require suppression in 1H NMR in order to recover sample information. However, due to the significant reduction in chemical shift dispersion in benchtop NMR systems, the sample signals are much closer to the water resonance compared to those in a corresponding high-field NMR spectrum. Therefore, simply translating solvent suppression experiments intended for high-field NMR instruments to benchtop NMR systems without careful consideration can be problematic. In this study, the effectiveness of several popular water suppression schemes was evaluated for benchtop NMR applications. Emphasis is placed on pulse sequences with no, or few, adjustable parameters making them easy to implement. These fall into two main categories: (1) those based on Pre-SAT including Pre-SAT, PURGE, NOESY-PR, and g-NOESY-PR and (2) those based on binomial inversion including JRS and W5-WATERGATE. Among these schemes, solvent suppression sequences based on Pre-SAT offer a general approach for easy solvent suppression for samples with higher analyte concentrations (sucrose standard and Redbull™). However, for human urine, binomial-like sequences were required. In summary, it is demonstrated that highly efficient water suppression approaches can be implemented on benchtop NMR systems in a simple manner, despite the limited spectral dispersion, further illustrating the potential for widespread implementation of these approaches in education and research.

Contributions towards variable temperature shielding for compact NMR instruments

The application of compact NMR instruments to hot flowing samples or exothermically reacting mixtures is limited by the temperature sensitivity of permanent magnets. Typically, such temperature effects directly influence the achievable magnetic field homogeneity and hence measurement quality. The internal-temperature control loop of the magnet and instruments is not designed for such temperature compensation. Passive insulation is restricted by the small dimensions within the magnet borehole. Here, we present a design approach for active heat shielding with the aim of variable temperature control of NMR samples for benchtop NMR instruments using a compressed airstream which is variable in flow and temperature. Based on the system identification and surface temperature measurements through thermography, a model predictive control was set up to minimise any disturbance effect on the permanent magnet from the probe or sample temperature. This methodology will facilitate the application of variable-temperature shielding and, therefore, extend the application of compact NMR instruments to flowing sample temperatures that differ from the magnet temperature.

An easy-built Halbach magnet for LF-NMR with high homogeneity using optimized target-field passive shimming method

The aim of this work is to develop a Halbach magnet that possesses characteristics such as easy-built, low cost and high homogeneity for use in a portable low-field NMR (LF-NMR) system. Considering portability, a 4-ring Halbach magnet was designed through simulation and mechanical modelling, which was successfully constructed in a general laboratory setting. The obtained field strength (B0) was 0.169 T, with an initial homogeneity of 8204 ppm within a sphere with a diameter of 20 mm. To enhance robustness, efficiency and effectiveness of shimming, an optimized target-field passive shimming method was proposed. Subsequently, the homemade spectrometer was used to run NMR experiments on the Halbach magnet. The 1H NMR linewidths of water samples became significantly narrower after passive shimming, e.g., the linewidth of a sample with a diameter of 3 mm and a length of 3 mm reduced from 452.3 Hz (62.5 ppm) to 12.9 Hz (1.8 ppm), which was much less than 102 Hz. The NMR results demonstrate that the proposed passive shimming method can achieve high homogeneity, and the developed Halbach magnet is capable of satisfying numerous LF-NMR applications.

Successful combination of benchtop nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and chemometric tools: A review

Low-field nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has three general modalities: spectroscopy, imaging, and relaxometry. In the last twelve years, the modality of spectroscopy, also known as benchtop NMR, compact NMR, or just low-field NMR, has undergone instrumental development due to new permanent magnetic materials and design. As a result, benchtop NMR has emerged as a powerful analytical tool for use in process analytical control (PAC). Nevertheless, the successful application of NMR devices as an analytical tool in several areas is intrinsically linked to its coupling with different chemometric methods. This review focuses on the evolution of benchtop NMR and chemometrics in chemical analysis, including applications in fuels, foods, pharmaceuticals, biochemicals, drugs, metabolomics, and polymers. The review also presents different low-resolution NMR methods for spectrum acquisition and chemometric techniques for calibration, classification, discrimination, data fusion, calibration transfer, multi-block and multi-way.

Application of Benchtop NMR for Metabolomics Study Using Feces of Mice with DSS-Induced Colitis

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)-based metabolomics, which comprehensively measures metabolites in biological systems and investigates their response to various perturbations, is widely used in research to identify biomarkers and investigate the pathogenesis of underlying diseases. However, further applications of high-field superconducting NMR for medical purposes and field research are restricted by its high cost and low accessibility. In this study, we applied a low-field, benchtop NMR spectrometer (60 MHz) employing a permanent magnet to characterize the alterations in the metabolic profile of fecal extracts obtained from dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced ulcerative colitis model mice and compared them with the data acquired from high-field NMR (800 MHz). Nineteen metabolites were assigned to the 60 MHz ¹H NMR spectra. Non-targeted multivariate analysis successfully discriminated the DSS-induced group from the healthy control group and showed high comparability with high-field NMR. In addition, the concentration of acetate, identified as a metabolite with characteristic behavior, could be accurately quantified using a generalized Lorentzian curve fitting method based on the 60 MHz NMR spectra.

