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Bartels Y, Jekel M, Putschew A. Impact of the reductive deiodination on the sorption of iodinated X-ray contrast media to filter sand and activated carbon. WATER RESEARCH 2024; 258:121801. [PMID: 38810597 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2024.121801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2023] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/18/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
Iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM) and their aerobic transformation products (TPs) are widespread in the aquatic environment due to their persistent and mobile character. In a previous lab study, we have shown that the reductive (partial) deiodination of selected triiodobenzene derivatives increases the sorption to aquifer sand and loam soil, since iodine affects the compounds by steric hindrance, repulsive forces, resonance and inductive effects. These results suggest that the (partial) deiodination generally occurring to ICM and aerobic ICM TPs during anoxic/anaerobic bank filtration has a potential to increase their removal by sorption to natural sorbents. To basically assess the sorption potential to technically applied materials for drinking water treatment subsequent to bank filtration, we investigated the sorption of iopromide, diatrizoate and 5-amino-2,4,6-triiodoisophtalic acid and their di, mono and deiodinated structures to used filter sand from a waterworks and different fresh powdered activated carbons in batch tests using Berlin drinking water. The filter material, coated by iron and manganese oxides as well as organic material (including biofilm), preferentially removed monoiodinated derivatives, but diffusion through the organic layer heavily slowed the sorption. Therefore, the removal potential by sorption in rapid sand filters of waterworks for (partially) deiodinated benzene derivatives is suggested to be low. The deiodination of iopromide and diatrizoate significantly increased the sorption affinity to activated carbon and the competitiveness with regard to drinking water DOC. Despite the large atom radius of iodine, no clear correlation was found between the pore characteristics of the activated carbons and the molecular size of the compounds. This study emphasises the importance of anoxic/anaerobic conditions for the removal of persistent and mobile ICM and ICM TPs during drinking water treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Bartels
- Technische Universität Berlin, Faculty III Process Sciences, Institute of Environmental Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Strasse des 17. Juni 135 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Jekel
- Technische Universität Berlin, Faculty III Process Sciences, Institute of Environmental Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Strasse des 17. Juni 135 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anke Putschew
- Technische Universität Berlin, Faculty III Process Sciences, Institute of Environmental Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Strasse des 17. Juni 135 10623 Berlin, Germany.
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Bartels Y, Jekel M, Putschew A. Can reductive deiodination improve the sorption of iodinated X-ray contrast media to aquifer material during bank filtration? CHEMOSPHERE 2023; 326:138438. [PMID: 36940829 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2023.138438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/16/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM) as well as their aerobic transformation products (TPs), are highly polar triiodobenzoic acid derivatives, ubiquitously found in the urban water cycle. Based on their polarity, their sorption affinity to sediment and soil is negligible. However, we hypothesize that the iodine atoms bound to the benzene ring play a decisive role for sorption, due to their large atom radius, high electron number and symmetrical positioning within the aromatic system. The aim of this study is to investigate, if the (partial) deiodination, occurring during anoxic/anaerobic bank filtration, improves the sorption to aquifer material. Tri, di, mono and deiodinated structures of two ICMs (iopromide and diatrizoate) and one precursor/TP of ICM (5-amino-2,4,6-triiodoisophtalic acid) were tested in batch experiments, using two aquifer sands and a loam soil with and without organic matter. The di, mono and deiodinated structures were produced by (partial) deiodination of the triiodinated initial compounds. The results demonstrated that the (partial) deiodination increases the sorption to all tested sorbents, even though the theoretical polarity increases with decreasing number of iodine atoms. Whereas lignite particles positively affected the sorption, mineral components decreased it. Kinetics tests show biphasic sorption for the deiodinated derivatives. We have concluded that iodine affects the sorption by sterical hindrance, repulsive forces, resonance and inductive effects, depending on the number and position of iodine, side chain characteristics and composition of the sorbent material. Our study has revealed an increased sorption potential of ICMs and their iodinated TPs to aquifer material during anoxic/anaerobic bank filtration as a result of (partial) deiodination, whereby a complete deiodination is not necessary for efficient removal by sorption. Furthermore, it suggests that the combination of an initial aerobic (side chain transformations) and a subsequent anoxic/anaerobic (deiodination) redox milieu supports the sorption potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Bartels
- Technische Universität Berlin, Faculty III Process Sciences, Institute of Environmental Technology, Chair Water Quality Engineering, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Jekel
- Technische Universität Berlin, Faculty III Process Sciences, Institute of Environmental Technology, Chair Water Quality Engineering, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anke Putschew
- Technische Universität Berlin, Faculty III Process Sciences, Institute of Environmental Technology, Chair Water Quality Engineering, Strasse des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany.
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Zhang W, Fourcade F, Amrane A, Geneste F. Removal of Iodine-Containing X-ray Contrast Media from Environment: The Challenge of a Total Mineralization. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 28:molecules28010341. [PMID: 36615536 PMCID: PMC9822505 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28010341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Revised: 12/15/2022] [Accepted: 12/21/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM) as emerging micropollutants have attracted considerable attention in recent years due to their high detected concentration in water systems. It results in environmental issues partly due to the formation of toxic by-products during the disinfection process in water treatment. Consequently, various approaches have been investigated by researchers in order to achieve ICM total mineralization. This review discusses the different methods that have been used to degrade them, with special attention to the mineralization yield and to the nature of formed by-products. The problem of pollution by ICM is discussed in the first part dedicated to the presence of ICM in the environment and its consequences. In the second part, the processes for ICM treatment including biological treatment, advanced oxidation/reductive processes, and coupled processes are reviewed in detail. The main results and mechanisms involved in each approach are described, and by-products identified during the different treatments are listed. Moreover, based on their efficiency and their cost-effectiveness, the prospects and process developments of ICM treatment are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Univ Rennes, 35000 Rennes, France
- CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Univ Rennes, 35000 Rennes, France
| | - Florence Fourcade
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Univ Rennes, 35000 Rennes, France
- Correspondence: (F.F.); (F.G.)
| | - Abdeltif Amrane
- Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Univ Rennes, 35000 Rennes, France
| | - Florence Geneste
- CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Univ Rennes, 35000 Rennes, France
- Correspondence: (F.F.); (F.G.)
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Wang H, Xi H, Xu L, Jin M, Zhao W, Liu H. Ecotoxicological effects, environmental fate and risks of pharmaceutical and personal care products in the water environment: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 788:147819. [PMID: 34029823 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.147819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 38.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2021] [Revised: 05/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/12/2021] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Due to the extensive use and incomplete removal, pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCPs) are introduced into the water continuously. It has been proved that the unique properties of PPCPs are influential to organisms and the environment, and gradually affect human health. In this paper, the toxicological effects of typical PPCPs, and the environmental behavior of PPCPs in aquatic are reviewed. The risk assessments of PPCPs in the water are summarized. The research directions of environmental toxicology research of PPCPs in the future are proposed. Many PPCPs were found to be toxic or even highly toxic toward aquatic organisms, and have the potential for bioaccumulation. It is essential to study the acute and long-term toxicity of PPCPs and their metabolites, evaluate the environmental behaviors and make a reasonable assessment of ecotoxicology and human health risks of PPCPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huan Wang
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Hao Xi
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Linling Xu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Mingkang Jin
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Wenlu Zhao
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, Zhejiang Province, China
| | - Huijun Liu
- School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Zhejiang Gongshang University, Hangzhou 310018, Zhejiang Province, China.
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Electro-reductive deiodination of iohexol catalyzed by vitamin B12 and biodegradability investigation. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115559] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Edefell E, Falås P, Torresi E, Hagman M, Cimbritz M, Bester K, Christensson M. Promoting the degradation of organic micropollutants in tertiary moving bed biofilm reactors by controlling growth and redox conditions. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2021; 414:125535. [PMID: 33684823 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2021.125535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2020] [Revised: 01/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A novel process configuration was designed to increase biofilm growth in tertiary moving bed biofilm reactors (MBBRs) by providing additional substrate from primary treated wastewater in a sidestream reactor under different redox conditions in order to improve micropollutant removal in MBBRs with low substrate availability. This novel recirculating MBBR was operated on pilot scale for 13 months, and a systematic increase was seen in the biomass concentration and the micropollutant degradation rates, compared to a tertiary MBBR without additional substrate. The degradation rates per unit carrier surface area increased in the order of ten times, and for certain micropollutants, such as atenolol, metoprolol, trimethoprim and roxithromycin, the degradation rates increased 20-60 times. Aerobic conditions were critical for maintaining high micropollutant degradation rates. With innovative MBBR configurations it may be possible to improve the biological degradation of organic micropollutants in wastewater. It is suggested that degradation rates be normalized to the carrier surface area, in favor of the biomass concentration, as this reflects the diffusion limitations of oxygen, and will facilitate the comparison of different biofilm systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ellen Edefell
- Sweden Water Research AB, Ideon Science Park, Scheelevägen 15, SE-223 70 Lund, Sweden; Department of Chemical Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden.