Perspective Chapter: Novel Diagnostics Methods for SARS-CoV-2

A novel coronavirus of zoonotic origin (SARS-CoV-2) has recently been recognized in patients with acute respiratory disease. COVID-19 causative agent is structurally and genetically similar to SARS and bat SARS-like coronaviruses. The drastic increase in the number of coronavirus and its genome sequence has given us an unprecedented opportunity to perform bioinformatics and genomics analysis on this class of viruses. Clinical tests such as PCR and ELISA for rapid detection of this virus are urgently needed for early identification of infected patients. However, these techniques are expensive and not readily available for point-of-care (POC) applications. Currently, lack of any rapid, available, and reliable POC detection method gives rise to the progression of COVID-19 as a horrible global problem. To solve the negative features of clinical investigation, we provide a brief introduction of the various novel diagnostics methods including SERS, SPR, electrochemical, magnetic detection of SARS-CoV-2. All sensing and biosensing methods based on nanotechnology developed for the determination of various classes of coronaviruses are useful to recognize the newly immerged coronavirus, i.e., SARS-CoV-2. Also, the introduction of sensing and biosensing methods sheds light on the way of designing a proper screening system.

Rapid estimation approach for glycosylated serum protein of human serum based on the combination of deep learning and TD-NMR technology

Rapid and precise estimation of glycosylated serum protein (GSP) of human serum is of great importance for the treatment and diagnosis of diabetes mellitus. In this study, we propose a novel method for estimation of GSP level based on the combination of deep learning and time domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) transverse relaxation signal of human serum. Specifically, a principal component analysis (PCA)-enhanced one-dimensional convolutional neural network (1D-CNN) is proposed to analyze the TD-NMR transverse relaxation signal of human serum. The proposed algorithm is proved by accurate estimation of GSP level for the collected serum samples. Furthermore, the proposed algorithm is compared with 1D-CNN without PCA, long short-term memory network (LSTM) and some conventional machine learning algorithms. The results indicate that PCA-enhanced 1D-CNN (PC-1D-CNN) has the minimum error. This study proves that proposed method is feasible and superior to estimate GSP level of human serum using TD-NMR transverse relaxation signals.

Recent advances in microfluidics-based bioNMR analysis

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) has been used in a variety of fields due to its powerful analytical capability. To facilitate biochemical NMR (bioNMR) analysis for samples with a limited mass, a number of integrated systems have been developed by coupling microfluidics and NMR. However, there are few review papers that summarize the recent advances in the development of microfluidics-based NMR (μNMR) systems. Herein, we review the advancements in μNMR systems built on high-field commercial instruments and low-field compact platforms. Specifically, μNMR platforms with three types of typical microcoils settled in the high-field NMR instruments will be discussed, followed by summarizing compact NMR systems and their applications in biomedical point-of-care testing. Finally, a conclusion and future prospects in the field of μNMR were given.

Gene knockdown in HaCaT cells by small interfering RNAs entrapped in grapefruit-derived extracellular vesicles using a microfluidic device

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) knockdown the expression of target genes by causing mRNA degradation and are a promising therapeutic modality. In clinical practice, lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are used to deliver RNAs, such as siRNA and mRNA, into cells. However, these artificial nanoparticles are toxic and immunogenic. Thus, we focused on extracellular vesicles (EVs), natural drug delivery systems, for the delivery of nucleic acids. EVs deliver RNAs and proteins to specific tissues to regulate various physiological phenomena in vivo. Here, we propose a novel method for the preparation siRNAs encapsulated in EVs using a microfluidic device (MD). MDs can be used to generate nanoparticles, such as LNPs, by controlling flow rate to the device, but the loading of siRNAs into EVs using MDs has not been reported previously. In this study, we demonstrated a method for loading siRNAs into grapefruit-derived EVs (GEVs), which have gained attention in recent years for being plant-derived EVs developed using an MD. GEVs were collected from grapefruit juice using the one-step sucrose cushion method, and then GEVs-siRNA-GEVs were prepared using an MD device. The morphology of GEVs and siRNA-GEVs was observed using a cryogenic transmission electron microscope. Cellular uptake and intracellular trafficking of GEVs or siRNA-GEVs to human keratinocytes were evaluated by microscopy using HaCaT cells. The prepared siRNA-GEVs encapsulated 11% of siRNAs. Moreover, intracellular delivery of siRNA and gene suppression effects in HaCaT cells were achieved using these siRNA-GEVs. Our findings suggested that MDs can be used to prepare siRNA-EV formulations.

Identification of seven psychedelic 2,5-dimethoxy-phenylethyl-amine-based designer drugs via benchtop 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

The dissemination of spectral information of new psychoactive substances (NPS) acquired on benchtop nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrometers is of high importance considering the emerging application of such portable and accessible instruments in forensic analyses. Seven members of the 2C-X series (2C-B, 2C-C, 2C-D, 2C-E, 2C-P, 2C-T2, and 2C-T7) of NPS were analyzed via 60 MHz ¹ H benchtop NMR spectroscopy and their molecular structural relations are discussed with respect to the observed proton NMR spectra.

A compact permanent magnet for microflow NMR relaxometry

We design and demonstrate a compact, robust, and simple to assemble and tune permanent magnet suitable for NMR relaxometry measurements of microfluidic flows. Soft-magnetic stainless-steel plates, incorporated inside the magnet airgap, are key for obtaining substantially improved and tunable field homogeneity. The design is scalable for different NMR probe sizes with the region of suitable field homogeneity, less than 200 ppm, achievable in a capillary length of about 50 % of the total magnet length. The built physical prototype, having 3.5x3.5x8.0 cm³ in size and 5 mm high airgap, provides a field strength of 0.5 T and sufficient field homogeneity for NMR relaxometry measurements in capillaries up to 1.6 mm i.d. and 20 mm long. The magnet was used for test flow rate measurements in a wide range, from 0.001 ml/min to 20 ml/min.