| | - Per Falås
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Elena Torresi
- Veolia Water Technologies AB - AnoxKaldnes, Klosterängsvägen 11 A, SE-226 47 Lund, Sweden
| | - Marinette Hagman
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Michael Cimbritz
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Lund University, PO Box 124, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Kai Bester
- Department of Environmental Science, Aarhus University, Frederiksborgsvej 399, DK-4000 Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Magnus Christensson
- Veolia Water Technologies AB - AnoxKaldnes, Klosterängsvägen 11 A, SE-226 47 Lund, Sweden
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Yang J, Luo Y, Fu X, Dong Z, Wang C, Liu H, Jiang C. Unexpected degradation and deiodination of diatrizoate by the Cu(II)/S(IV) system under anaerobic conditions. WATER RESEARCH 2021; 198:117137. [PMID: 33957311 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2021.117137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Transition metal catalyzed sulfite auto-oxidation is a promising technology used in water and wastewater treatment for the elimination of contaminants. In the literature, this process has been reported to be efficient only in the presence of oxygen. However, in this study, we unexpectedly found that the degradation of diatrizoate (DTZ) by a system based on the combination of copper ion and sulfite (Cu(II)/S(IV)) reached over 95% under anaerobic conditions, but was considerably retarded under aerobic conditions at pH 7. Furthermore, it was found that Cu(I), generated from the cleavage of the CuSO3 complex, was the main reactive species responsible for the degradation of DTZ by the Cu(II)/S(IV) system under anaerobic conditions. In fact, the absence of oxygen promoted the accumulation of Cu(I). The concomitant release of the iodide ion with the degradation of DTZ indicated that the anaerobic degradation of DTZ by the Cu(II)/S(IV) system mainly proceeded through the deiodination pathway, which was also confirmed by the detection of deiodinated products. The anaerobic degradation of DTZ was favored at higher initial concentrations of Cu(II) or sulfite in this system. Since the CuSO3 complex, the precursor of Cu(I), was formed mainly at pH 7, the highest anaerobic degradation of DTZ was achieved at pH 7. An increase in reaction temperature considerably enhanced the degradation of DTZ by the Cu(II)/S(IV) system with an apparent activation energy of 119.4 kJ/mol. The presence of chloride, bicarbonate and humic acid slightly influenced the anaerobic degradation of DTZ. The experiments with real water samples also demonstrated the effectiveness of the degradation of DTZ by the Cu(II)/S(IV) system under anaerobic conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingxin Yang
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Institute of Environmental Research at Greater Bay,Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Yujie Luo
- WISDRI City Construction Engineering &Research Incorporation Ltd, Xudong Street, Hongshan District,Wuhan 430223, China
| | - Xianghui Fu
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Institute of Environmental Research at Greater Bay,Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Zijun Dong
- Department of Building and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen Polytechnic, Shenzhen 518055, China.
| | - Chuan Wang
- Key Laboratory for Water Quality and Conservation of the Pearl River Delta, Ministry of Education, Institute of Environmental Research at Greater Bay,Guangzhou University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Hong Liu
- Chongqing Institute of Green and Intelligent Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chongqing 400714, China
| | - Chengchun Jiang
- Department of Building and Environmental Engineering, Shenzhen Polytechnic, Shenzhen 518055, China
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Saifur S, Gardner CM. Loading, transport, and treatment of emerging chemical and biological contaminants of concern in stormwater. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2021; 83:2863-2885. [PMID: 34185685 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2021.187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Stormwater is a largely uncontrolled source of pollution in rural and urban environments across the United States. Concern regarding the growing diversity and abundance of pollutants in stormwater, as well as their impacts on water quality, has grown significantly over the past several decades. In addition to conventional contaminants like nutrients and heavy metals, stormwater is a well-documented source of many contaminants of emerging concern, which can be toxic to both aquatic and terrestrial organisms and remain a barrier to maintaining high quality water resources. Chemical pollutants like pharmaceuticals and personal care products, industrial pollutants such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, and tire wear particles in stormwater are of great concern due to their toxic, genotoxic, mutagenic and carcinogenic properties. Emerging microbial contaminants such as pathogens and antibiotic resistance genes also represent significant threats to environmental water quality and human health. Knowledge regarding the transport, behavior, and the remediation capacity of these pollutants in runoff is key for addressing these pollutants in situ and minimizing ecosystem perturbations. To this end, this review paper will analyze current understanding of these contaminants in stormwater runoff in terms of their transport, behavior, and bioremediation potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumaiya Saifur
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Washington State University, 405 Spokane Street, Pullman, WA 99164, USA E-mail:
| | - Courtney M Gardner
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Washington State University, 405 Spokane Street, Pullman, WA 99164, USA E-mail:
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Kawamura Y, Mori K, Amachi S. Reductive deiodination of 2,4,6-triiodophenol by Vallitalea sp. strain TIP-1 isolated from the marine sponge. J Biosci Bioeng 2021; 132:154-160. [PMID: 34024749 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiosc.2021.04.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
An anaerobic microbial consortium capable of reductively dehalogenating 2,4,6-triiodophenol (2,4,6-TIP) was enriched from the marine sponge Hymeniacidon sinapium. The enrichment reductively deiodinated 100 μM of 2,4,6-TIP to 4-iodophenol (4-IP) and 2-iodophenol (2-IP) in the presence of sterile sponge tissue as the sole carbon source and electron donor. PCR-denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis and 16S rRNA gene sequence analysis revealed that bacteria closely related with Vallitalea guaymasensis and Oceanirhabdus sediminicola, both of which are members of the order Clostridiales, were predominant in the enrichment. When glucose was added to the enrichment as alternative carbon source, one of these bacteria grew predominantly, which was subsequently isolated as a pure culture. The strain, designated as TIP-1, showed 99.7% 16S rRNA gene sequence similarity with V. guaymasensis. In the presence of glucose, strain TIP-1 reductively deiodinated 2,4,6-TIP to 2-IP and 4-IP at a molar ratio of 3:1, during which 2,4-diiodophenol (2,4-DIP) and 2,6-diiodophenol (2,6-DIP) were observed as deiodinated intermediates. Glucose was required for 2,4,6-TIP deiodination, but 2,4,6-TIP was not essential for growth of strain TIP-1. The strain also deiodinated 2,4-DIP to 2-IP and 4-IP at a molar ratio of 1:1, and 2,6-DIP to 2-IP, but further deiodination of the monoiodophenols was not observed. These results suggest that strain TIP-1 removed both ortho- and para-substituted iodines equally. Such deiodinating bacteria could be applied to the mineralization or dehalogenation of triiodobenzene derivatives, which are widely used as X-ray contrast media.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuki Kawamura
- Graduate School of Horticulture, Chiba University, 648 Matsudo, Matsudo-city, Chiba 271-8510, Japan
| | - Koji Mori
- NITE Biological Resource Center (NBRC), National Institute of Technology and Evaluation (NITE), 2-5-8 Kazusakamatari, Kisarazu, Chiba 292-0818, Japan
| | - Seigo Amachi
- Graduate School of Horticulture, Chiba University, 648 Matsudo, Matsudo-city, Chiba 271-8510, Japan.
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Sengar A, Vijayanandan A. Comprehensive review on iodinated X-ray contrast media: Complete fate, occurrence, and formation of disinfection byproducts. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 769:144846. [PMID: 33736235 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.144846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2020] [Revised: 12/19/2020] [Accepted: 12/20/2020] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Iodinated contrast media (ICM) are drugs which are used in medical examinations for organ imaging purposes. Wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) have shown incapability to remove ICM, and as a consequence, ICM and their transformation products (TPs) have been detected in environmental waters. ICM show limited biotransformation and low sorption potential. ICM can act as iodine source and can react with commonly used disinfectants such as chlorine in presence of organic matter to yield iodinated disinfection byproducts (IDBPs) which are more cytotoxic and genotoxic than conventionally known disinfection byproducts (DBPs). Even highly efficient advanced treatment systems have failed to completely mineralize ICM, and TPs that are more toxic than parent ICM are produced. This raises issues regarding the efficacy of existing treatment technologies and serious concern over disinfection of ICM containing waters. Realizing this, the current review aims to capture the attention of scientific community on areas of less focus. The review features in depth knowledge regarding complete environmental fate of ICM along with their existing treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashish Sengar
- Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India
| | - Arya Vijayanandan
- Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi 110016, India.
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Development of ion-selective electrodes for antipyrine and its derivatives as potential tool for environmental water monitoring. J Electroanal Chem (Lausanne) 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jelechem.2021.115110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Li J, Jiang J, Pang SY, Yang Y, Sun S, Wang L, Wang P. Transformation of X-ray contrast media by conventional and advanced oxidation processes during water treatment: Efficiency, oxidation intermediates, and formation of iodinated byproducts. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 185:116234. [PMID: 32736280 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116234] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2020] [Revised: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
X-ray contrast media (ICM), as the most widely used intravascular pharmaceuticals, have been frequently detected in various environmental compartments. ICM have attracted increasingly scientific interest owing to their role as an iodine contributor, resulting in the high risk of forming toxic iodinated byproducts (I-BPs) during water treatment. In this review, we present the state-of-the-art findings relating to the removal efficiency as well as oxidation intermediates of ICM by conventional and advanced oxidation processes. Moreover, formation of specific small-molecular I-BPs (e.g., iodoacetic acid and iodoform) during these processes is also summarized. Conventional oxidants and disinfectants including chlorine (HOCl) and chloramine (NH2Cl) have low reactivities towards ICM with HOCl being more reactive. Iodinated/deiodinated intermediates are generated from reactions of HOCl/NH2Cl with ICM, and they can be further transformed into small-molecular I-BPs. Types of disinfectants and ICM as well as solution conditions (e.g., presence of bromide (Br-) and natural organic matters (NOM)) display significant impact on formation of I-BPs during chlor(am)ination of ICM. Uncatalyzed advanced oxidation process (AOPs) involving ozone (O3) and ferrate (Fe(VI)) exhibit slow to mild reactivities towards ICM, usually leading to their incomplete removal under typical water treatment conditions. In contrast, UV photolysis and catalyzed AOPs including hydroxyl radical (HO•) and/or sulfate radical (SO4.-) based AOPs (e.g., UV/hydrogen peroxide, UV/persulfate, UV/peroxymonosulfate (PMS), and CuO/PMS) and reactive chlorine species (RCS) involved AOPs (e.g., UV/HOCl and UV/NH2Cl) can effectively eliminate ICM under various conditions. Components of water matrix (e.g., chloride (Cl-), Br-, bicarbonate (HCO3-), and NOM) have great impact on oxidation efficiency of ICM by catalyzed AOPs. Generally, similar intermediates are formed from ICM oxidation by UV photolysis and AOPs, mainly resulting from a series reactions of the side chain and/or C-I groups (e.g. cleavage, dealkylation, oxidation, and rearrange). Further oxidation or disinfection of these intermediates leads to formation of small-molecular I-BPs. Pre-oxidation of ICM-containing waters by AOPs tends to increase formation of I-BPs during post-disinfection process, while this trend also depends on the oxidation processes applied and solution conditions. This review summarizes the latest research findings relating to ICM transformation and (by)products formation during disinfection and AOPs in water treatment, which has great implications for the practical applications of these technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan Li
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou511458, China; State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin150090, China
| | - Jin Jiang
- Key Laboratory for City Cluster Environmental Safety and Green Development of the Ministry of Education, Institute of Environmental and Ecological Engineering, Guangdong University of Technology, Guangzhou 510006, China; Southern Marine Science and Engineering Guangdong Laboratory, Guangzhou511458, China.
| | - Su-Yan Pang
- Key Laboratory of Songliao Aquatic Environment, Ministry of Education, School of Municipal and Environmental Engineering, Jilin Jianzhu University, Changchun130118, China
| | - Yi Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin150090, China
| | - Shaofang Sun
- School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, University of Jinan, Jinan250022, China
| | - Lihong Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin150090, China
| | - Panxin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Urban Water Resource and Environment, School of Environment, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin150090, China
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Wu G, Geng J, Shi Y, Wang L, Xu K, Ren H. Comparison of diclofenac transformation in enriched nitrifying sludge and heterotrophic sludge: Transformation rate, pathway, and role exploration. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 184:116158. [PMID: 32755734 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The adverse effects of diclofenac (DCF) on ecosystems and human health have induced increasing interest in its elimination in environment. DCF can be removed to some extent by nitrifying and heterotrophic microbes during wastewater treatment process. However, the actual roles of nitrifying and heterotrophic microbes in the transformation of DCF remain unclear. In this study, batch experiments were conducted to explore the biological transformation of DCF in enriched nitrifying sludge (NS), heterotrophic sludge (HS) and activated sludge (AS) systems. DCF was removed three times faster in enriched NS than in HS. Three transformation pathways of DCF in enriched NS, HS, and AS were proposed and compared. Hydroxylation was the crucial transformation step in the three transformation pathways. A faster hydroxylation reaction contributed to the faster removal of DCF in enriched NS. More transformation products (TPs) and reaction types (i.e. reductive dechlorination, sulphidation and methylation reactions) were observed in HS. Furthermore, some TPs that were resistant to degrade in enriched NS, such as DCF-benzoic acid, could be further transformed in HS. Accordingly, enriched NS could remove DCF more rapidly while HS could further transform some TPs resistant to degrade in enriched NS. Nitrifying and heterotrophic microbes may cooperatively and rapidly eliminate not only DCF, but also its TPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gang Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
| | - Jinju Geng
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China.
| | - Yufei Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
| | - Liye Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
| | - Ke Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
| | - Hongqiang Ren
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, School of the Environment, Nanjing University, Jiangsu, 210023, PR China
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Akao PK, Mamane H, Kaplan A, Gozlan I, Yehoshua Y, Kinel-Tahan Y, Avisar D. Iohexol removal and degradation-product formation via biodegradation by the microalga Chlorella vulgaris. ALGAL RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2020.102050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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15
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Zhang W, Soutrel I, Amrane A, Fourcade F, Geneste F. Electrochemical Processes Coupled to a Biological Treatment for the Removal of Iodinated X-ray Contrast Media Compounds. Front Chem 2020; 8:646. [PMID: 32850661 PMCID: PMC7413141 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2020.00646] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Accepted: 06/22/2020] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Iodinated X-ray contrast media (ICM) compounds are a form of intravenous radiocontrast containing iodine, which are rapidly eliminated via urine or feces. The issue with the accumulation of ICM has received considerable critical attention since they are ubiquitously distributed in municipal wastewater effluents and in the aquatic environment and are not significantly eliminated by most biological sewage treatment processes. Among the methods that have been tested to eliminate ICM, electrochemical methods have significant advantages, since they can selectively cut the carbon-iodine bonds that are suspected to decrease their biodegradability. On the production sites, the recovery of iodine ions due to the carbon-iodine cleavage can be envisaged, which is particularly interesting to reduce the cost of the ICM production process. The coupling of an electrochemical process and a biological treatment can be carried out to mineralize the organic part of the formed by-products, allowing the recovery of the iodide ions. Therefore, the degradation of diatrizoate, a typical ionic ICM compound, by an electrochemical process was the purpose of this study. The electrochemical reduction of diatrizoate was performed using a flow cell with a graphite felt electrode at different potentials. The removal yield of diatrizoate reached ~100% in 2 h and the main product, 3,5-diacetamidobenzoic acid, was quantitatively formed, showing that diatrizoate was almost completely deiodinated. According to the BOD5/COD ratio, the biodegradability of diatrizoate after electrolysis was considerably improved. Cyclic voltammetry analysis of the electroreduced solution showed several oxidation peaks. The electrochemical oxidation of the by-products formed after the first treatment by electroreduction was then performed at three different potentials to study the influence of electrochemical oxidation on biodegradability. Results showed that the degradation yield of the deiodinated by-products increased with the potential and reached 100% at 1.3 V/SCE. Four different biological treatments were implemented during 21 days in stirred flasks with fresh activated sludge. The evolution of the mineralization during the biological treatment highlighted the biorecalcitrance of diatrizoate as previously estimated by the BOD5/COD ratio. Interestingly, the mineralization yield increased from 41 to 60% when electrochemical oxidation at 1.3 V/SCE was implemented after electroreduction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Zhang
- Univ Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Rennes, France.,Univ Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Rennes, France
| | - Isabelle Soutrel
- Univ Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Rennes, France
| | - Abdeltif Amrane
- Univ Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Rennes, France
| | - Florence Fourcade
- Univ Rennes, Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie de Rennes, CNRS, ISCR-UMR 6226, Rennes, France
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El-Athman F, Jekel M, Putschew A. Reaction kinetics of corrinoid-mediated deiodination of iodinated X-ray contrast media and other iodinated organic compounds. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 234:971-977. [PMID: 31519106 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.06.135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2019] [Revised: 06/14/2019] [Accepted: 06/18/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Iodinated contrast media (ICM) are found at considerably higher concentrations than any other pharmaceutical in waste water, surface water and bank filtrate. While the compounds are persistent to deiodination in aerobic environments, field data from bank filtration transects have demonstrated a partial deiodination in reducing soil-water environments. In a previous lab study, we have shown that this reductive deiodination is abiotically catalyzed by (free) corrinoids. To achieve a better understanding of the incomplete deiodination in the environment, we now investigated the reaction kinetics based on the decrease of the iodinated compound, the formation of deiodinated transformation products and the iodide release. The deiodination follows first-order kinetics and consists of three partial reactions for the release of three iodine atoms. The deiodination rate decreased with decreasing iodination degree with the deiodination rate constants k1 > k2 > k3. In contrast to the ICM, 2,4,6- and 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid, 5-amino-2,4,6-triiodoisophthalic acid and monoiodobenzoic acids did not show a complete deiodination under the same test conditions. Our results show that the deiodination strongly depends on the substitution pattern of the bound iodine atoms as well as on adjacent functional groups. Iodine atoms in ortho-position to another iodine atom or a carboxyl group were released more easily while an amino group in ortho-position inhibited the deiodination. Tests in tap water in the presence of B12 showed a much slower deiodination than in ultrapure water, most likely caused by competitive electron acceptors in the water matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima El-Athman
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Jekel
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anke Putschew
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623, Berlin, Germany.