Fully Automated Characterization of Protein-Peptide Binding by Microfluidic 2D NMR

We demonstrate an automated microfluidic nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) system that quantitatively characterizes protein-ligand interactions without user intervention and with minimal sample needs through protein-detected heteronuclear 2D NMR spectroscopy. Quantitation of protein-ligand interactions is of fundamental importance to the understanding of signaling and other life processes. As is well-known, NMR provides rich information both on the thermodynamics of binding and on the binding site. However, the required titrations are laborious and tend to require large amounts of sample, which are not always available. The present work shows how the analytical power of NMR detection can be brought in line with the trend of miniaturization and automation in life science workflows.

In situ pod growth rate reveals contrasting diurnal sensitivity to water deficit in Phaseolus vulgaris

The development of reproductive tissues determines plant fecundity and yield. Loading of resources into the developing reproductive tissue is thought to be under the co-limiting effects of source and sink strength. The dynamics of this co-limitation are unknown, largely due to an inability to measure the flux of resources into a developing sink. Here we use nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) sensors to measure sink strength by quantifying rates of pod dry matter accumulation (pod loading) in Phaseolus vulgaris at 13-min intervals across the diel period. Rates of pod loading showed contrasting variation across light and dark periods during the onset of water deficit. In addition, rates of pod loading appeared decoupled from net photosynthetic rates when adjusted to the plant scale. Combined, these observations illustrate that the rate of pod development varies under water limitation and that continuous, non-invasive methodologies to measure sink strength provide insight into the governing processes that determine the development of reproductive tissues.

On‐Chip Chemical Synthesis Using One‐Step 3D Printed Polyperfluoropolyether

Three‐dimensional (3D) printing has already shown its high relevance for the fabrication of microfluidic devices in terms of precision manufacturing cycles and a wider range of materials. 3D‐printable transparent fluoropolymers are highly sought after due to their high chemical and thermal resistance. Here, we present a simple one‐step fabrication process via stereolithography of perfluoropolyether dimethacrylate. We demonstrate successfully printed microfluidic mixers with 800 µm circular channels for chemistry‐on‐chip applications. The printed chips show chemical, mechanical, and thermal resistance up to 200 °C, as well as high optical transparency. Aqueous and organic reactions are presented to demonstrate the wide potential of perfluoropolyether dimethacrylate for chemical synthesis.

Mechanistic analysis by NMR spectroscopy: A users guide

A 'principles and practice' tutorial-style review of the application of solution-phase NMR in the analysis of the mechanisms of homogeneous organic and organometallic reactions and processes. This review of 345 references summarises why solution-phase NMR spectroscopy is uniquely effective in such studies, allowing non-destructive, quantitative analysis of a wide range of nuclei common to organic and organometallic reactions, providing exquisite structural detail, and using instrumentation that is routinely available in most chemistry research facilities. The review is in two parts. The first comprises an introduction to general techniques and equipment, and guidelines for their selection and application. Topics include practical aspects of the reaction itself, reaction monitoring techniques, NMR data acquisition and processing, analysis of temporal concentration data, NMR titrations, DOSY, and the use of isotopes. The second part comprises a series of 15 Case Studies, each selected to illustrate specific techniques and approaches discussed in the first part, including in situ NMR (^1/2H, ^10/11B, ¹³C, ¹⁵N, ¹⁹F, ²⁹Si, ³¹P), kinetic and equilibrium isotope effects, isotope entrainment, isotope shifts, isotopes at natural abundance, scalar coupling, kinetic analysis (VTNA, RPKA, simulation, steady-state), stopped-flow NMR, flow NMR, rapid injection NMR, pure shift NMR, dynamic nuclear polarisation, ¹H/¹⁹F DOSY NMR, and in situ illumination NMR.

A novel inversion method of 2D TD-NMR signals based on realizing unconstrained maximization of objective function

The inversion of time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) signals is an ill-posed problem, which presents enormous challenges for the inversion algorithm. We propose a novel inversion method that converts conventional minimum objective function with non-negative constraints into an unconstrained maximization problem in the inversion of TD-NMR signals. Hence, the objective function becomes a differentiable concave function that can be solved more easily. The validity of the proposed method was verified by the uncertainty estimation of NMR inversion spectra with different signal-to-noise ratios (SNR). Through the inversion of simulated 2D D-T₂ and T₁-T₂ signals under different SNR, the proposed method was proved to be less sensitive to noise than the conventional inversion method. We use the proposed method to study the migrations of oil and water in shales, the components change in shale could be identified and quantified according to the 2D T₁-T₂ inversion spectra. The proposed method was also used to analyze the hydration process of cement. The 2D T₁-T₂ inversion spectra could distinctly present the component of tiny volume with short relaxation time, and the migration regularity of capillary water, gel water, and bound water could also be found. In conclusion, the proposed method could be a reliable method to invert TD-NMR signals, especially the identification of the 2D NMR signals with a short relaxation time in low SNR.

Recent Advances in Spectroscopic Techniques for the Analysis of Microplastics in Food

Microplastic pollution has become a worldwide concern in aquatic and terrestrial environments. Microplastics could also enter the food chain, causing potential harm to human health. To facilitate the risk assessment of microplastics to humans, it is critically important to have a reliable analytical technique to detect, quantify, and identify microplastics of various materials, sizes, and shapes from environmental, agricultural, and food matrices. Spectroscopic techniques, mainly vibrational spectroscopy (Raman and infrared), are commonly used techniques for microplastic analysis. This review focuses on recent advances of these spectroscopic techniques for the analysis of microplastics in food. The fundamental, recent technical advances of the spectroscopic techniques and their advantages and limitations were summarized. The food sample pretreatment methods and recent applications for detecting and quantifying microplastics in different types of food were reviewed. In addition, the current technical challenges and future research directions were discussed. It is anticipated that the advances in instrument development and methodology innovation will enable spectroscopic techniques to solve critical analytical challenges in microplastic analysis in food, which will facilitate the reliable risk assessment.

Synergies between Hyperpolarized NMR and Microfluidics: A Review

Hyperpolarized nuclear magnetic resonance and lab-on-a-chip microfluidics are two dynamic, but until recently quite distinct, fields of research. Recent developments in both areas increased their synergistic overlap. By microfluidic integration, many complex experimental steps can be brought together onto a single platform. Microfluidic devices are therefore increasingly finding applications in medical diagnostics, forensic analysis, and biomedical research. In particular, they provide novel and powerful ways to culture cells, cell aggregates, and even functional models of entire organs. Nuclear magnetic resonance is a non-invasive, high-resolution spectroscopic technique which allows real-time process monitoring with chemical specificity. It is ideally suited for observing metabolic and other biological and chemical processes in microfluidic systems. However, its intrinsically low sensitivity has limited its application. Recent advances in nuclear hyperpolarization techniques may change this: under special circumstances, it is possible to enhance NMR signals by up to 5 orders of magnitude, which dramatically extends the utility of NMR in the context of microfluidic systems. Hyperpolarization requires complex chemical and/or physical manipulations, which in turn may benefit from microfluidic implementation. In fact, many hyperpolarization methodologies rely on processes that are more efficient at the micro-scale, such as molecular diffusion, penetration of electromagnetic radiation into a sample, or restricted molecular mobility on a surface. In this review we examine the confluence between the fields of hyperpolarization-enhanced NMR and microfluidics, and assess how these areas of research have mutually benefited one another, and will continue to do so.

Sensitive Oxidation of Sorbitol-Mediated Fe2+ by H2O2: A Reliable TD-NMR Method for Clinical Blood Glucose Detection

The clinical challenge of high-accuracy blood glucose detection schemes is to overcome the detection error caused by the background interferences in different individuals. H₂O₂ as the specific product of glucose oxidation can be involved in the Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ conversion and detected by the time-domain nuclear magnetic resonance (TD-NMR) method sensitively. But, in clinical applications, the oxidation of Fe²⁺ is susceptible to the complex sample substrates. In this work, we sorted out two kinds of possible interference mechanisms of Fe²⁺ oxidation in the NMR blood glucose detection method and proposed a feasible scheme that uses sorbitol to weaken the adverse effects of interference. We found that sorbitol-mediated Fe²⁺ can greatly enhance the sensitivity of the T₂ value to H₂O₂. The chain reaction caused by sorbitol can significantly amplify the efficiency of Fe²⁺ oxidation at the same concentration of H₂O₂. Thereby, we can achieve the higher dilution multiple of serum samples to reduce the amount of interfering substances involved in the Fe²⁺/Fe³⁺ conversion. We justified the accuracy and availability of our method by successfully detecting and confirming the correlation between the T₂ decrease and glucose concentration of the serum samples collected from 16 subjects. The sorbitol-Fe²⁺ glucose detection method with high sensitivity can be further combined with miniature NMR analyzers to satisfy the calibration requirements of glucose monitoring in diabetic patients instead of frequent medical visits.

Recent Applications of Benchtop Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy

Benchtop nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy uses small permanent magnets to generate magnetic fields and therefore offers the advantages of operational simplicity and reasonable cost, presenting a viable alternative to high-field NMR spectroscopy. In particular, the use of benchtop NMR spectroscopy for rapid in-field analysis, e.g., for quality control or forensic science purposes, has attracted considerable attention. As benchtop NMR spectrometers are sufficiently compact to be operated in a fume hood, they can be efficiently used for real-time reaction and process monitoring. This review introduces the recent applications of benchtop NMR spectroscopy in diverse fields, including food science, pharmaceuticals, process and reaction monitoring, metabolomics, and polymer materials.

Unusual Effect of Impurities on the Spectral Characterization of 1,2,3-Triazoles Synthesized by the Cu-Catalyzed Azide-Alkyne Click Reaction

The analysis of products synthesized by Cu-catalyzed click reactions can be complicated due to the presence of metal impurities in isolated substances, which may "selectively" distort some signals in NMR spectra. Such a pronounced impurity effect was found in both ¹H and ¹³C NMR spectra for a number of 1,4-substituted 1,2,3-triazoles. Recording of the full undistorted spectra is possible with additional product treatment, with more thorough purification, or by recording the spectra at low temperatures. The reasons for the distortion and disappearance of signals have been thoroughly studied; it was shown that impurities of paramagnetic metal ions in small amounts lead to this effect. Here, we want to deliver a warning message to the community: when all NMR signals in a spectrum are distorted, this situation is easy to detect. However, if only a few signals are "selectively" removed by impurities and the rest of the spectrum appears normal, this situation is much harder to notice. Therefore, incorrect conclusions about chemical structure may be obtained. Here, we demonstrated the example of Cu²⁺ ions, but one may anticipate a similar effect for other paramagnetic metal contaminants if the organic molecule has a functional group capable of coordination (heteroatom or a multiple bond).