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17
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El-Athman F, Adrian L, Jekel M, Putschew A. Deiodination in the presence of Dehalococcoides mccartyi strain CBDB1: comparison of the native enzyme and co-factor vitamin B 12. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 26:32636-32644. [PMID: 31631234 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-019-06505-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2019] [Accepted: 09/10/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Triiodinated benzoic acid derivatives are widely used as contrast media for medical examinations and are found at high concentrations in urban aquatic environments. During bank filtration, deiodination of iodinated contrast media has been observed under anoxic/anaerobic conditions. While several bacterial strains capable of dechlorination and debromination have been isolated and characterized, deiodination has not yet been shown for an isolated strain. Here, we investigate dehalogenation of iodinated contrast media (ICM), triiodobenzoic acids (TIBA), and analogous chlorinated compounds by Dehalococcoides mccartyi strain CBDB1 and its corrinoid co-factor vitamin B12. No cell growth of CBDB1 was observed using iodinated compounds as electron acceptor. Only negligible deiodination occurred for ICM, whereas 2,3,5-TIBA was nearly completely deiodinated by CBDB1 without showing cell growth. Furthermore, TIBA inhibited growth with hexachlorobenzene which is usually a well-suited electron acceptor for strain CBDB1, indicating that TIBA is toxic for CBDB1. The involvement of CBDB1 enzymes in the deiodination of TIBA was verified by the absence of deiodination activity after heat inactivation. Adding iodopropane also inhibited the deiodination of TIBA by CBDB1 cells, indicating the involvement of a corrinoid-enzyme in the reductive TIBA deiodination. The results further suggest that the involved electron transport is decoupled from proton translocation and therefore growth. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima El-Athman
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623, Berlin, Germany
| | - Lorenz Adrian
- Department Isotope Biogeochemistry, Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research - UFZ, Permoserstraße 15, 04318, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Biotechnology, Chair of Geobiotechnology, Technische Universität Berlin, Ackerstraße 76, 13355, Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Jekel
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623, Berlin, Germany
| | - Anke Putschew
- Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Technische Universität Berlin, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623, Berlin, Germany.
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18
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Zhou GN, He CS, Wang YX, He PP, Liu J, Mu Y, Zhang LS. Aerobic removal of iodinated contrast medium by nano-sized zero-valent iron: A combination of oxidation and reduction. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2019; 373:417-424. [PMID: 30939424 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.03.107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2018] [Revised: 02/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/23/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The removal performance and mechanisms of diatrizoate (DTA), a typical iodinated contrast medium, from water by nano-sized zero-valent iron (nZVI) under aerobic conditions were investigated in this study. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and transformation products were detected with electron spin resonance and liquid chromatography electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry, respectively. Furthermore, the effects of several operational parameters on DTA removal were illustrated. The results showed that nZVI had a much higher DTA removal ability compared to microscale zero-valent iron (mZVI) in the presence of oxygen. Moreover, the detection of ROS and I- as well as the analysis of intermediate products suggested a combination of oxidation and reduction pathways for DTA removal by nZVI under aerobic conditions. Additionally, a high dosage of nZVI and acidic conditions led to the enhancement of DTA removal, while nZVI aging, as well as chloride and nitrate ions in the solution, had negative effects on the degradation of DTA by nZVI in the presence of oxygen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guan-Nan Zhou
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Chuan-Shu He
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Yi-Xuan Wang
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Pan-Pan He
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Jing Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China
| | - Yang Mu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion, Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology, Department of Applied Chemistry, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, China.
| | - Li-Shan Zhang
- College of Environment and Resources, Guangxi Normal University, Guilin, China.
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19
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Schaper JL, Posselt M, Bouchez C, Jaeger A, Nuetzmann G, Putschew A, Singer G, Lewandowski J. Fate of Trace Organic Compounds in the Hyporheic Zone: Influence of Retardation, the Benthic Biolayer, and Organic Carbon. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2019; 53:4224-4234. [PMID: 30905154 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b06231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The fate of 28 trace organic compounds (TrOCs) was investigated in the hyporheic zone (HZ) of an urban lowland river in Berlin, Germany. Water samples were collected hourly over 17 h in the river and in three depths in the HZ using minipoint samplers. The four relatively variable time series were subsequently used to calculate first-order removal rates and retardation coefficients via a one-dimensional reactive transport model. Reversible sorption processes led to substantial retardation of many TrOCs along the investigated hyporheic flow path. Some TrOCs, such as dihydroxy-carbamazepine, O-desmethylvenlafaxine, and venlafaxine, were found to be stable in the HZ. Others were readily removed with half-lives in the first 10 cm of the HZ ranging from 0.1 ± 0.01 h for iopromide to 3.3 ± 0.3 h for tramadol. Removal rate constants of the majority of reactive TrOCs were highest in the first 10 cm of the HZ, where removal of biodegradable dissolved organic matter was also the highest. Because conditions were oxic along the top 30 cm of the investigated flow path, we attribute this finding to the high microbial activity typically associated with the shallow HZ. Frequent and short vertical hyporheic exchange flows could therefore be more important for reach-scale TrOC removal than long, lateral hyporheic flow paths.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas L Schaper
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries , Department Ecohydrology , Müggelseedamm 310 , 12587 Berlin , Germany
- Chair of Water Quality Engineering , Technische Universität Berlin , Strasse des 17. Juni 135 , 10623 Berlin , Germany
| | - Malte Posselt
- Department of Environmental Science and Analytical Chemistry (ACES) , Stockholm University , 114 19 Stockholm , Sweden
| | - Camille Bouchez
- CNRS , Univ Rennes , Géosciences Rennes, UMR 6118 , 35000 Rennes , France
| | - Anna Jaeger
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries , Department Ecohydrology , Müggelseedamm 310 , 12587 Berlin , Germany
- Geography Department , Humboldt University Berlin , Rudower Chaussee 16 , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Gunnar Nuetzmann
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries , Department Ecohydrology , Müggelseedamm 310 , 12587 Berlin , Germany
- Geography Department , Humboldt University Berlin , Rudower Chaussee 16 , 12489 Berlin , Germany
| | - Anke Putschew
- Chair of Water Quality Engineering , Technische Universität Berlin , Strasse des 17. Juni 135 , 10623 Berlin , Germany
| | - Gabriel Singer
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries , Department Ecohydrology , Müggelseedamm 310 , 12587 Berlin , Germany
| | - Joerg Lewandowski
- Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries , Department Ecohydrology , Müggelseedamm 310 , 12587 Berlin , Germany
- Geography Department , Humboldt University Berlin , Rudower Chaussee 16 , 12489 Berlin , Germany
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Ge X, Wu Z, Manzoli M, Jicsinszky L, Wu Z, Nosyrev AE, Cravotto G. Adsorptive Recovery of Iopamidol from Aqueous Solution and Parallel Reuse of Activated Carbon: Batch and Flow Study. Ind Eng Chem Res 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.9b00516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xinyu Ge
- Department of Drug Science and Technology and NIS - Centre for Nanostructured Interfaces and Surfaces, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, Turin 10125, Italy
| | - Zhilin Wu
- Department of Drug Science and Technology and NIS - Centre for Nanostructured Interfaces and Surfaces, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, Turin 10125, Italy
- Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences of the Ministry of Ecology and Environment of China, Jiangwangmiao Street 8, Nanjing 210042, China
| | - Maela Manzoli
- Department of Drug Science and Technology and NIS - Centre for Nanostructured Interfaces and Surfaces, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, Turin 10125, Italy
| | - László Jicsinszky
- Department of Drug Science and Technology and NIS - Centre for Nanostructured Interfaces and Surfaces, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, Turin 10125, Italy
| | - Zhansheng Wu
- School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Shihezi University, Beisilu Street. 280, Shihezi 832003, China
| | - Alexander E. Nosyrev
- Institute of Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov), 8 Trubetskayaul, Moscow 109807, Russia
| | - Giancarlo Cravotto
- Department of Drug Science and Technology and NIS - Centre for Nanostructured Interfaces and Surfaces, University of Turin, Via P. Giuria 9, Turin 10125, Italy
- Institute of Translational Medicine and Biotechnology, First Moscow State Medical University (Sechenov), 8 Trubetskayaul, Moscow 109807, Russia
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21
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El-Athman F, Adrian L, Jekel M, Putschew A. Abiotic reductive deiodination of iodinated organic compounds and X-ray contrast media catalyzed by free corrinoids. CHEMOSPHERE 2019; 221:212-218. [PMID: 30640003 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2019.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Revised: 12/27/2018] [Accepted: 01/02/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Iodinated X-ray contrast media are known for their stability concerning deiodination in the aquatic environment under aerobic conditions. In this study, we demonstrate the abiotic reductive deiodination of the iodinated contrast media iopromide, iopamidol and diatrizoate in the presence of corrinoids. In addition, triiodinated benzoic acid derivatives with iodine atoms bound at different positions were investigated. Corrinoids like cyanocobalamin (vitamin B12) and dicyanocobinamide served as electron shuttles and as catalysts between the reducing agent (e.g., titanium (III) citrate) and the electron accepting iodinated compound. The concentration decrease of the iodinated compounds followed first-order kinetics with rate constant kobs depending on the iodinated compound. A linear correlation between the rate of iodide release and the corrinoid concentration was observed, with deiodination rates for dicyanocobinamide twice as high as for vitamin B12. Reducing agents with a less negative standard redox potential like dithiothreitol or cysteine caused slower deiodination as the cobalt center was only reduced to its CoII oxidation state. With a temperature increase from 11 to 23 °C, the concentrations of released iodide doubled. A complete deiodination was only observed for the iodinated contrast media but not for structurally similar iodinated benzoic acid derivatives.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima El-Athman
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Lorenz Adrian
- Helmholtz-Centre for Environmental Research GmbH - UFZ, Department Isotope Biogeochemistry, Permoserstraße 15, 04318 Leipzig, Germany; Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Biotechnology, Chair of Geobiotechnology, Ackerstraße 76, 13355 Berlin, Germany
| | - Martin Jekel
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany
| | - Anke Putschew
- Technische Universität Berlin, Department of Environmental Science and Technology, Chair of Water Quality Engineering, Straße des 17. Juni 135, 10623 Berlin, Germany.