Screening Metal-Organic Frameworks for Separation of Binary Solvent Mixtures by Compact NMR Relaxometry

Metal–organic frameworks (MOFs) have great potential as an efficient alternative to current separation and purification procedures of a large variety of solvent mixtures—a critical process in many applications. Due to the huge number of existing MOFs, it is of key importance to identify high-throughput analytical tools, which can be used for their screening and performance ranking. In this context, the present work introduces a simple, fast, and inexpensive approach by compact low-field proton nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxometry to investigate the efficiency of MOF materials for the separation of a binary solvent mixture. The mass proportions of two solvents within a particular solvent mixture can be quantified before and after separation with the help of a priori established correlation curves relating the effective transverse relaxation times T_2eff and the mass proportions of the two solvents. The new method is applied to test the separation efficiency of powdered UiO-66(Zr) for various solvent mixtures, including linear and cyclic alkanes and benzene derivate, under static conditions at room temperature. Its reliability is demonstrated by comparison with results from ¹H liquid-state NMR spectroscopy.

Reimagining magnetic resonance instrumentation using open maker tools and hardware as protocol

Over the course of its history, the field of nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy has been characterized by alternating periods of intensive instrumentation development and rapid expansion into new chemical application areas. NMR is now both a mainstay of routine analysis for laboratories at all levels of education and research. On the other hand, new instrumentation and methodological advances promise expanded functionality in the future. At the core of this success is a community fundamentally dedicated to sharing ideas and collaborative advancements, as exemplified by the extensive remixing and repurposing of pulse sequences. Recent progress in modularity, automation, and 3D printing have reignited the tinkering spirit and demonstrate great promise to mature into a maker space that will enable similarly facile sharing of new applications and broader access to magnetic resonance.

Microfluidic platform for serial mixing experiments with in operando nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy

We present a microfluidic platform that allows in operando nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) observation of serial mixing experiments. Gradually adding one reagent to another is a fundamental experimental modality, widely used to quantify equilibrium constants, for titrations, and in chemical kinetics studies. NMR provides a non-invasive means to quantify concentrations and to follow structural changes at the molecular level as a function of exchanged volume. Using active pneumatic valving on the microfluidic device directly inside an NMR spectrometer equipped with a transmission-line NMR microprobe, the system allows injection of aliquots and in situ mixing in a sample volume of less than 10 μL.

When the MOUSE leaves the house

Change is inherent to time being transient. With the NMR-MOUSE (MObile Universal Surface Explorer) having matured into an established NMR tool for nondestructive testing of materials, this forward-looking retrospective assesses the challenges the NMR-MOUSE faced when deployed outside a protected laboratory and how its performance quality can be maintained and improved when operated under adverse conditions in foreign environments. This work is dedicated to my dear colleague and friend Geoffrey Bodenhausen on the occasion of his crossing an honorable timeline in appreciation of his ever-continuing success of fueling the dynamics of magnetic resonance.

Optimization of twin parallel microstrips based nuclear magnetic resonance probe for measuring the kinetics in molecular assembly in ultra-small samples

We present the design, fabrication, characterization, and optimization of a TPM (twin parallel microstrip)-based nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) probe, produced by using a low-loss Teflon PTFE F4B high frequency circuit board. We use finite element analysis to optimize the radio frequency (RF) homogeneity and sensitivity of the TPM probe jointly for various sample volumes. The RF homogeneity of this TPM planar probe is superior to that of only a single microstrip probe. The optimized TPM probe properties such as RF homogeneity and field strength are characterized experimentally and discussed in detail. By combining this TPM based NMR probe with microfluidic technology, the sample amount required for kinetic study using NMR spectroscopy was minimized. This is important for studying costly samples. The TPM NMR probes provide high sensitivity to analysis of 5 µl samples with 2 mM concentrations within 10 min. The miniaturized microfluidic NMR probe plays an important role in realizing down to seconds timescale for kinetic monitoring.

Microfluidic Overhauser DNP chip for signal-enhanced compact NMR

Nuclear magnetic resonance at low field strength is an insensitive spectroscopic technique, precluding portable applications with small sample volumes, such as needed for biomarker detection in body fluids. Here we report a compact double resonant chip stack system that implements in situ dynamic nuclear polarisation of a 130 nL sample volume, achieving signal enhancements of up to - 60 w.r.t. the thermal equilibrium level at a microwave power level of 0.5 W. This work overcomes instrumental barriers to the use of NMR detection for point-of-care applications.

Perspectives in process analytics using low field NMR

Low field NMR is a powerful analytical tool which creates an enormous added value in process analytics. Based on specific applications in process analytics and perspectives for low field NMR in form of spectroscopy, relaxation, diffusion, and imaging in quality control, diverse applications and technical realizations like spectrometers, time domain NMR, mobile NMR sensors and MRI will be discussed.

Microfluidics in Biotechnology: Quo Vadis

The emerging technique of microfluidics offers new approaches for precisely controlling fluidic conditions on a small scale, while simultaneously facilitating data collection in both high-throughput and quantitative manners. As such, the so-called lab-on-a-chip (LOC) systems have the potential to revolutionize the field of biotechnology. But what needs to happen in order to truly integrate them into routine biotechnological applications? In this chapter, some of the most promising applications of microfluidic technology within the field of biotechnology are surveyed, and a few strategies for overcoming current challenges posed by microfluidic LOC systems are examined. In addition, we also discuss the intensifying trend (across all biotechnology fields) of using point-of-use applications which is being facilitated by new technological achievements.

EPR Everywhere

This review is inspired by the contributions from the University of Denver group to low-field EPR, in honor of Professor Gareth Eaton's 80th birthday. The goal is to capture the spirit of innovation behind the body of work, especially as it pertains to development of new EPR techniques. The spirit of the DU EPR laboratory is one that never sought to limit what an EPR experiment could be, or how it could be applied. The most well-known example of this is the development and recent commercialization of rapid-scan EPR. Both of the Eatons have made it a point to remain knowledgeable on the newest developments in electronics and instrument design. To that end, our review touches on the use of miniaturized electronics and applications of single-board spectrometers based on software-defined radio (SDR) implementations and single-chip voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) arrays. We also highlight several non-traditional approaches to the EPR experiment such as an EPR spectrometer with a "wand" form factor for analysis of the OxyChip, the EPR-MOUSE which enables non-destructive in situ analysis of many non-conforming samples, and interferometric EPR and frequency swept EPR as alternatives to classical high Q resonant structures.

Magnetic-Nanosensor-Based Virus and Pathogen Detection Strategies before and during COVID-19

The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), is a threat to the global healthcare system and economic security. As of July 2020, no specific drugs or vaccines are yet available for COVID-19; a fast and accurate diagnosis for SARS-CoV-2 is essential in slowing the spread of COVID-19 and for efficient implementation of control and containment strategies. Magnetic nanosensing is an emerging topic representing the frontiers of current biosensing and magnetic areas. The past decade has seen rapid growth in applying magnetic tools for biological and biomedical applications. Recent advances in magnetic nanomaterials and nanotechnologies have transformed current diagnostic methods to nanoscale and pushed the detection limit to early-stage disease diagnosis. Herein, this review covers the literature of magnetic nanosensors for virus and pathogen detection before COVID-19. We review popular magnetic nanosensing techniques including magnetoresistance, magnetic particle spectroscopy, and nuclear magnetic resonance. Magnetic point-of-care diagnostic kits are also reviewed aiming at developing plug-and-play diagnostics to manage the SARS-CoV-2 outbreak as well as preventing future epidemics. In addition, other platforms that use magnetic nanomaterials as auxiliary tools for enhanced pathogen and virus detection are also covered. The goal of this review is to inform the researchers of diagnostic and surveillance platforms for SARS-CoV-2 and their performances.

Chemical Reaction Monitoring using Zero-Field Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Enables Study of Heterogeneous Samples in Metal Containers

We demonstrate that heterogeneous/biphasic chemical reactions can be monitored with high spectroscopic resolution using zero-field nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. This is possible because magnetic susceptibility broadening is negligible at ultralow magnetic fields. We show the two-step hydrogenation of dimethyl acetylenedicarboxylate with para-enriched hydrogen gas in conventional glass NMR tubes, as well as in a titanium tube. The low frequency zero-field NMR signals ensure that there is no significant signal attenuation arising from shielding by the electrically conductive sample container. This method paves the way for in situ monitoring of reactions in complex heterogeneous multiphase systems and in reactors made of conductive materials while maintaining resolution and chemical specificity.

Selective magnetic resonance signal suppression by colored Frank excitation

Inspired by the growing interest in miniaturized NMR devices and their applications in material science as well as in chemical and biological research, low power rf excitation is explored. ¹H NMR spectra have been measured with low power Frank excitation and are compared to spectra obtained by single-pulse excitation. Frank excitation consists of a large number of phase-modulated, constant-amplitude rf-pulses. A Frank sequence is divided into packages of discrete phase wavelets that correspond to a scan across a spectral frequency range. The largely coherent excitation is found experimentally to require less power than white noise excitation. The package structure suggests that individual wavelets can be omitted to skip individual frequency regions in the excitation, converting the white Frank excitation into colored Frank excitation. This work explores different approaches of colored, selective Frank excitation for spectroscopy and imaging. It is motivated by the aim to eliminate the rf amplifier from the NMR spectrometer so as to enable further miniaturization of NMR instruments. Colored Frank excitation bears promise as a low-power modality for solvent signal suppression in spectroscopy and motion tagging in magnetic resonance imaging.