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22
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Qian Z, Tianwei H, Mackey HR, van Loosdrecht MCM, Guanghao C. Recent advances in dissimilatory sulfate reduction: From metabolic study to application. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 150:162-181. [PMID: 30508713 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2018] [Revised: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 11/08/2018] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) are a group of diverse anaerobic microorganisms omnipresent in natural habitats and engineered environments that use sulfur compounds as the electron acceptor for energy metabolism. Dissimilatory sulfate reduction (DSR)-based techniques mediated by SRB have been utilized in many sulfate-containing wastewater treatment systems worldwide, particularly for acid mine drainage, groundwater, sewage and industrial wastewater remediation. However, DSR processes are often operated suboptimally and disturbances are common in practical application. To improve the efficiency and robustness of SRB-based processes, it is necessary to study SRB metabolism and operational conditions. In this review, the mechanisms of DSR processes are reviewed and discussed focusing on intracellular and extracellular electron transfer with different electron donors (hydrogen, organics, methane and electrodes). Based on the understanding of the metabolism of SRB, responses of SRB to environmental stress (pH-, temperature-, and salinity-related stress) are summarized at the species and community levels. Application in these stressed conditions is discussed and future research is proposed. The feasibility of recovering energy and resources such as biohydrogen, hydrocarbons, polyhydroxyalkanoates, magnetite and metal sulfides through the use of SRB were investigated but some long-standing questions remain unanswered. Linking the existing scientific understanding and observations to practical application is the challenge as always for promotion of SRB-based techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeng Qian
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China
| | - Hao Tianwei
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Macau, China; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China.
| | - Hamish Robert Mackey
- Division of Sustainable Development, College of Science and Engineering, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, Qatar Foundation, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Chen Guanghao
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China; Water Technology Center, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China; Hong Kong Branch of Chinese National Engineering Research Center for Control & Treatment of Heavy Metal Pollution, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Hong Kong, China; Wastewater Treatment Laboratory, FYT Graduate School, The Hong Kong University of Science and Technology, Nansha, Guangzhou, China.
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23
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Ma J, Dai R, Chen M, Khan SJ, Wang Z. Applications of membrane bioreactors for water reclamation: Micropollutant removal, mechanisms and perspectives. BIORESOURCE TECHNOLOGY 2018; 269:532-543. [PMID: 30195697 DOI: 10.1016/j.biortech.2018.08.121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Membrane bioreactors (MBRs) have attracted attention in water reclamation as a result of the recent technical advances and cost reduction in membranes. However, the increasing occurrence of micropollutants in wastewaters has posed new challenges. Therefore, we reviewed the current state of research to identify the outstanding needs in this field. In general, the fate of micropollutants in MBRs relates to sorption, biodegradation and membrane separation processes. Hydrophobic, nonionized micropollutants are favorable in sorption, and the biological degradation shows higher efficiency at relatively long SRTs (30-40 days) and HRTs (20-30 h), as a result of co-metabolism, metabolism and/or ion trapping. Although the membrane rejection rates for micropollutants are generally minor, final water quality can be improved via combination with other technologies. This review highlights the challenges and perspectives that should be addressed to facilitate the extended use of MBRs for the removal of micropollutants in water reclamation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxing Ma
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Safety, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China; UNSW Water Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Ruobin Dai
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Safety, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Mei Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Safety, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China
| | - Stuart J Khan
- UNSW Water Research Centre, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - Zhiwei Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Pollution Control and Resource Reuse, Shanghai Institute of Pollution Control and Ecological Safety, School of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, 1239 Siping Road, Shanghai 200092, China.
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24
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Wolff D, Krah D, Dötsch A, Ghattas AK, Wick A, Ternes TA. Insights into the variability of microbial community composition and micropollutant degradation in diverse biological wastewater treatment systems. WATER RESEARCH 2018; 143:313-324. [PMID: 29986241 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2018] [Revised: 06/02/2018] [Accepted: 06/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The biological potential of conventional wastewater treatment plants to remove micropollutants mainly depends on process conditions and the predominant microbial community. To explore this dependence and to connect the occurrence of genera with operating conditions, five pilot-scale reactors with different process conditions were combined into two reactor cascades and fed with the effluent of the primary clarifier of a municipal WWTP. All reactors and the WWTP were analyzed for the removal of 33 micropollutants by LC-MS/MS and the presence of the microbial community using 16S rRNA gene sequencing. The overall removal of the micropollutants was slightly improved (ca. 20%) by the reactor cascades in comparison to the WWTP while certain compounds such as diatrizoate, venlafaxine or diclofenac showed an enhanced removal (ca. 70% in one or both cascades). To explore the diverse bacteria in more detail, the general community was divided into a core and a specialized community. Despite their profoundly different operating parameters (especially redox conditions), the different treatments share a core community consisted of 143 genera (9% of the overall community). Furthermore, the alpha- and beta-biodiversity as well as the occurrence of several genera belonging to the specialized microbial community could be linked to the prevalent process conditions of the individual treatments. Members of the specialized community also correlated with the removal of certain groups of micropollutants. Hence, the comparison of the specialized community with micropollutant removal and operating conditions via correlation analysis is a valuable tool for an extended evaluation of prevalent process conditions. Based on an extended data set this approach could also be used to identify organisms as indicators for operating conditions which are beneficial for an improved removal of specific micropollutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Wolff
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56068, Koblenz, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Germany
| | - Daniel Krah
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56068, Koblenz, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Germany
| | - Andreas Dötsch
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Functional Interfaces (IFG), D-76344, Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Hermann-von-Helmholtz-Platz 1, Germany
| | - Ann-Kathrin Ghattas
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56068, Koblenz, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Germany
| | - Arne Wick
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56068, Koblenz, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Germany
| | - Thomas A Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56068, Koblenz, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Germany.
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25
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Redeker M, Wick A, Meermann B, Ternes TA. Anaerobic Transformation of the Iodinated X-ray Contrast Medium Iopromide, Its Aerobic Transformation Products, and Transfer to Further Iodinated X-ray Contrast Media. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2018; 52:8309-8320. [PMID: 29998733 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.8b01140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The iodinated X-ray contrast medium (ICM) iopromide and its aerobic transformation products (TPs) are frequently detected in the effluents of wastewater treatment plants and in different compartments of the aquatic environment. In this study, the anaerobic transformation of iopromide and its aerobic TPs was investigated in water-sediment systems. Iopromide, its final aerobic TP didespropanediol iopromide (DDPI), and its primary aniline desmethoxyacetyl iopromide (DAMI) were used as model substances. Five biologically formed anaerobic TPs of iopromide and DAMI and six of DDPI, and the respective transformation pathways, were identified. The TPs were formed by successive deiodination and hydrolysis of amide moieties. Quantification of the iodinated TPs was achieved by further development of a complementary liquid chromatography (LC)-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-ToF-MS) and LC-inductively coupled plasma - mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) strategy without needing authentic standards, despite several TPs coeluting with others. A database with predicted anaerobic TPs of ICMs was derived by applying the transformation rules found for the anaerobic transformation pathways of iopromide and diatrizoate to further ICMs (iomeprol and iopamidol) and their aerobic TPs already reported in the literature. The environmental relevance of the identified transformation pathways was confirmed by identifying an experimental TP and two predicted TPs using suspect screening of water taken from anaerobic bank filtration zones.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Redeker
- Federal Institute of Hydrology , Am Mainzer Tor 1 , D-56068 Koblenz , Germany
| | - Arne Wick
- Federal Institute of Hydrology , Am Mainzer Tor 1 , D-56068 Koblenz , Germany
| | - Björn Meermann
- Federal Institute of Hydrology , Am Mainzer Tor 1 , D-56068 Koblenz , Germany
| | - Thomas A Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology , Am Mainzer Tor 1 , D-56068 Koblenz , Germany
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26
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Sordet M, Buleté A, Vulliet E. A rapid and easy method based on hydrophilic interaction chromatography coupled with tandem mass spectrometry (HILIC-MS/MS/MS) to quantify iodinated X-ray contrast in wastewaters. Talanta 2018; 190:480-486. [PMID: 30172537 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2018.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Revised: 07/31/2018] [Accepted: 08/01/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
This work proposes the first method based on hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography coupled to multiple reaction monitoring with triple stage fragmentation (HILIC-MRM3) to quantify polar organic micropollutants in complex sewage waters. A fast HILIC-MRM3 analytical method, without sample preparation except a dilution step, was developed and validated to quantify seven iodinated contrast media (ICMs) in sewage waters, namely iohexol, iomeprol, ioversol, iopamidol, diatrizoic acid, iopromide and iopentol. Several chromatographic columns and mobile phase conditions were investigated and a good separation of the ICMs was obtained with a mixed-mode column (Acclaim Mixed-mode WAX) used in HILIC conditions. The validation was performed using a synthetic matrix: the limits of quantification (LOQ) were inferior to 1 µg/L and the linearity of each compound was comprised within the [0.5-50] µg/L range. The applicability of the HILIC-MRM3 method was assessed by the analysis of several raw waters. The results highlighted the presence of ICMs in most samples, at concentrations up to several mg/L in hospital sewage waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Sordet
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Ens de Lyon - Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 rue de la Doua, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Audrey Buleté
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Ens de Lyon - Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 rue de la Doua, 69100 Villeurbanne, France
| | - Emmanuelle Vulliet
- Univ Lyon, CNRS, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, Ens de Lyon - Institut des Sciences Analytiques, UMR 5280, 5 rue de la Doua, 69100 Villeurbanne, France.
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Boulard L, Dierkes G, Ternes T. Utilization of large volume zwitterionic hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography for the analysis of polar pharmaceuticals in aqueous environmental samples: Benefits and limitations. J Chromatogr A 2018; 1535:27-43. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2017.12.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
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28
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Dissipation of Micropollutants in a Rewetted Fen Peatland: A Field Study Using Treated Wastewater. WATER 2017. [DOI: 10.3390/w9060449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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29
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Völker J, Vogt T, Castronovo S, Wick A, Ternes TA, Joss A, Oehlmann J, Wagner M. Extended anaerobic conditions in the biological wastewater treatment: Higher reduction of toxicity compared to target organic micropollutants. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 116:220-230. [PMID: 28340420 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.03.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2016] [Revised: 02/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/11/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Extended anaerobic conditions during biological wastewater treatment may enhance the biodegradation of micropollutants. To explore this, we combined iron-reducing or substrate-limited anaerobic conditions and aerobic pilot-scale reactors directly at a wastewater treatment plant. To investigate the detoxification by these processes, we applied two in vitro bioassays for baseline toxicity (Microtox) and reactive toxicity (AREc32) as well as in vivo bioassays with aquatic model species in two laboratory experiments (Desmodesmus subspicatus, Daphnia magna) and two on-site, flow-through experiments (Potamopyrgus antipodarum, Lumbriculus variegatus). Moreover, we analyzed 31 commonly occurring micropollutants and 10 metabolites. The baseline toxicity of raw wastewater was effectively removed in full-scale and reactor scale activated sludge treatment (>85%), while the oxidative stress response was only partially removed (>61%). A combination of an anaerobic pre-treatment under iron reducing conditions and an aerobic nitrification significantly further reduced the residual in vitro toxicities by 46-60% and outperformed the second combination consisting of an aerobic pre-treatment and an anaerobic post-treatment under substrate-limiting conditions (27-43%). Exposure to effluents of the activated sludge treatment did not induce adverse in vivo effects in aquatic invertebrates. Accordingly, no further improvement in water quality could be observed. Compared to that, the removal of persistent micropollutants was increased. However, this observation was restricted to a limited number of compounds and the removal of the sum concentration of all target micropollutants was relative low (14-17%). In conclusion, combinations of strictly anaerobic and aerobic processes significantly enhanced the removal of specific and non-specific in vitro toxicities. Thus, an optimization of biological wastewater treatment can lead to a substantially improved detoxification. These otherwise hidden capacities of a treatment technology can only be uncovered by a complementary biological analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Völker
- Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, 60438, Frankfurt, Germany.
| | - Tobias Vogt
- Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, 60438, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Sandro Castronovo
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Arne Wick
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Thomas A Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068, Koblenz, Germany
| | - Adriano Joss
- Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstr. 133, 8600, Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Oehlmann
- Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, 60438, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Martin Wagner
- Goethe University Frankfurt am Main, Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, 60438, Frankfurt, Germany
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30
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Ghattas AK, Fischer F, Wick A, Ternes TA. Anaerobic biodegradation of (emerging) organic contaminants in the aquatic environment. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 116:268-295. [PMID: 28347952 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Revised: 01/31/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Although strictly anaerobic conditions prevail in several environmental compartments, up to now, biodegradation studies with emerging organic contaminants (EOCs), such as pharmaceuticals and personal care products, have mainly focused on aerobic conditions. One of the reasons probably is the assumption that the aerobic degradation is more energetically favorable than degradation under strictly anaerobic conditions. Certain aerobically recalcitrant contaminants, however, are biodegraded under strictly anaerobic conditions and little is known about the organisms and enzymatic processes involved in their degradation. This review provides a comprehensive survey of characteristic anaerobic biotransformation reactions for a variety of well-studied, structurally rather simple contaminants (SMOCs) bearing one or a few different functional groups/structural moieties. Furthermore it summarizes anaerobic degradation studies of more complex contaminants with several functional groups (CMCs), in soil, sediment and wastewater treatment. While strictly anaerobic conditions are able to promote the transformation of several aerobically persistent contaminants, the variety of observed reactions is limited, with reductive dehalogenations and the cleavage of ether bonds being the most prevalent. Thus, it becomes clear that the transferability of degradation mechanisms deduced from culture studies of SMOCs to predict the degradation of CMCs, such as EOCs, in environmental matrices is hampered due the more complex chemical structure bearing different functional groups, different environmental conditions (e.g. matrix, redox, pH), the microbial community (e.g. adaptation, competition) and the low concentrations typical for EOCs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Kathrin Ghattas
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56068 Koblenz, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Germany
| | - Ferdinand Fischer
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56068 Koblenz, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Germany
| | - Arne Wick
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56068 Koblenz, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Germany
| | - Thomas A Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), D-56068 Koblenz, Am Mainzer Tor 1, Germany.
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31
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Wu D, Lu G, Zhang R, Lin Q, Yao J, Shen X, Wang W. Effective degradation of diatrizoate by electro-peroxone process using ferrite/carbon nanotubes based gas diffusion cathode. Electrochim Acta 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2017.03.196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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32
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Castronovo S, Wick A, Scheurer M, Nödler K, Schulz M, Ternes TA. Biodegradation of the artificial sweetener acesulfame in biological wastewater treatment and sandfilters. WATER RESEARCH 2017; 110:342-353. [PMID: 28063296 PMCID: PMC5292994 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.11.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/12/2016] [Indexed: 05/21/2023]
Abstract
A considerable removal of the artificial sweetener acesulfame (ACE) was observed during activated sludge processes at 13 wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) as well as in a full-scale sand filter of a water works. A long-term sampling campaign over a period of almost two years revealed that ACE removal in WWTPs can be highly variable over time. Nitrifying/denitrifying sequencing batch reactors (SBR) as well as aerobic batch experiments with activated sludge and filter sand from a water works confirmed that both activated sludge as well as filter sand can efficiently remove ACE and that the removal can be attributed to biologically mediated degradation processes. The lab results strongly indicated that varying ACE removal in WWTPs is not associated with nitrification processes. Neither an enhancement of the nitrification rate nor the availability of ammonium or the inhibition of ammonium monooxygenase by N-allylthiourea (ATU) affected the degradation. Moreover, ACE was found to be also degradable by activated sludge under denitrifying conditions, while being persistent in the absence of both dissolved oxygen and nitrate. Using ion chromatography coupled with high resolution mass spectrometry, sulfamic acid (SA) was identified as the predominant transformation product (TP). Quantitative analysis of ACE and SA revealed a closed mass balance during the entire test period and confirmed that ACE was quantitatively transformed to SA. Measurements of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) revealed an almost complete removal of the carbon originating from ACE, thereby further confirming that SA is the only relevant final TP in the assumed degradation pathway of ACE. A first analysis of SA in three municipal WWTP revealed similar concentrations in influents and effluents with maximum concentrations of up to 2.3 mg/L. The high concentrations of SA in wastewater are in accordance with the extensive use of SA in acid cleaners, while the degradation of ACE in WWTPs adds only a very small portion of the total load of SA discharged into surface waters. No removal of SA was observed by the biological treatment applied at these WWTPs. Moreover, SA was also stable in the aerobic batch experiments conducted with the filter sand from a water works. Hence, SA might be a more appropriate wastewater tracer than ACE due to its chemical and microbiological persistence, the negligible sorbing affinity (high negative charge density) and its elevated concentrations in WWTP effluents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sandro Castronovo
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Arne Wick
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Marco Scheurer
- DVGW Water Technology Center Karlsruhe (TZW), Department of Analyses and Water Quality, Karlsruher Str. 84, D-76139 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Karsten Nödler
- DVGW Water Technology Center Karlsruhe (TZW), Department of Analyses and Water Quality, Karlsruher Str. 84, D-76139 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Manoj Schulz
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Thomas A Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 Koblenz, Germany.