Elevating Chemistry Research with a Modern Electronics Toolkit

With the rapid development of high technology, chemical science is not as it used to be a century ago. Many chemists acquire and utilize skills that are well beyond the traditional definition of chemistry. The digital age has transformed chemistry laboratories. One aspect of this transformation is the progressing implementation of electronics and computer science in chemistry research. In the past decade, numerous chemistry-oriented studies have benefited from the implementation of electronic modules, including microcontroller boards (MCBs), single-board computers (SBCs), professional grade control and data acquisition systems, as well as field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). In particular, MCBs and SBCs provide good value for money. The application areas for electronic modules in chemistry research include construction of simple detection systems based on spectrophotometry and spectrofluorometry principles, customizing laboratory devices for automation of common laboratory practices, control of reaction systems (batch- and flow-based), extraction systems, chromatographic and electrophoretic systems, microfluidic systems (classical and nonclassical), custom-built polymerase chain reaction devices, gas-phase analyte detection systems, chemical robots and drones, construction of FPGA-based imaging systems, and the Internet-of-Chemical-Things. The technology is easy to handle, and many chemists have managed to train themselves in its implementation. The only major obstacle in its implementation is probably one's imagination.

Single-Chip Dynamic Nuclear Polarization Microsystem

Integration of the sensitivity-relevant electronics of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) and electron spin resonance (ESR) spectrometers on a single chip is a promising approach to improve the limit of detection, especially for samples in the nanoliter and subnanoliter range. Here, we demonstrate the cointegration on a single silicon chip of the front-end electronics of NMR and ESR detectors. The excitation/detection planar spiral microcoils of the NMR and ESR detectors are concentric and interrogate the same sample volume. This combination of sensors allows one to perform dynamic nuclear polarization (DNP) experiments using a single-chip-integrated microsystem having an area of about 2 mm². In particular, we report ¹H DNP-enhanced NMR experiments on liquid samples having a volume of about 1 nL performed at 10.7 GHz(ESR)/16 MHz(NMR). NMR enhancements as large as 50 are achieved on TEMPOL/H₂O solutions at room temperature. The use of state-of-the-art submicrometer integrated circuit technologies should allow the future extension of the single-chip DNP microsystem approach proposed here up the THz(ESR)/GHz(NMR) region, corresponding to the strongest static magnetic fields currently available. Particularly interesting is the possibility to create arrays of such sensors for parallel DNP-enhanced NMR spectroscopy of nanoliter and subnanoliter samples.

Efficient Enantiodifferentiation of Carboxylic Acids Using BINOL-Based Amino Alcohol as a Chiral NMR Solvating Agent

A new optically active BINOL-amino alcohol has been designed and synthesized in a good yield and applied as chiral nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) solvating agent for enantioselective recognition. Analysis by ¹H NMR spectroscopy demonstrated that it has excellent enantiodifferentiation properties toward carboxylic acids and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (14 examples). The non-equivalent chemical shifts (up to 0.641 ppm) of various mandelic acids were evaluated by the reliable peak of well-resolved ¹H NMR signals. In addition, enantiomeric excesses of the ortho-chloro-mandelic acid with different enantiomeric ratio were calculated based on integration of proton well-separated splitting signals.

SCREENED: A Multistage Model of Thyroid Gland Function for Screening Endocrine-Disrupting Chemicals in a Biologically Sex-Specific Manner

Endocrine disruptors (EDs) are chemicals that contribute to health problems by interfering with the physiological production and target effects of hormones, with proven impacts on a number of endocrine systems including the thyroid gland. Exposure to EDs has also been associated with impairment of the reproductive system and incidence in occurrence of obesity, type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular diseases during ageing. SCREENED aims at developing in vitro assays based on rodent and human thyroid cells organized in three different three-dimensional (3D) constructs. Due to different levels of anatomical complexity, each of these constructs has the potential to increasingly mimic the structure and function of the native thyroid gland, ultimately achieving relevant features of its 3D organization including: 1) a 3D organoid based on stem cell-derived thyrocytes, 2) a 3D organoid based on a decellularized thyroid lobe stromal matrix repopulated with stem cell-derived thyrocytes, and 3) a bioprinted organoid based on stem cell-derived thyrocytes able to mimic the spatial and geometrical features of a native thyroid gland. These 3D constructs will be hosted in a modular microbioreactor equipped with innovative sensing technology and enabling precise control of cell culture conditions. New superparamagnetic biocompatible and biomimetic particles will be used to produce "magnetic cells" to support precise spatiotemporal homing of the cells in the 3D decellularized and bioprinted constructs. Finally, these 3D constructs will be used to screen the effect of EDs on the thyroid function in a unique biological sex-specific manner. Their performance will be assessed individually, in comparison with each other, and against in vivo studies. The resulting 3D assays are expected to yield responses to low doses of different EDs, with sensitivity and specificity higher than that of classical 2D in vitro assays and animal models. Supporting the "Adverse Outcome Pathway" concept, proteogenomic analysis and biological computational modelling of the underlying mode of action of the tested EDs will be pursued to gain a mechanistic understanding of the chain of events from exposure to adverse toxic effects on thyroid function. For future uptake, SCREENED will engage discussion with relevant stakeholder groups, including regulatory bodies and industry, to ensure that the assays will fit with purposes of ED safety assessment. In this project review, we will briefly discuss the current state of the art in cellular assays of EDs and how our project aims at further advancing the field of cellular assays for EDs interfering with the thyroid gland.