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33
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He PP, He CS, Liu Q, Mu Y. Dehalogenation of diatrizoate using nanoscale zero-valent iron: impacts of various parameters and assessment of aerobic biological post-treatment. RSC Adv 2017. [DOI: 10.1039/c7ra03750c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The potential of nanoscale zero-valent iron for dehalogenation of iodinated contrast media was demonstrated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pan-Pan He
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Science and Technology of China
- Hefei
| | - Chuan-Shu He
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Science and Technology of China
- Hefei
| | - Qi Liu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Science and Technology of China
- Hefei
| | - Yang Mu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Urban Pollutant Conversion
- Collaborative Innovation Centre of Suzhou Nano Science and Technology
- Department of Chemistry
- University of Science and Technology of China
- Hefei
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34
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Fabbri D, Calza P, Dalmasso D, Chiarelli P, Santoro V, Medana C. Iodinated X-ray contrast agents: Photoinduced transformation and monitoring in surface water. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2016; 572:340-351. [PMID: 27509072 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 08/01/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Conventional wastewater treatment methods have shown to be unsuitable for a complete elimination of iodinated X-ray contrast agents (ICMs), which have thus been found in wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluent and in surface water. Once in the surface water, they could be transformed through different processes and form several transformation products that may need to be monitored as well. To this end, we studied the abatement and transformation of ICMs by combining laboratory experiments with in field analyses. We irradiated different aqueous solutions of the selected pollutants in the presence of TiO2 as photocatalyst, aimed to promote ICMs degradation and to generate photoinduced transformation products (TPs) similar to those occurring in the environment and effluent wastewater. This experimental strategy has been applied to the study of three ICMs, namely iopromide, iopamidol and diatrizoate. A total of twenty-four, ten, and ten TPs were detected from iopamidol, diatrizoate and iopromide, respectively. The analyses were performed using a liquid chromatography-LTQ-FT-Orbitrap mass spectrometer. The mineralization process and acute toxicity evolution were assessed as well over time and revealed a lack of mineralization for all ICMs and the formation of harmful byproducts. After characterizing these transformation products, WWTP effluent and surface water taken from several branches of the Chicago River were analyzed for ICMs and their TPs. HRMS with MS/MS fragmentation was used as a confirmatory step for proper identification of compounds in water and wastewater samples. All three of ICM were detected in the effluent and surface water samples, while no significant amount of TPs were detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Fabbri
- Department of Chemistry, University of Torino, via P. Giuria 5, 10125 Torino, Italy
| | - P Calza
- Department of Chemistry, University of Torino, via P. Giuria 5, 10125 Torino, Italy.
| | - D Dalmasso
- Department of Chemistry, University of Torino, via P. Giuria 5, 10125 Torino, Italy; Department of Chemistry, Loyola University, Chicago, IL 60660, United States
| | - P Chiarelli
- Department of Chemistry, Loyola University, Chicago, IL 60660, United States
| | - V Santoro
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, via P. Giuria 5, 10125 Torino, Italy
| | - C Medana
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Health Sciences, University of Torino, via P. Giuria 5, 10125 Torino, Italy
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35
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Storck FR, Skark C, Remmler F, Brauch HJ. Environmental fate and behavior of acesulfame in laboratory experiments. WATER SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY : A JOURNAL OF THE INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION ON WATER POLLUTION RESEARCH 2016; 74:2832-2842. [PMID: 27997393 DOI: 10.2166/wst.2016.452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Acesulfame is a widely used artificial sweetener. It can be discharged into surface water by domestic wastewater due to its incomplete retention during wastewater treatment. Concentrations may reach up to 10 μg/L for smaller rivers. State-of-the-art analysis allows the determination of acesulfame traces (0.01 μg/L) and thus a potential tracking of the presence of wastewater in riverbank filtrate. To evaluate the behavior of acesulfame in the aquatic environment, biodegradation and sorption of acesulfame were tested. Batch experiments yielded low sorption for several soils (estimated solid-water distribution coefficient of acesulfame <0.1 L/kg). Biodegradation in a fixed-bed reactor was not observed at environmental concentrations of 9 μg/L in aqueous compost and soil extract (observation period 56 days). Only in diluted effluent of a wastewater treatment plant did biodegradation start, after 17 days of operation, and acesulfame completely fade, within 28 days. Flow-through column experiments indicated conservative behavior of acesulfame (recovery >83%) and long-term observations at different concentration levels yielded no biodegradation. Overall, laboratory experiments demonstrated a conservative behavior of acesulfame under conditions typical for riverbank filtration. However, there are hints for certain settings which favor an adaptation of the microbial community and facilitate a rapid biodegradation of acesulfame.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian R Storck
- DVGW-Technologiezentrum Wasser (TZW) Karlsruhe, Karlsruher Straße 84, 76139 Karlsruhe, Germany E-mail:
| | - Christian Skark
- Institut für Wasserforschung GmbH, Zum Kellerbach 46, 58239 Schwerte, Germany
| | - Frank Remmler
- Institut für Wasserforschung GmbH, Zum Kellerbach 46, 58239 Schwerte, Germany
| | - Heinz-Jürgen Brauch
- DVGW-Technologiezentrum Wasser (TZW) Karlsruhe, Karlsruher Straße 84, 76139 Karlsruhe, Germany E-mail:
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36
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Azerrad SP, Lütke Eversloh C, Gilboa M, Schulz M, Ternes T, Dosoretz CG. Identification of transformation products during advanced oxidation of diatrizoate: Effect of water matrix and oxidation process. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 103:424-434. [PMID: 27494698 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.07.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2016] [Revised: 07/24/2016] [Accepted: 07/27/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
Removal of micropollutants from reverse osmosis (RO) brines of wastewater desalination by oxidation processes is influenced by the scavenging capacity of brines components, resulting in the accumulation of transformation products (TPs) rather than complete mineralization. In this work the iodinated contrast media diatrizoate (DTZ) was used as model compound due to its relative resistance to oxidation. Identification of TPs was performed in ultrapure water (UPW) and RO brines applying nonthermal plasma (NTP) and UVA-TiO2 as oxidation techniques. The influence of main RO brines components in the formation and accumulation of TPs, such as chloride, bicarbonate alkalinity and humic acid, was also studied during UVA-TiO2. DTZ oxidation pattern in UPW resulted similar in both UVA-TiO2 and NTP achieving 66 and 61% transformation, respectively. However, DTZ transformation in RO brines was markedly lower in UVA-TiO2 (9%) than in NTP (27%). These differences can be attributed to the synergic effect of RO brines components during NTP. Moreover, reactive species other than hydroxyl radical contributed to DTZ transformation, i.e., direct photolysis in UVA-TiO2 and direct photolysis + O3 in NTP accounted for 16 and 23%, respectively. DTZ transformation led to iodide formation in both oxidation techniques but it further oxidized to iodate by ozone in NTP. In total 14 transformation products were identified in UPW of which 3 were present only in UVA-TiO2 and 2 were present exclusively in NTP; 5 of the 14 TPs were absent in RO brines. Five of them were new and were denoted as TP-474A/B, TP-522, TP-586, TP-602, TP-628. TP-522 (mono-chlorinated) was elucidated only in presence of high chloride titer-synthetic water matrix in NTP, most probably formed by active chlorine species generated in situ. TPs accumulation in RO brines was markedly different in comparison to UPW. This denotes the influence of RO brines components in the formation of reactive species that could further attack DTZ/TPs and/or scavenging performed by these brine components that could limit further TPs degradation. Five plausible degradation pathways are proposed for DTZ transformation in UPW.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara P Azerrad
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | | | - Maayan Gilboa
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel
| | - Manoj Schulz
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Koblenz, Germany
| | - Thomas Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Koblenz, Germany
| | - Carlos G Dosoretz
- Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Technion-Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, Israel.