Magnetic nanoparticles in nanomedicine: a review of recent advances

Nanomaterials, in addition to their small size, possess unique physicochemical properties that differ from bulk materials, making them ideal for a host of novel applications. Magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) are one important class of nanomaterials that have been widely studied for their potential applications in nanomedicine. Due to the fact that MNPs can be detected and manipulated by remote magnetic fields, it opens a wide opportunity for them to be used in vivo. Nowadays, MNPs have been used for diverse applications including magnetic biosensing (diagnostics), magnetic imaging, magnetic separation, drug and gene delivery, and hyperthermia therapy, etc. Specifically, we reviewed some emerging techniques in magnetic diagnostics such as magnetoresistive (MR) and micro-Hall (μHall) biosensors, as well as the magnetic particle spectroscopy, magnetic relaxation switching and surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS)-based bioassays. Recent advances in applying MNPs as contrast agents in magnetic resonance imaging and as tracer materials in magnetic particle imaging are reviewed. In addition, the development of high magnetic moment MNPs with proper surface functionalization has progressed exponentially over the past decade. To this end, different MNP synthesis approaches and surface coating strategies are reviewed and the biocompatibility and toxicity of surface functionalized MNP nanocomposites are also discussed. Herein, we are aiming to provide a comprehensive assessment of the state-of-the-art biological and biomedical applications of MNPs. This review is not only to provide in-depth insights into the different synthesis, biofunctionalization, biosensing, imaging, and therapy methods but also to give an overview of limitations and possibilities of each technology.

Realtime optimization of multidimensional NMR spectroscopy on embedded sensing devices

The increasingly ubiquitous use of embedded devices calls for autonomous optimizations of sensor performance with meager computing resources. Due to the heavy computing needs, such optimization is rarely performed, and almost never carried out on-the-fly, resulting in a vast underutilization of deployed assets. Aiming at improving the measurement efficiency, we show an OED (Optimal Experimental Design) routine where quantities of interest of probable samples are partitioned into distinctive classes, with the corresponding sensor signals learned by supervised learning models. The trained models, digesting the compressed live data, are subsequently executed at the constrained device for continuous classification and optimization of measurements. We demonstrate the closed-loop method with multidimensional NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) relaxometry, an analytical technique seeing a substantial growth of field applications in recent years, on a wide range of complex fluids. The realtime portion of the procedure demands minimal computing load, and is ideally suited for instruments that are widely used in remote sensing and IoT networks.

Low-field and benchtop NMR

NMR started at low field. Important discoveries like the first observation of NMR in condensed matter, the spin echo, NMR for chemical analysis, Fourier NMR spectroscopy, 2D NMR spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging happened at field strengths considered low today. With time the footprint of the NMR instruments at these field strengths shrunk from the laboratory floor to the tabletop. The first commercial tabletop NMR instruments were compact relaxometers for food analysis followed by mobile relaxometers for materials testing and oil-well exploration culminating in tabletop spectrometers for chemical analysis, capable of performing nearly the whole methodical portfolio of today's high-field instruments. The increasing sensitivity afforded by the lower noise of modern electronics and the unfolding richness of hyperpolarization scenarios along with detection schemes alternative to nuclear induction enable NMR at ultra-low field strengths down to zero applied field, where spin-spin couplings in local fields dominate the residual Zeeman interaction. Miniaturization and cost-reduction of NMR instruments outline current development goals along with the development of smart-phone-like apps to conduct standard NMR analyses.

Low fields but high impact: Ex-situ NMR and MRI

"There's plenty of room at the bottom". This was the title of Richard Feynman's well-known lecture in 1959, often considered a seminal event in the history of nano-sciences and technologies. For magnetic resonance (MR), we borrow the statement to suggest a plethora of opportunities in low-field NMR/MRI with miniaturized apparatus, particularly the ex-situ type. We argue that a widespread use of MR technology is only possible at low fields.

A miniaturized spectrometer for NMR relaxometry under extreme conditions

With the advent of integrated electronics, microfabrication and novel chemistry, NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) methods, embodied in miniaturized spectrometers, have found profound uses in recent years that are beyond their conventional niche. In this work, we extend NMR relaxometry on a minute sample below 20 μL to challenging environment of 150 °C in temperature and 900 bar in pressure. Combined with a single-board NMR spectrometer, we further demonstrate multidimensional NMR relaxometries capable of resolving compositions of complex fluids. The confluence of HTHP (high-pressure high-temperature) capability, minimal sample volume, and reduced sensor envelop and power budget creates a new class of mobile NMR platforms, bringing the powerful analytical toolkit in a miniaturized footprint to extreme operating conditions.

Benchtop NMR for the monitoring of bioprocesses

This mini-review highlights the potential of benchtop nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) for the monitoring of bioprocesses. It describes recent perspectives opened by the reduced size of devices in relaxometry, magnetic resonance imaging and NMR spectroscopy. In particular, the recent emergence of the benchtop NMR spectroscopy gives access to many applications thanks to the implementation of advanced experiments.

Non-destructive quantitation of hydrogen via mass-resolved neutron spectroscopy

This work introduces the use of mass-selective neutron spectroscopy as an analytical tool for the quantitative and non-destructive detection of hydrogen in bulk media. To this end, systematic measurements have been performed on a series of polyethylene standards of known thickness and density, in order to establish optimal data-acquisition protocols as well as associated limits of detection and quantitation. From this analysis, we conclude that state-of-the-art epithermal-neutron instrumentation enables the detection of aeral molar densities of bulk hydrogen in the μmol cm^-2 range. We also discuss potential improvements on the horizon, with a view to broadening the scope of the technique across chemistry, materials science, and engineering.