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37
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Völker J, Castronovo S, Wick A, Ternes TA, Joss A, Oehlmann J, Wagner M. Advancing Biological Wastewater Treatment: Extended Anaerobic Conditions Enhance the Removal of Endocrine and Dioxin-like Activities. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2016; 50:10606-10615. [PMID: 26848848 DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.5b05732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Conventional activated sludge treatment of wastewater does not completely remove micropollutants. Here, extending anaerobic conditions may enhance biodegradation. To explore this, we combined iron-reducing or substrate-limiting and aerobic pilot-scale reactors directly at a wastewater treatment plant. To assess the removal of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) as group of micropollutants that adversely affects wildlife, we applied a bioanalytical approach. We used in vitro bioassays covering seven receptor-mediated mechanisms of action, including (anti)androgenicity, (anti)estrogenicity, retinoid-like, and dioxin-like activity. Untreated wastewater induced antiandrogenic, estrogenic, antiestrogenic, and retinoid-like activity. Full-scale as well as reactor-scale activated sludge treatment effectively removes the observed effects. Nevertheless, high antiandrogenic and minor dioxin-like and estrogenic effects persisted in the treated effluent that may still be environmentally relevant. The anaerobic post-treatment under substrate-limiting conditions resulted in an additional removal of endocrine activities by 17-40%. The anaerobic pre-treatment under iron-reducing conditions significantly enhanced the removal of the residual effects by 40-75%. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that a further optimization of biological wastewater treatment is possible. Here, implementing iron-reducing anaerobic conditions preceding aerobic treatment appears promising to improve the removal of receptor-mediated toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Johannes Völker
- Goethe University Frankfurt am Main , Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Sandro Castronovo
- Federal Institute of Hydrology , Am Mainzer Tor 1, D-56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Arne Wick
- Federal Institute of Hydrology , Am Mainzer Tor 1, D-56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Thomas A Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology , Am Mainzer Tor 1, D-56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Adriano Joss
- Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology , Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Jörg Oehlmann
- Goethe University Frankfurt am Main , Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Martin Wagner
- Goethe University Frankfurt am Main , Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Max-von-Laue-Str. 13, 60438 Frankfurt, Germany
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38
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Falås P, Wick A, Castronovo S, Habermacher J, Ternes TA, Joss A. Tracing the limits of organic micropollutant removal in biological wastewater treatment. WATER RESEARCH 2016; 95:240-9. [PMID: 26999256 PMCID: PMC5566204 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 183] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Revised: 02/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Removal of organic micropollutants was investigated in 15 diverse biological reactors through short and long-term experiments. Short-term batch experiments were performed with activated sludge from three parallel sequencing batch reactors (25, 40, and 80 d solid retention time, SRT) fed with synthetic wastewater without micropollutants for one year. Despite the minimal micropollutant exposure, the synthetic wastewater sludges were able to degrade several micropollutants present in municipal wastewater. The degradation occurred immediately after spiking (1-5 μg/L), showed no strong or systematic correlation to the sludge age, and proceeded at rates comparable to those of municipal wastewater sludges. Thus, the results from the batch experiments indicate that degradation of organic micropollutants in biological wastewater treatment is quite insensitive to SRT increases from 25 to 80 days, and not necessarily induced by exposure to micropollutants. Long-term experiments with municipal wastewater were performed to assess the potential for extended biological micropollutant removal under different redox conditions and substrate concentrations (carbon and nitrogen). A total of 31 organic micropollutants were monitored through influent-effluent sampling of twelve municipal wastewater reactors. In accordance with the results from the sludges grown on synthetic wastewater, several compounds such as bezafibrate, atenolol and acyclovir were significantly removed in the activated sludge processes fed with municipal wastewater. Complementary removal of two compounds, diuron and diclofenac, was achieved in an oxic biofilm treatment. A few aerobically persistent micropollutants such as venlafaxine, diatrizoate and tramadol were removed under anaerobic conditions, but a large number of micropollutants persisted in all biological treatments. Collectively, these results indicate that certain improvements in biological micropollutant removal can be achieved by combining different aerobic and anaerobic treatments, but that these improvements are restricted to a limited number of compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Per Falås
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
| | - Arne Wick
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Sandro Castronovo
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Jonathan Habermacher
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
| | - Thomas A Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology, Am Mainzer Tor 1, 56068 Koblenz, Germany
| | - Adriano Joss
- Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Überlandstrasse 133, 8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland
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Prasse C, Stalter D, Schulte-Oehlmann U, Oehlmann J, Ternes TA. Spoilt for choice: A critical review on the chemical and biological assessment of current wastewater treatment technologies. WATER RESEARCH 2015; 87:237-70. [PMID: 26431616 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2015.09.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 09/02/2015] [Accepted: 09/11/2015] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The knowledge we have gained in recent years on the presence and effects of compounds discharged by wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) brings us to a point where we must question the appropriateness of current water quality evaluation methodologies. An increasing number of anthropogenic chemicals is detected in treated wastewater and there is increasing evidence of adverse environmental effects related to WWTP discharges. It has thus become clear that new strategies are needed to assess overall quality of conventional and advanced treated wastewaters. There is an urgent need for multidisciplinary approaches combining expertise from engineering, analytical and environmental chemistry, (eco)toxicology, and microbiology. This review summarizes the current approaches used to assess treated wastewater quality from the chemical and ecotoxicological perspective. Discussed chemical approaches include target, non-target and suspect analysis, sum parameters, identification and monitoring of transformation products, computational modeling as well as effect directed analysis and toxicity identification evaluation. The discussed ecotoxicological methodologies encompass in vitro testing (cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, mutagenicity, endocrine disruption, adaptive stress response activation, toxicogenomics) and in vivo tests (single and multi species, biomonitoring). We critically discuss the benefits and limitations of the different methodologies reviewed. Additionally, we provide an overview of the current state of research regarding the chemical and ecotoxicological evaluation of conventional as well as the most widely used advanced wastewater treatment technologies, i.e., ozonation, advanced oxidation processes, chlorination, activated carbon, and membrane filtration. In particular, possible directions for future research activities in this area are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Prasse
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Department of Aquatic Chemistry, Koblenz, Germany; Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of California at Berkeley, Berkeley, United States.
| | - Daniel Stalter
- National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology, The University of Queensland, Queensland, Australia; Eawag, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology, Duebendorf, Switzerland
| | | | - Jörg Oehlmann
- Goethe University Frankfurt, Department Aquatic Ecotoxicology, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Thomas A Ternes
- Federal Institute of Hydrology (BfG), Department of Aquatic Chemistry, Koblenz, Germany
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Zonja B, Delgado A, Pérez S, Barceló D. LC-HRMS suspect screening for detection-based prioritization of iodinated contrast media photodegradates in surface waters. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2015; 49:3464-3472. [PMID: 25671783 DOI: 10.1021/es505250q] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The objective of the study was to demonstrate the applicability of suspect screening for the detection of six iodinated contrast media (ICM) and their phototransformation products (TPs) in surface waters. First, a photodegradation study of ICM in surface water using a sunlight lab-scale simulator was performed. By means of a guided differential sample analysis, the exact masses of the molecular ions and the retention times of TPs were identified. Positive findings were filtered manually generating a suspect list of 108 photoproducts. Following a generic solid-phase extraction of surface water samples, LC-HRMS was used to screen for the presence of the compounds previously detected in the photodegradation samples. On the basis of detection frequencies (>50% of the samples), 11 TPs were prioritized and their structures elucidated by HRMS and NMR. In the real surface water samples, median concentration of parent compounds was 110 ng/L reaching up to 6 μg/L for iomeprol, while TPs were found at median concentration of 8 ng/L, reaching up to 0.4 μg/L for iomeprol TP651-B. In summary, the proposed screening approach facilitates the evaluation of the degradation of polar compounds at a real scale with a fast detection of TPs without prior availability of the standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bozo Zonja
- †Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, c/Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antonio Delgado
- ‡University of Barcelona (UB), Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Medicinal Chemistry, Avga. Joan XXIII s/n, E-08028 Barcelona, Spain
- §Department of Biomedicinal Chemistry, Research Unit on BioActive Molecules (RUBAM), IQAC-CSIC, c/Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sandra Pérez
- †Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, c/Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Damià Barceló
- †Water and Soil Quality Research Group, Department of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, c/Jordi Girona, 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
- ∥Catalan Institute of Water Research, c/Emili Grahit, 101, Edifici H2O, Parc Científic i Tecnològic de la Universitat de Girona, E-17003 Girona, Spain
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